An autonomic nervous system context of harsh parenting and youth aggression versus delinquency

Childhood Family Stress and Women's Health: Parasympathetic Activity as a Risk and Resiliency Factor

Childhood family stress (CFS) exacerbates risk for physical health problems across the lifespan. Health risks associated with CFS are particularly relevant for women who tend to endorse more CFS than men. Importantly, some evidence suggests that individuals may vary in their susceptibility to CFS. Parasympathetic activity, which helps to regulate automatic bodily activity (e.g., breathing, digestion), has been proposed to represent a marker of plasticity to environmental exposure. However, no research to date has tested whether parasympathetic activity may modulate the impact of early adversity on health. We examined whether parasympathetic activity would moderate the link between CFS and health complaints in a sample of 68 undergraduate women (Mean age = 19.44). Participants self-reported CFS and health complaints. Parasympathetic activity was indexed using high-frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV) and was evaluated by measuring changes in HF-HRV in response to and following a laboratory-based stress induction. Multiple regression analyses indicated that CFS was significantly associated with more health complaints. Further, HF-HRV in response to stress and during recovery relative to baseline significantly moderated relationship between CFS and health complaints. Specifically, more CFS was significantly associated with more health complaints among women who showed mean or greater decreases in HF-HRV in response to stress. Additionally, lower levels of CFS were associated with fewer health complaints among women who showed mean or greater HF-HRV during recovery relative to baseline. Findings highlight the importance of parasympathetic activity in modulating stress-health links.

RSA instability in mothers of preschoolers and adolescents is related to observations of supportive parenting behaviors

Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA; a measure of respiratory modulation of vagal control of heart rate) is a dynamic process. For mothers, RSA functioning has been associated with depressive symptoms and coincides with supportive parenting. However, research has largely focused on RSA suppression (i.e., difference score from rest to stress task). The present study examined depressive symptoms and supportive parenting with RSA instability-a dynamic measure of the magnitude of RSA change across a task. In two samples of mothers (N = 210), one with preschoolers (Study 1: n = 108, Mage = 30.68 years, SD = 6.06, 47.0% Black, 43.0% White) and one with adolescents (Study 2: n = 102, Mage = 35.51, SD = 6.51, 75.2% Black), RSA instability was calculated during an interaction task. In both studies, instrumental supportive parenting behaviors were negatively related to RSA instability. Findings provide preliminary support for RSA instability as an indicator of physiological dysregulation for mothers.

Nonlinear Moderation Effect of Vagal Regulation on the Link between Childhood Trauma and Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms

Childhood trauma is a leading early adverse environment that increases psychopathological symptoms. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) suppression to challenges as a marker of self-regulation is found to linearly moderate the link between early adverse experiences and psychopathological symptoms, but yielding mixed findings. The present study examined the relationships between childhood trauma and internalizing and externalizing symptoms via a 1.5-year longitudinal design and the quadratic moderation effect of RSA suppression on these relationships among adolescents. In November 2021 (T1), the final sample of 275 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 12.94, SDage = 0.79; 49.82% females) completed the short form of Childhood Trauma Questionnaire and the Achenbach Youth Self-Report-2001 and underwent a speech task during which their baseline RSA and stress exposure RSA were obtained. In June 2023 (T2), 251 adolescents completed the Achenbach Youth Self-Report-2001. Results showed that childhood trauma at T1 was positively correlated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms at T1 and T2. RSA suppression to stress quadratically moderated these associations, such that adolescents with moderate rather than higher or lower RSA suppression had the least internalizing and externalizing symptoms at T1 and T2 when exposed to childhood trauma. The findings suggest that moderate RSA suppression to stress as a marker of optimal vagal regulation buffers the risk of developmental psychopathology from early adverse experiences.

Psychologically aggressive parenting and later aggression: Salivary alpha-amylase reactivity and sex as moderators

Psychologically aggressive parenting (PAP) exposure negatively affects children's development of aggression. Nevertheless, not all children exposed to PAP display aggressive behaviors. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity may influence the impact of early adversity on aggression. This study examines whether SNS reactivity and sex moderate the link between psychologically aggressive parenting (PAP) during childhood and later aggression. Emerging adults (N = 182, mean age = 19.03 years, 53 % female) retrospectively reported on their childhood PAP and current aggression. Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) collected from a social stress task indexed SNS reactivity to stress. Childhood PAP was associated with emerging adulthood anger, hostility, physical, and verbal aggression. Moreover, males were more likely to exhibit anger, verbal, and physical aggression and had higher levels of sAA reactivity than females. A significant three-way interaction between childhood PAP, sAA reactivity, and sex accounted for participants' current verbal aggression. The link between childhood PAP and later verbal aggression was stronger for males at higher levels of sAA reactivity. Females with higher levels of sAA reactivity displayed lower levels of verbal aggression regardless of PAP exposure. Males and females with lower levels of sAA reactivity were at elevated risk for verbal aggression regardless of PAP exposure. Moreover, we found a significant two-way interaction between PAP and sex on anger, such that higher levels of PAP exposure were associated with more anger among males, but not females. These findings highlight the importance of examining interactions between biological and environmental factors and sex in accounting for later aggression.

Child maltreatment and youth suicide risk: A developmental conceptual model and implications for suicide prevention

Experiences of child abuse and neglect are risk factors for youth suicidal thoughts and behaviors. Accordingly, suicide risk may emerge as a developmental process that is heavily influenced by the rearing environment. We argue that a developmental, theoretical framework is needed to guide future research on child maltreatment and youth (i.e., adolescent and emerging adult) suicide, and to subsequently inform suicide prevention efforts. We propose a developmental model that integrates principles of developmental psychopathology and current theories of suicide to explain the association between child maltreatment and youth suicide risk. This model bears significant implications for future research on child maltreatment and youth suicide risk, and for suicide prevention efforts that target youth with child maltreatment experiences.

Harsh Childhood Discipline and Developmental Changes in Adolescent Aggressive Behavior: The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion

Harsh discipline during childhood (psychological aggression and corporal punishment) has been found to be an early risk factor for adolescent aggressive behavior. However, previous studies have mainly examined the relationship between harsh discipline as a whole and the level of adolescent aggressive behavior. This study investigates the effects of childhood psychological aggression and corporal punishment on the initial levels and rate of change in adolescent aggressive behavior, as well as the mediating role of self-compassion in this relationship. Using cluster sampling, a three-wave follow-up assessment was conducted on 1214 high-school students (60.7% boys; mean age at Wave 1 = 15.46 ± 0.71). The results showed that childhood psychological aggression and corporal punishment had a positive predictive effect on the development level of adolescent aggressive behavior. However, only childhood psychological aggression significantly directly attenuated the decline rate of adolescent aggressive behavior. In addition, both childhood psychological aggression and corporal punishment indirectly affected the initial levels and growth rate of adolescent aggressive behavior through self-compassion. These findings could provide potential targets for prevention and intervention programs aimed at improving aggressive behavior in Chinese adolescents.

The Protective Role of the Autonomic Nervous System in Intergenerational Cycles of Neglect

Offspring of parents who experienced childhood neglect are at increased risk for developing internalizing problems. Empirical evidence suggests this link is principally mediated through parenting behavior. However, such intergenerational cycles of adversity are found to be disrupted in many families. Parasympathetic nervous system functioning is well documented to mediate individuals' emotion regulation biologically. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) is a validated biomarker for parasympathetic activity. The goal of the current study was to investigate the moderating role of parent RSA reactivity in the effect of parents' childhood neglect on their children's internalizing problems, through parental acceptance. Physiological and survey data were collected from 145 dyads (94% mothers; Youth Mage = 12.9, Youth SDage = 0.85). Results suggest that the effect of parents' childhood neglect on their child's internalizing problems was conditional on parents' RSA reactivity. Specifically, higher levels of parents' neglect were only linked to increased risk for youth internalizing problems if parents exhibited a lack of RSA withdrawal. Further, this moderating effect was found to be mediated through parental acceptance. Findings suggest understanding intergenerational consequences of child maltreatment contexts should include consideration of bioregulatory factors.

Biological sensitivity to context as a dyadic construct: An investigation of child-parent RSA synchrony among low-SES youth

Parenting behaviors are significantly linked to youths' behavioral adjustment, an association that is moderated by youths' and parents' self-regulation. The biological sensitivity to context theory suggests that respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) indexes youths' varying susceptibility to rearing contexts. However, self-regulation in the family context is increasingly viewed as a process of "coregulation" that is biologically embedded and involves dynamic Parent×Child interactions. No research thus far has examined physiological synchrony as a dyadic biological context that may moderate associations between parenting behaviors and preadolescent adjustment. Using a two-wave sample of 101 low-socioeconomic status (SES) families (children and caretakers; mean age 10.28 years), we employed multilevel modeling to examine dyadic coregulation during a conflict task, indicated by RSA synchrony, as a moderator of the linkages between observed parenting behaviors and preadolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. Results showed that high dyadic RSA synchrony resulted in a multiplicative association between parenting and youth adjustment. High dyadic synchrony intensified the relations between parenting behaviors and youth behavior problems, such that in the context of high dyadic synchrony, positive and negative parenting behaviors were associated with decreased and increased behavioral problems, respectively. Parent-child dyadic RSA synchrony is discussed as a potential biomarker of biological sensitivity in youth.

Continuity versus change in latent profiles of emotion regulation and working memory during adolescence

Significant structural and functional brain development occurs during early adolescence. These changes underlie developments in central neurocognitive processes such as working memory (WM) and emotion regulation (ER). The preponderance of studies modeling trajectories of adolescent brain development use variable-centered approaches, omitting attention to individual differences that may undergird neurobiological embedding of early life stress and attendant psychopathology. This preregistered, data-driven study used latent transition analysis (LTA) to identify (1) latent profiles of neural function during a WM and implicit ER task, (2) transitions in profiles across 24 months, and 3) associations between transitions, parental support, and subsequent psychopathology. Using two waves of data from the ABCD Study (Mage T1 = 10; Mage T2 = 12), we found three unique profiles of neural function at both T1 and T2. The Typical, Emotion Hypo-response, and Emotion-Hyper response profiles were characterized by, respectively: moderate amygdala activation and fusiform deactivation; high ACC, fusiform, and insula deactivation; and high amygdala, ACC, and insula response to ER. While 69.5 % remained in the Typical profile from T1 to T2, 27.8 % of the sample moved from one profile at T1 to another at T2. However, neither latent profiles nor transitions exhibited associations between parental support or psychopathology symptoms.

Childhood violence exposure and externalizing behaviors: A systematic review of the role of physiological biomarkers

Childhood exposure to violence has been consistently linked to externalizing behaviors like delinquency and aggression. Growing evidence indicates that physiological biomarkers from the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems (PNS and SNS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis may moderate or mediate the relation between childhood violence exposure and externalizing behaviors. We conducted a systematic review to synthesize recent findings on physiological biomarkers as mediators and/or moderators of this association across the life course, using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Our search yielded 3878 articles, of which 44 met inclusion criteria (describing a total of 46 independent studies). We found consistent evidence for blunted HPA-axis reactivity as a mediator of the relation between childhood violence exposure and subsequent externalizing behaviors, and for non-reciprocal PNS/SNS activation as moderators exacerbating this relation. However, the results of the majority of included studies that demonstrated significant moderating effects of physiological biomarkers varied by participant sex, type of childhood violence exposure, and type of stimuli used to induce physiological reactivity. The observed mixed findings are consistent with some theories that emphasize that both high and low stress reactivity can be adaptive depending on one's early environment. These findings highlight the need for systematic explorations of heterogeneity, theory-driven research questions, and longitudinal studies that span multiple developmental periods and multiple biological systems. Clinical implications include the need to assess physiological biomarkers in treatment and intervention studies and the potential to target interventions based on both autonomic functioning and environmental contexts.

Developmental Pathways from Prenatal Substance Exposure to Reactive Aggression

Few studies have examined etiological pathways from prenatal substance exposure to adolescent reactive aggression. We tested a conceptual model that included hypothesized pathways from prenatal substance exposure to adolescent aggression via autonomic reactivity and violence exposure from infancy to early school age and maternal harshness across early childhood. The sample included 216 families (106 boys) who primarily self-identified as Black or Mixed Race. Results supported the hypothesized path from violence exposure across early childhood and early school age to school age autonomic reactivity and early adolescent reactive aggression. There was also a significant interaction effect of sympathetic and parasympathetic reactivity on adolescent reactive aggression, with sympathetic arousal and parasympathetic suppression at early school age associated with higher reactive relational and physical aggression in adolescence. Results emphasize the importance of early experiences and autonomic nervous system changes in contributing to the cascade of risk for reactive aggression in early adolescence.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between parenting and child autonomic nervous system activity

Parental socialization may influence the development of children's autonomic nervous system (ANS), a key stress-response system. However, to date no quantitative synthesis of the literature linking parenting and child ANS physiology has been conducted. To address this gap, we conducted a pre-registered meta-analysis. A systematic review of the literature identified 103 studies (n = 13,044 participants) with available effect sizes describing the association between parenting and either parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) or sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity in children. The overall analysis revealed non-significant associations between parenting and child ANS physiology on average. However, moderation analyses revealed a positive association between more positive parenting and higher resting PNS activity that was stronger when a study was experimental rather than correlational, and when the sample included children with a clinical condition. In conclusion, well-controlled experimental studies show that positive parenting is associated with the development of higher resting PNS activity, an effect that may be stronger among children who are at elevated developmental risk.