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Piniella D, Zafra F. Functional crosstalk of the glycine transporter GlyT1 and NMDA receptors. Neuropharmacology 2023; 232:109514. [PMID: 37003571 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDARs) constitute one of the main glutamate (Glu) targets in the central nervous system and are involved in synaptic plasticity, which is the molecular substrate of learning and memory. Hypofunction of NMDARs has been associated with schizophrenia, while overstimulation causes neuronal death in neurodegenerative diseases or in stroke. The function of NMDARs requires coincidental binding of Glu along with other cellular signals such as neuronal depolarization, and the presence of other endogenous ligands that modulate their activity by allosterism. Among these allosteric modulators are zinc, protons and Gly, which is an obligatory co-agonist. These characteristics differentiate NMDARs from other receptors, and their structural bases have begun to be established in recent years. In this review we focus on the crosstalk between Glu and glycine (Gly), whose concentration in the NMDAR microenvironment is maintained by various Gly transporters that remove or release it into the medium in a regulated manner. The GlyT1 transporter is particularly involved in this task, and has become a target of great interest for the treatment of schizophrenia since its inhibition leads to an increase in synaptic Gly levels that enhances the activity of NMDARs. However, the only drug that has completed phase III clinical trials did not yield the expected results. Notwithstanding, there are additional drugs that continue to be investigated, and it is hoped that knowledge gained from the recently published 3D structure of GlyT1 may allow the rational design of more effective new drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dolores Piniella
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; IdiPAZ, Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Spain
| | - Francisco Zafra
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; IdiPAZ, Institute of Health Carlos III (ISCIII), Spain.
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2
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Zhang CY, Yu RJ, Wang LQ, Huang HY, Xiao MQ, Duan XM, Wang JT, Liao XW, Xiong YS. Synthesis and evaluation of sulfonyl-substituted ruthenium complex as potential antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2nj02117j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A new ruthenium complex was synthesized, which can effectively prevent the development of S. aureus drug-resistance and with high antibacterial activity in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yan Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Ru-Jian Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Li-Qiang Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Hai-Yan Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Meng-Qi Xiao
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Xue-Min Duan
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Jin-Tao Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Xiang-Wen Liao
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
| | - Yan-Shi Xiong
- School of Pharmacy, Jiangxi Science & Technology Normal University, Nanchang, 330013, China
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3
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Structural insights into the inhibition of glycine reuptake. Nature 2021; 591:677-681. [PMID: 33658720 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03274-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The human glycine transporter 1 (GlyT1) regulates glycine-mediated neuronal excitation and inhibition through the sodium- and chloride-dependent reuptake of glycine1-3. Inhibition of GlyT1 prolongs neurotransmitter signalling, and has long been a key strategy in the development of therapies for a broad range of disorders of the central nervous system, including schizophrenia and cognitive impairments4. Here, using a synthetic single-domain antibody (sybody) and serial synchrotron crystallography, we have determined the structure of GlyT1 in complex with a benzoylpiperazine chemotype inhibitor at 3.4 Å resolution. We find that the inhibitor locks GlyT1 in an inward-open conformation and binds at the intracellular gate of the release pathway, overlapping with the glycine-release site. The inhibitor is likely to reach GlyT1 from the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane. Our results define the mechanism of inhibition and enable the rational design of new, clinically efficacious GlyT1 inhibitors.
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Fedoseev SV, Belikov MY, Ershov OV, Tafeenko VA. Synthesis of 4-Halofuro[3,4-c]pyridin-3(1H)-ones from 2-Halopyridine-3,4-dicarbonitriles. RUSSIAN JOURNAL OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1070428020090067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Zhang Y, Wu W, Fu C, Huang X, Ma S. Benzene construction via Pd-catalyzed cyclization of 2,7-alkadiynylic carbonates in the presence of alkynes. Chem Sci 2019; 10:2228-2235. [PMID: 30881648 PMCID: PMC6385558 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc04681f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A palladium-catalyzed highly regio- and chemo-selective cyclization of 2,7-alkadiynylic carbonates with functionalized alkynes to construct 1,3-dihydroisobenzofuran and isoindoline derivatives under mild conditions has been developed. Functional groups such as alcohol, sulfonamide, and indoles could be well tolerated. After careful mechanistic studies, a mechanism involving oxidative addition and regioselectivity-defined double alkyne insertions has been proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Zhang
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis , Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310027 , Zhejiang , People's Republic of China . ;
| | - Wangteng Wu
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis , Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310027 , Zhejiang , People's Republic of China . ;
| | - Chunling Fu
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis , Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310027 , Zhejiang , People's Republic of China . ;
| | - Xin Huang
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis , Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310027 , Zhejiang , People's Republic of China . ;
| | - Shengming Ma
- Laboratory of Molecular Recognition and Synthesis , Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou 310027 , Zhejiang , People's Republic of China . ;
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6
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Albano G, Aronica LA. Potentiality and Synthesis of O- and N-Heterocycles: Pd-Catalyzed Cyclocarbonylative Sonogashira Coupling as a Valuable Route to Phthalans, Isochromans, and Isoindolines. European J Org Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201701041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gianluigi Albano
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale; University of Pisa; Via G. Moruzzi 13 56124 Pisa Italy
| | - Laura Antonella Aronica
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale; University of Pisa; Via G. Moruzzi 13 56124 Pisa Italy
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7
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Synthesis ofortho-(Fluoro)alkylated PyridinesviaVisible Light-Promoted Radical Isocyanide Insertion. Adv Synth Catal 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201500674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Pinard E, Alberati D, Alvarez-Sanchez R, Brom V, Burner S, Fischer H, Hauser N, Kolczewski S, Lengyel J, Mory R, Saladin C, Schulz-Gasch T, Stalder H. 3-Amido-3-aryl-piperidines: A Novel Class of Potent, Selective, and Orally Active GlyT1 Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2014; 5:428-33. [PMID: 24900853 DOI: 10.1021/ml500005m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Amido-3-aryl-piperidines were discovered as a novel structural class of GlyT1 inhibitors. The structure-activity relationship, which was developed, led to the identification of highly potent compounds exhibiting excellent selectivity against the GlyT2 isoform, drug-like properties, and in vivo activity after oral administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Pinard
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Alberati
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ruben Alvarez-Sanchez
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Virginie Brom
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Serge Burner
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Holger Fischer
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicole Hauser
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Sabine Kolczewski
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Judith Lengyel
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roland Mory
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Saladin
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Schulz-Gasch
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Henri Stalder
- Pharmaceutical Research Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
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9
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GlyT-1 Inhibitors: From Hits to Clinical Candidates. SMALL MOLECULE THERAPEUTICS FOR SCHIZOPHRENIA 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/7355_2014_53] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe neuropsychiatric disorder without adequate current treatment. Recent theories of schizophrenia focus on disturbances of glutamatergic neurotransmission particularly at N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors. NMDA receptors are regulated in vivo by the amino acids glycine and D-serine. Glycine levels, in turn, are regulated by glycine type I (GlyT1) transporters, which serve to maintain low subsaturating glycine levels in the vicinity of the NMDA receptor. A proposed approach to treatment of schizophrenia, therefore, is inhibition of GlyT1-mediated transport. Over the past decade, several well tolerated, high affinity GlyT1 inhibitors have been developed and shown to potentiate NMDA receptor-mediated neurotransmission in animal models relevant to schizophrenia. In addition, clinical trials have been conducted with sarcosine (N-methylglycine), a naturally occurring GlyT1 inhibitor, and with the high affinity compound RG1678. Although definitive trials remain ongoing, encouraging results to date have been reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Javitt
- Nathan S Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research, Columbia University, Orangeburg, NY 10962, USA.
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11
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Morrow JA, Gilfillan R, Neale SA. Glutamatergic Approaches for the Treatment of Schizophrenia. DRUG DISCOVERY FOR PSYCHIATRIC DISORDERS 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/9781849734943-00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system and plays a key role in most aspects of normal brain function including cognition, learning and memory. Dysfunction of glutamatergic neurotransmission has been implicated in a number of neurological and psychiatric disorders with a growing body of evidence suggesting that hypofunction of glutamatergic neurotransmission via the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor plays an important role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. It thus follows that potentiation of NMDA receptor function via pharmacological manipulation may provide therapeutic utility for the treatment of schizophrenia and a number of different approaches are currently being pursued by the pharmaceutical industry with this aim in mind. These include strategies that target the glycine/d-serine site of the NMDA receptor (glycine transporter GlyT1, d-serine transporter ASC-1 and d-amino acid oxidase (DAAO) inhibitors) together with those aimed at enhancing glutamatergic neurotransmission via modulation of AMPA receptor and metabotropic glutamate receptor function. Such efforts are now beginning to bear fruit with compounds such as the GlyT1 inhibitor RG1678 and mGlu2 agonist LY2140023 proving to have clinical meaningful effects in phase II clinical trials. While more studies are required to confirm long-term efficacy, functional outcome and safety in schizophrenic agents, these agents hold real promise for addressing unmet medical needs, in particular refractory negative and cognitive symptoms, not currently addressed by existing antipsychotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- John A. Morrow
- Neuroscience and Ophthalmology, Merck Research Laboratories 2015 Galloping Hill Road, Kenilworth, New Jersey 07033 USA
| | - Robert Gilfillan
- Discovery Chemistry, Merck Research Laboratories 770 Sumneytown Pike, West Point, Pennsylvania 19486 USA
| | - Stuart A. Neale
- Neurexpert Ltd Ground Floor, 2 Woodberry Grove, North Finchley, London, N12 0DR UK
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Borroni E, Zhou Y, Ostrowitzki S, Alberati D, Kumar A, Hainzl D, Hartung T, Hilton J, Dannals RF, Wong DF. Pre-clinical characterization of [11C]R05013853 as a novel radiotracer for imaging of the glycine transporter type 1 by positron emission tomography. Neuroimage 2011; 75:291-300. [PMID: 22178811 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A specific positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer for the glycine transporter type 1 (GlyT1) would constitute an imaging biomarker to investigate the distribution of GlyT1 in normal individuals and those with neuropsychiatric disorders. In addition it could demonstrate the ability of a novel drug to reach its target in the brain and enable receptor occupancy studies, thus facilitating drug development. In this article we describe the evaluation in non-human primates of two candidate PET radiotracers ([(11)C]RO5013852 and [(11)C]RO5013853) previously characterized in the rat. Both radiotracers showed acceptable uptake in the baboon brain and heterogeneous distribution consistent with that reported for GlyT1. In vivo blockade studies with two specific glycine reuptake inhibitors (GRIs), RO5013853 and bitopertin (RG1678, reduced uptake of both tracers to homogenous levels across brain regions and demonstrated specificity of the signal. [(11)C]RO5013853 showed a larger specific signal and slightly higher brain uptake and was therefore selected for further characterization. Quantitative compartmental analysis of PET data showed that the 2-tissue compartment model with 5 parameters was the most appropriate to describe the kinetics of [(11)C]RO5013853. Two additional methods were used: a) the Logan graphical analysis using plasma input and, b) a linear parametric imaging approach with the 2-tissue compartmental model. These produced VT estimates of comparable magnitude, namely, pons, thalamus and cerebellum>caudate, putamen and cortical regions. High resolution autoradiography with tritiated RO5013853 was used to confirm the binding pattern observed by PET. In vivo metabolism studies in the baboon demonstrated the formation of a single, radiolabeled metabolite more polar than the parent compound. Finally, [(11)C]RO5013853 was used to quantify the degree of cerebral GlyT1 occupancy observed in the baboon following oral administration of bitopertin, a selective GRI presently in Phase III clinical trial. Plasma concentrations of approximately 150-300 ng/mL were estimated to produce 50% GlyT1 occupancy in the thalamus, the cerebellum and the pons. [(11)C]RO5013853 is a promising radiotracer for in vivo imaging of the GlyT1. It can be easily radiolabeled, exhibits moderate metabolism, displays a good specific signal, and is suitable for receptor occupancy studies of therapeutic compounds that target the GlyT1. The successful characterization of [(11)C]RO5013853 in healthy volunteers is presented in this NeuroImage issue (Wong et al., 2013).
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Affiliation(s)
- Edilio Borroni
- Neuroscience Department, Pharmaceutical Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Yun Zhou
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA
| | - Susanne Ostrowitzki
- Neuroscience Department, Pharmaceutical Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Alberati
- Neuroscience Department, Pharmaceutical Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anil Kumar
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA
| | - Dominik Hainzl
- Nonclinical Safety Department, Pharmaceutical Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Hartung
- Process Research & Synthesis Department, Pharmaceutical Division, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, CH-4070 Basel, Switzerland
| | - John Hilton
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA
| | - Robert F Dannals
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA
| | - Dean F Wong
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA; Department of Psychiatry, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 601 N. Caroline St., JHOC, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA; Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 601 N. Caroline St., JHOC, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA; Department of Environmental Health Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 601 N. Caroline St., JHOC, Baltimore, MD 21287-0807, USA; Honorary Professor of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
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13
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Field JR, Walker AG, Conn PJ. Targeting glutamate synapses in schizophrenia. Trends Mol Med 2011; 17:689-98. [PMID: 21955406 DOI: 10.1016/j.molmed.2011.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 08/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Although early clinical observations implicated dopamine dysfunction in the neuropathology of schizophrenia, accumulating evidence suggests that multiple neurotransmitter pathways are dysregulated. The psychotomimetic actions of NMDA receptor antagonists point to an imbalance of glutamatergic signaling. Encouragingly, numerous preclinical and clinical studies have elucidated several potential targets for increasing NMDA receptor function and equilibrating glutamatergic tone, including the metabotropic glutamate receptors 2, 3 and 5, the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors M(1) and M(4), and the glycine transporter GlyT1. Highly specific allosteric and orthosteric ligands have been developed that modify the activity of these novel target proteins, and in this review we summarize both the glutamatergic mechanisms and the novel compounds that are increasing the promise for a multifaceted pharmacological approach to treat schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie R Field
- Department of Pharmacology and Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
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Pinard E, Burner S, Cueni P, Hartung T, Norcross RD, Schmid P, Waldmeier P, Zielinski G, Ravert HT, Holt DP, Dannals RF. Radiosynthesis of [5-[11C]methanesulfonyl-2-((S)-2,2,2-trifluoro-1-methyl-ethoxy)-phenyl]-[5-(tetrahydro-pyran-4-yl)-1,3-dihydro-isoindol-2-yl]-methanone ([11C]RO5013853), a novel PET tracer for the glycine transporter type I (GlyT1). J Labelled Comp Radiopharm 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/jlcr.1911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Pinard
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Serge Burner
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Philipp Cueni
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Thomas Hartung
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Roger D. Norcross
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Philipp Schmid
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Pius Waldmeier
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Guy Zielinski
- F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd.; Pharmaceutical Division; CH-4070; Basel; Switzerland
| | - Hayden T. Ravert
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine; 600 North Wolfe Street; Baltimore; MD 21287-0816; USA
| | - Daniel P. Holt
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine; 600 North Wolfe Street; Baltimore; MD 21287-0816; USA
| | - Robert F. Dannals
- The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine; 600 North Wolfe Street; Baltimore; MD 21287-0816; USA
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