New monoterpene glycosides from Paeonia suffruticosa Andrews and their inhibition on NO production in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells

Four new phenolic constituents from root barks of Paeonia ostii

The Paeonia ostii, also known as "Feng Dan" have a crucial role in folk medicine to treat lumbar muscles strain, knee osteoarthritis and cervical spondylosis. In this study, four new phenolic compounds, specifically Paeoniaostiph A-E (1-4) phenolic compounds were characterised through spectroscopic techniques, including 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS, UV, IR, and electronic circular dichroism computations to explore their structures. Cytotoxicity and NO production inhibition of the new phenolic compounds were also studied. The results of the cytotoxicity experiment showed that compound 1 is cytotoxic to two human cancer cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 13.3 to 13.5 μM. Compounds 1 and 2 showed certain inhibitory activity on NO production. This is the first report on isolating the components from natural sources.

Genus Paeonia monoterpene glycosides: A systematic review on their pharmacological activities and molecular mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Genus Paeonia, which is the main source of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) Paeoniae Radix Rubra (Chishao in Chinese), Paeoniae Radix Alba (Baishao in Chinese) and Moutan Cortex (Mudanpi in Chinese), is rich in active pharmaceutical ingredient such as monoterpenoid glycosides (MPGs). MPGs from Paeonia have extensive pharmacological effects, but the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of MPGs has not been comprehensively reviewed.

PURPOSE

MPGs compounds are one of the main chemical components of the genus Paeonia, with a wide variety of compounds and strong pharmacological activities, and the structure of the mother nucleus-pinane skeleton is similar to that of a cage. The purpose of this review is to summarize the pharmacological activity and mechanism of action of MPGs from 2012 to 2023, providing reference direction for the development and utilization of Paeonia resources and preclinical research.

METHODS

Keywords and phrases are widely used in database searches, such as PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar and X-Mol to search for citations related to the new compounds, extensive pharmacological research and molecular mechanisms of MPGs compounds of genus Paeonia.

RESULTS

Modern research confirms that MPGs are the main compounds in Paeonia that exert pharmacological effects. MPGs with extensive pharmacological characteristics are mainly concentrated in two categories: paeoniflorin derivatives and albiflflorin derivatives among MPGs, which contains 32 compounds. Among them, 5 components including paeoniflorin, albiflorin, oxypaeoniflorin, 6'-O-galloylpaeoniflorin and paeoniflorigenone have been extensively studied, while the other 28 components have only been confirmed to have a certain degree of anti-inflammatory and anticomplementary effects. Studies of pharmacological effects are widely involved in nervous system, endocrine system, digestive system, immune system, etc., and some studies have identified clear mechanisms. MPGs exert pharmacological activity through multilateral mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, inhibition of cell apoptosis, regulation of brain gut axis, regulation of gut microbiota and downregulation of mitochondrial apoptosis, etc. CONCLUSION: This systematic review delved into the pharmacological effects and related molecular mechanisms of MPGs. However, there are still some compounds in MPGs whose pharmacological effects and pharmacological mechanisms have not been clarified. In addition, extensive clinical randomized trials are needed to verify the efficacy and dosage of MPGs.

Two new glycosides from the root bark of Paeonia ostii

Two new glycosides, ethyl-O-β-D-furanosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1) and (5-'')-galloyl-ethyl-O-β-D-furanosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (2), together with eight known compounds (3-10) were obtained from the n-BuOH extraction of Paeonia ostii. Their structures were identified via the extensive spectroscopic analysis. Compounds 1, 3-10 exhibited the anti-inflammation activities, which inhibited the production of NO, TNF-α and IL-1β in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells with IC50 values ranging from 6.00 to 86.78 µΜ.

Identification of potential anti-inflammatory components in Moutan Cortex by bio-affinity ultrafiltration coupled with ultra-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry

Moutan Cortex (MC) has been used in treating inflammation-associated diseases and conditions in China and other Southeast Asian countries. However, the active components of its anti-inflammatory effect are still unclear. The study aimed to screen and identify potential cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors in MC extract. The effect of MC on COX-2 was determined in vitro by COX-2 inhibitory assays, followed by bio-affinity ultrafiltration in combination with ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (BAUF-UPLC-MS). To verify the reliability of the constructed approach, celecoxib was applied as the positive control, in contrast to adenosine which served as the negative control in this study. The bioactivity of the MC components was validated in vitro by COX-2 inhibitor assay and RAW264.7 cells. Their in vivo anti-inflammatory activity was also evaluated using LPS-induced zebrafish inflammation models. Finally, molecular docking was hired to further explore the internal interactions between the components and COX-2 residues. The MC extract showed an evident COX-2-inhibitory effect in a concentration-dependent manner. A total of 11 potential COX-2 inhibitors were eventually identified in MC extract. The COX-2 inhibitory activity of five components, namely, gallic acid (GA), methyl gallate (MG), galloylpaeoniflorin (GP), 1,2,3,6-Tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (TGG), and 1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranose (PGG), were validated through both in vitro assays and experiments using zebrafish models. Besides, the molecular docking analysis revealed that the potential inhibitors in MC could effectively inhibit COX-2 by interacting with specific residues, similar to the mechanism of action exhibited by celecoxib. In conclusion, BAUF-UPLC-MS combining the molecular docking is an efficient approach to discover enzyme inhibitors from traditional herbs and understand the mechanism of action.

New Phenolic Dimers from Plant Paeonia suffruticosa and Their Cytotoxicity and NO Production Inhibition

The Paeonia suffruticosa, known as 'Feng Dan', has been used for thousands of years in traditional Chinese medicine. In our chemical investigation on the root bark of the plant, five new phenolic dimers, namely, paeobenzofuranones A-E (1-5), were characterized. Their structures were determined using spectroscopic analysis including 1D and 2D NMR, HRESIMS, UV, and IR, as well as ECD calculations. Compounds 2, 4, and 5 showed cytotoxicity against three human cancer cell lines, with IC₅₀ values ranging from 6.7 to 25.1 μM. Compounds 1 and 2 showed certain inhibitory activity on NO production. To the best of our knowledge, the benzofuranone dimers and their cytotoxicity of P. suffruticosa are reported for the first time in this paper.

Traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and pharmacokinetics of the root bark of Paeonia x suffruticosa andrews: A comprehensive review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Moutan Cortex (MC), commonly known as "Mu dan pi", refers to the dried root bark of Paeonia x suffruticosa Andrews and is broadly used as a traditional herbal medication in China, Japan, and Korea. For thousands of years, it has been utilized to treat female genital, extravasated blood, cardiovascular, and stagnant blood disorders.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The purpose of this review article was to summarize information on the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of MC, as well as to outline the further research directions for the development of new drugs and the associations between traditional uses and pharmacological effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information involved in the study was gathered from a variety of electronic resources, including PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, China Knowledge Resource Integrated Database, and Google Scholar. The date was from 1992 to 2022.

RESULTS

Approximately 163 chemical compounds have been extracted and identified from MC, including monoterpenes, monoterpene glycosides, triterpenes, phenolics, flavonoids, volatile oils, alkaloids, and others. In these categories, the monoterpene glycosides and phenols being the most common. A wide variety of pharmacological effects have been described for MC crude extracts and active molecules, such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antiviral, antitumor, antidiabetic, organ protection, and neuroprotective activities, as well as treating cardiovascular diseases. Pharmacokinetics has been also used in the study of MC, including its crude extracts or chemical constituents, in order to explore the therapeutic mechanism, direct clinically appropriate application and provide new ideas for the exploitation of innovative medicines.

CONCLUSION

Modern pharmacological research has demonstrated that MC, as a significant therapeutic resource, has the ability to heal a wide range of diseases, particularly female genital and cardiovascular problems. These researches propose therapeutic ideas for the development of novel MC medicines. Furthermore, preclinical and clinical study have verified several observed pharmacological properties related with the traditional usages of MC.

Paeonia × suffruticosa (Moutan Peony)-A Review of the Chemical Composition, Traditional and Professional Use in Medicine, Position in Cosmetics Industries, and Biotechnological Studies

The aim of this review is to perform a systematic review of scientific papers and an in-depth analysis of the latest research related to Paeonia × suffruticosa Andrews as a valuable plant species, important in pharmacy and cosmetology. P. × suffruticosa bark root-Moutan cortex is a medicinal raw material formerly known from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) but less common in official European medicine. It was introduced for the first time in the European Pharmacopoeia Supplement 9.4 in 2018. In this work, the numerous possible applications of this raw material were depicted based on modern professional pharmacological studies documenting its very valuable medicinal values, including antioxidant, cytoprotective, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, anti-atherosclerotic, anti-diabetic and hepatoprotective activities. The scientific studies indicated that the profile of raw material activity is mainly due to paeonol, paeoniflorin and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranose. Moreover, the significance of this plant (its different organs) in the production of cosmetics was underlined. P. × suffruticosa finds increasing application in cosmetology due to research on its chronic dermatitis, anti-aging and brightening effects. Furthermore, some biotechnological research has been described aimed at developing effective in vitro micropropagation protocols for P. × suffruticosa.

Some important inhibitors and mechanisms of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic disease that seriously affects human health and quality of life, and it is one of the main causes of labor loss and disability. Many countries have listed rheumatoid arthritis as one of the national a key diseases to tackle. The pathogenesis of RA in humans is still unknown, and medical researchers believe that the pathogenesis of RA may be the result of a combination of genetic and environmental factors. RA is an incurable condition that can only be controlled and treated with conventional drugs. In this paper, the pathologic features and pathogenesis of RA were introduced, and the research progress of new anti-rheumatoid arthritis chemical drugs in recent years was reviewed.

Genus Paeonia: A comprehensive review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, clinical application, and toxicology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Paeonia, which comprises approximately 52 shrubs or herbaceous perennials around the world, is the only genus of the Paeoniaceae and is pervasively distributed in Asia, southern Europe, and North America. Many species of the genus Paeonia have been used for centuries in ethnomedical medical systems.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The present study aims to summarize the traditional uses, clinical applications, and toxicology of the genus Paeonia, to critically evaluate the state-of-the-art phytochemical and pharmacological studies of this genus published between 2011 and 2020, and to suggest directions for further in-depth research on Paeonia medicinal resources.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Popular and widely used databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Google Scholar were searched using the various search strings; from these searches, a number of citations related to the traditional uses, phytochemistry, biological activities, clinical application, and toxicology of the genus Paeonia were retrieved.

RESULTS

The use of 21 species, 2 subspecies, and 7 varieties of the genus Paeonia as traditional herbal remedies has been reported, and many ethnomedicinal uses, such as the treatment of hematemesis, blood stasis, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, epilepsy, spasms, and gastritis, have been recorded. The roots and root bark are the most frequently reported parts of the plants used in medicinal applications. In phytochemical investigations, 451 compounds have been isolated from Paeonia plants to date, which contains monoterpenoid glucosides, flavonoids, tannins, stilbenes, triterpenoids and steroids, and phenols. Studies of their pharmacological activities have revealed the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumour, antibacterial, antiviral, cardiovascular protective, and neuroprotective properties of the genus Paeonia. In particular, some bioactive extracts and compounds (total glucosides of peony (TGP), paeonol, and paeoniflorin) have been used as therapeutic drugs or tested in clinical trials. In addition to the "incompatibility" of the combined use of "shaoyao" and Veratrum nigrum L. roots in traditional Chinese medicine theory, Paeonia was considered to have no obvious toxicity based on the available toxicological tests.

CONCLUSION

A large number of phytochemical and pharmacological reports have indicated that Paeonia is an important medicinal herb resource, and some of its traditional uses including the treatment of inflammation and cardiovascular diseases and its use as a neuroprotective agent, have been partially confirmed through modern pharmacological studies. Monoterpenoid glucosides are the main active constituents. Although many compounds have been isolated from Paeonia plants, the biological activities of only a few of these compounds (paeoniflorin, paeonol, and TGP) have been extensively investigated. Some paeoniflorin structural analogues and resveratrol oligomers have been preliminarily studied. With the exception of several species (P. suffruticosa, P. ostii, P. lactiflora, and P. emodi) that are commonly used in folk medicine, many medicinal species within the genus do not receive adequate attention. Conducting phytochemical and pharmacological experiments on these species can provide new clues that may lead to the discovery of medicinal resources. It is necessary to identify the effective phytoconstituents of crude extracts of Paeonia that displayed pharmacological activities by bioactivity-guided isolation. In addition, comprehensive plant quality control, and toxicology and pharmacokinetic studies are needed in the future studies.

Chemical Fingerprinting and Quantitative Analysis of Cortex Moutan From Different Tree Peony Cultivars Using HPLC-ESI/MS

To evaluate the relationship between tree peony cultivars and the quality consistency of Cortex Moutan, a sensitive, reliable, and validated method based on high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization/mass spectrometry was developed for the quantitative analysis of paeonol and chemical fingerprinting of Cortex Moutan. Results from quantitative analysis showed that the content of paeonol in Paeonia ostii “Feng Dan” was the highest (24.51 ± 0.83 mg/g), followed by Paeonia suffruticosa “Luoyang Hong” (14.29 ± 0.76 mg/g), P. suffruticosa “Taiping Hong” (13.99±1.13 mg/g), and P. suffruticosa “Zhaofen” (13.08±0.85 mg/g). Paeonia ostii “Luoyang Feng Dan” was found to have the lowest content (8.76±0.46 mg/g) of paeonol. In qualitative analysis, 5 tree peony cultivars collected from different plantations in China were used to establish the fingerprint. For the fingerprint analysis, 17 characteristic peaks were used to evaluate similarities among tree peony cultivars, and they were found to show similarities. In short, the results of quantitative and qualitative analyses suggested that there was no significant difference in the chemical composition of Cortex Moutan from different tree peony varieties; however, there were significant differences in the levels of chemical components. The method developed in this study provides an important reference to establish a quality control method for other related traditional Chinese medicinal preparations.

Two new acetoisovanillone glycosides from the water-soluble fraction of Paeonia ostii

The cortex root of Paeonia ostii, is used as a traditional Chinese medicine for treating female diseases. Phytochemical investigation of the water-soluble fraction of the plant led to the isolation of two new acetoisovanillone glycosides: acetoisovanillone-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1) and 2-hydroxy-acetoisovanillone-3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (2). Their structures were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic methods.

Optimization of Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction of Monoterpene Glycoside from Oil Peony Seed Cake

Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) of total monoterpene glycosides extract (TMGE) from oil peony seed cakes was investigated. The extraction yield was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). The chemical constituents of the monoterpene glycosides extract were isolated by repeated column chromatography, and the contents of the main isolated monoterpene glycosides in the oil peony seed cakes were determined by HPLC. The optimum conditions were as follows: a liquid-to-solid ratio of 27 mL/g, ultrasonic extraction time of 16 min, ultrasonic extraction temperature of 26 °C, and ethanol concentration of 67%. Under these conditions, the extraction yield of TMGE was 10.24%. Twenty monoterpene glycosides were isolated from the oil peony seed cakes, and compounds 11-12, 16 and 20 showed strong inhibitory activities on NO production. TMGE from oil peony seed cakes can also to be used as promising immunosuppressive drug due to its high content of monoterpene glycosides and immune-inhibitory activity. PRACTICAL AAPPLICATION: The peony seed oil was authorized as a new food by the Ministry of Health of the People's Republic of China. Peony seed cake is one of the most important by-products in the preparation of peony seed oil, and accounts for approximately 40% of the total mass of the peony seed. Total monoterpene glycosides are the main active ingredient of oil peony seed cake. This research has optimized the extraction conditions of total monoterpene glycoside from seeds cake of Paeonia ostii, which will provide useful reference information for further studies, and offer related industries with helpful guidance in practice.

Structures and Biological Evaluation of Monoterpenoid Glycosides from the Roots of Paeonia lactiflora

Fractionation of an aqueous extract of the air-dried roots of a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, Paeonia lactiflora, yielded the new monoterpenoid glycosides 1-10. Their structures were assigned via spectroscopic techniques, and the absolute configurations of 1, 4-6, and 8 were verified via chemical methods, specific rotation, and electronic circular dichroism data. Compounds 1-4 are rare compared to the reported cage-like paeoniflorin derivatives; that is, they comprised two monoterpenoidal moieties. In the in vitro assay, compounds 5, 8, and 9 showed weak inhibitions against lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in RAW264.7 macrophages, with IC₅₀ values of 64.8, 60.1, and 97.5 μM, respectively.

Origins, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, Analytical Methods and Safety of Cortex Moutan (Paeonia suffruticosa Andrew): A Systematic Review

Cortex Moutan (CM), a well-known traditional Chinese medicine, is commonly used for treating various diseases in China and other eastern Asian countries. Recorded in Pharmacopeias of several countries, CM is now drawing increasing attention and under extensive studies in various fields. Phytochemical studies indicate that CM contains many valuable secondary metabolites, such as monoterpene glycosides and phenols. Ample evidence from pharmacological researches suggest that CM has a wide spectrum of activities, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, anti-diabetic, cardiovascular protective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective effects. Moreover, various analytical methods were established for the quality evaluation and safety control of CM. This review synopsizes updated information concerning the origins, phytochemistry, pharmacology, analytical method and safety of CM, aiming to provide favorable references for modern CM research and application. In conclusion, continuing pharmacological investigations concerning CM should be conducted to unravel its pharmacological mechanisms. Further researches are necessary to obtain comprehensive and applicable analytical approach for quality evaluation and establish harmonized criteria of CM.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects, SAR, and Action Mechanism of Monoterpenoids from Radix Paeoniae Alba on LPS-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Cells

Nine monoterpenoids from Radix Paeoniae Alba, including paeoniflorin derivatives, paeoniflorin (PF), 4-O-methylpaeoniflorin (MPF), 4-O-methylbenzoylpaeoniflorin (MBPF); paeonidanin derivatives, paeonidanin (PD), paeonidanin A (PDA), albiflorin derivatives, albiflorin (AF), benzoylalbiflorin (BAF), galloylalbiflorin (GAF), and debenzoylalbiflorin (DAF), were obtained in our previous phytochemistry investigations. Their anti-inflammatory effects were determined in the present study. The expression and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were measured using an Elisa assay and nitric oxide (NO) release was determined using the Griess method. The results demonstrated that the most of the monoterpenoids suppressed the LPS-induced production of NO, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). The anti-inflammatory activities of these monoterpenoids were closely related to their structural characteristics. Paeoniflorins and paeonidanins presented stronger anti-inflammatory activities than those of albiflorin derivatives. Furthermore, the action mechanisms of MBPF, having a strong anti-inflammatory effect, were investigated using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot methods. The results indicated that MBPF could down-regulate the mRNA and protein expression level of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells. The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways are involved in mediating the role of MBPF in suppressing the expression and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW 264.7 cells.

Apoptosis-inducing activity and antiproliferative effect of Paeoniflorigenone from moutan cortex

Ninety samples from the extracts of plants from traditional Chinese medicines were screened for antitumor activity. Paeoniflorigenone (PFG) was isolated as an active ingredient from the root of moutan cortex, which showed the strongest activity. In addition, our data indicated that PFG was cytotoxic and induced apoptosis selectively in the cancer cell lines. These effects were cancelled by the addition of caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK, suggesting that it was mediated by caspase-3 activation.

Chemical Components and Pharmacological Activities of Terpene Natural Products from the Genus Paeonia

Paeonia is the single genus of ca. 33 known species in the family Paeoniaceae, found in Asia, Europe and Western North America. Up to now, more than 180 compounds have been isolated from nine species of the genus Paeonia, including terpenes, phenols, flavonoids, essential oil and tannins. Terpenes, the most abundant naturally occurring compounds, which accounted for about 57% and occurred in almost every species, are responsible for the observed in vivo and in vitro biological activities. This paper aims to give a comprehensive overview of the recent phytochemical and pharmacological knowledge of the terpenes from Paeonia plants, and enlighten further drug discovery research.

Counteractive effect of Paeonia lactiflora root constituent mudanpioside E against suppressive effect of Shoseiryuto-extract on passive cutaneous anaphylaxis reaction in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Shoseiryuto-extract (SST) is a herbal formula of Japanese traditional kampo medicine used to treat perennial nasal allergy, rhinitis, and bronchial asthma. SST contains eight crude drugs, and is registered in the 16th Edition of Japanese Pharmacopoeia. Previous studies reported anti-allergic effects of SST, but the contribution of the eight crude drugs in SST on these effects has not been evaluated. In the present study, we evaluated the contribution of the eight crude drugs in SST on anti-allergic effect using passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reaction in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The mixture of crude drugs was decocted in water and lyophilized to prepare SST. To evaluate the active ingredients, compositions of crude drugs were modified and decocted. The PCA reaction was induced by intravenous injection of ovalbumin (OVA) and Evans blue 48 h after intracutaneous injection of anti-OVA serum in mice ears. The crude drug extract was orally administered to overnight-fasted mice 2h before induction of the PCA reaction. Ears were removed 30 min after induction, and the amount of Evans blue present was measured.

RESULTS

Oral administration of SST suppressed the PCA reaction in a dose-dependent manner. Among the eight crude drugs comprising SST, Asiasarum root, Pinellia tuber, and Glycyrrhiza contributed positively, and Peony root contributed negatively to the anti-allergic effects of SST. We isolated mudanpioside E from the extract of Peony root as the counteracting ingredient to exhibit the anti-allergic effects of Peony root-depleted SST.

CONCLUSIONS

When we used SST for the treatment of allergic diseases, removal of Peony root from the traditional formula could augment its effect.

Anticomplement monoterpenoid glucosides from the root bark of Paeonia suffruticosa

Six new (1-6) and 19 known monoterpenoid glucosides were isolated from the root bark of Paeonia suffruticosa. The monoterpenoid glucosides 1, 2, 7, 10-19, and 22 exhibited anticomplement effects with CH50 and AP50 values ranging from 0.14 to 2.67 mM and 0.25 to 3.67 mM, respectively. In a mechanistic study, suffrupaeoniflorin A (1) interacted with C1q, C3, C5, and C9, while galloylpaeoniflorin (12) and galloyloxypaeoniflorin (19) acted on C1q, C3, and C5 components in the complement activation cascade.