Little girls in a grown up world: Exposure to sexualized media, internalization of sexualization messages, and body image in 6-9 year-old girls

Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating symptoms in children's daily life: Can parents protect against appearance comparison on social media?

Research suggests that body dissatisfaction is common among children. However, it remains largely unknown how body dissatisfaction occurs on a daily basis and which environmental factors are linked to this. The purpose of this study was to examine (1) state body dissatisfaction, dietary restraint, compensatory exercise and loss of control eating among children and its association with upward comparisons via social media and (2) whether trust in parents may attenuate this association. Children from 10 to 12 years old (N = 50) were assessed three times a day during a two-week period. Trust was examined via a baseline questionnaire. State body dissatisfaction, dietary restraint, compensatory exercise, loss of control eating and upward comparisons were examined via Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA). Multilevel analyses indicated that an a higher level of upward comparison is associated with a higher level of state body dissatisfaction, compensatory exercise and loss of control eating. Trust in father significantly moderated the association between appearance comparison and body dissatisfaction. No evidence was found for the protective role of trust in mother. Future research is necessary to enhance our understanding of state body dissatisfaction among children and of environmental factors that may protect children from the adverse effects of social media.

Body Shame in 7-12-Year-Old Girls and Boys: The Role of Parental Attention to Children's Appearance

Guided by the Tripartite Influence Model and Objectification Theory, we examined whether parents' attention to their children's appearance was related to higher body shame in girls and boys. In Study 1 (N = 195) and 2 (N = 163), we investigated 7-12-year-old children's metaperceptions about parents' attention to their appearance and its association with children's body shame. In Study 3, we examined the link between parents' self-reported attention to their children's appearance and children's body shame among parent-child triads (N = 70). Results demonstrated that both children's metaperceptions and fathers' self-reported attention to children's appearance were associated with body shame in children. Furthermore, when mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward their children were analyzed simultaneously, only fathers' attention to their children's appearance was associated with greater body shame in girls and boys. Notably, no gender differences emerged, suggesting that parents' attention to their children's appearance was not differentially related to body shame in girls and boys. These results remained significant when controlling for other sources of influence, namely peer and media influence, both of which were found to have a strong association with body shame in children. Theoretical and practical implications of our findings are discussed.

Sexualized Images on Social Media and Adolescent Girls' Mental Health: Qualitative Insights from Parents, School Support Service Staff and Youth Mental Health Service Providers

This research explored adults' perceptions of how sexualized images typically found on social media might influence adolescent girls' mental health, what support girls might need should they experience mental health difficulties, and how such difficulties could be prevented or reduced. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured in-depth interviews with parents of adolescent girls (n = 11) and those who provide support to them: school support service staff (n = 7) and youth mental health service providers (n = 10) located in Perth, Western Australia. All three participant groups perceived sexualized images typically found on social media as exacerbating poor mental health among adolescent girls. Two interrelated themes, emerged with participants describing the 'potential for comparison' and 'pressure to conform' they believed girls encounter on social media that influences their mental health. Participants also explained how they perceived 'counteracting negative influences' related to sexualized images on social media could prevent or reduce the potential for mental health harms among girls, and the importance of adults and services 'keeping up to date' and being 'approachable and trustworthy' when describing the support they believed girls might need. The findings of this study have important implications for the development of health promotion programs focused on social media use and mental health among adolescent girls.

Impacts of technology on children's health: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To identify the consequences of technology overuse in childhood.

DATA SOURCE

A systematic review was carried out in the electronic databases PubMed (National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health) and BVS (Virtual Health Library), considering articles published from 2015 to 2020, in English, Portuguese and Spanish using the terms "Internet", "Child" and "Growth and Development".

DATA SYNTHESIS

554 articles were found and 8 were included in the analysis. The studies' methodological quality was assessed by the Strobe and Consort criteria, being scored from 17 to 22 points. The articles showed positive and negative factors associated with the use of technology in childhood, although most texts emphasize the harmful aspects. Excessive use of internet, games and exposure to television are associated with intellectual deficits and mental health issues, but can also enable psychosocial development.

CONCLUSIONS

Preventing the use of the internet is a utopic measure ever since society makes use of technologies. The internet is associated with benefits as well as with harms. It is important to optimize the use of internet and reduce risks with the participation of parents and caregivers as moderators, and training of health professionals to better guide them.

An Evolutionary Perspective on Appearance Enhancement Behavior

Researchers have highlighted numerous sociocultural factors that have been shown to underpin human appearance enhancement practices, including the influence of peers, family, the media, and sexual objectification. Fewer scholars have approached appearance enhancement from an evolutionary perspective or considered how sociocultural factors interact with evolved psychology to produce appearance enhancement behavior. Following others, we argue that evidence from the field of evolutionary psychology can complement existing sociocultural models by yielding unique insight into the historical and cross-cultural ubiquity of competition over aspects of physical appearance to embody what is desired by potential mates. An evolutionary lens can help to make sense of reliable sex and individual differences that impact appearance enhancement, as well as the context-dependent nature of putative adaptations that function to increase physical attractiveness. In the current review, appearance enhancement is described as a self-promotion strategy used to enhance reproductive success by rendering oneself more attractive than rivals to mates, thereby increasing one's mate value. The varied ways in which humans enhance their appearance are described, as well as the divergent tactics used by women and men to augment their appearance, which correspond to the preferences of opposite-sex mates in a heterosexual context. Evolutionarily relevant individual differences and contextual factors that vary predictably with appearance enhancement behavior are also discussed. The complementarity of sociocultural and evolutionary perspectives is emphasized and recommended avenues for future interdisciplinary research are provided for scholars interested in studying appearance enhancement behavior.

Perceptions of the Body and Body Dissatisfaction in Primary Education Children According to Gender and Age. A Cross-Sectional Study

Body image (BI) is a trending topic of study since health problems derived from a negative perception of the body are increasing and affecting people of all ages, with an increasing incidence among children from the age of eight. The objective of this study was to evaluate the current perception of the body against the desired body and the degree of body satisfaction of Galician primary education students. A total of 355 students (167 boys (47%)) between 9 and 12 years old participated (mean = 10.53; SD = 0.84). Sociodemographic data (sex, age, height, and weight) were collected, and the Figure Rating Scale was used. There are statistically significant differences between boys and girls in the current perceived figure (p = 0.003) and in the desired figure (p < 0.001). Depending on age, the differences were in current (p = 0.010) and desired (p = 0.021) body perception. In conclusion, boys perceive themselves as having a larger figure than girls do, but this perception is far from reality according to the body mass index. For the desired figure, both boys and girls want to be slimmer, but girls want a slimmer figure. Regarding age, the current perceived figure size increases with age as it increases in those students dissatisfied with their body.

Disordered eating, body image concerns, and weight control behaviors in primary school aged children: A systematic review and meta-analysis of universal-selective prevention interventions

OBJECTIVE

Body image concerns and extreme weight control behaviors frequently develop in childhood indicating an important age group for the implementation of universal-selective prevention approaches. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the effect of universal-selective prevention interventions addressing disordered eating, body image concerns, and/or extreme weight control behaviors in children aged 6-12 years.

METHOD

Nine databases were searched up to April 2021. Studies were included if they delivered a universal-selective prevention intervention to children aged 6-12 years and reported outcomes relating to body image, disordered eating, or weight control behaviors. The review was conducted in line with the PRISMA Guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 42 articles describing 39 studies included in the review, with most (n = 24; 57%) classified as neutral quality. Thirty studies implemented an eating disorder specific universal-selective program and nine implemented lifestyle interventions plus content to address disordered eating risk factors. Meta-analysis (n = 16 studies) revealed an improvement in body image-related outcomes across all studies (standardized mean difference [SMD] 0.26 [95%CI 0.01, 0.51]); with a high level of heterogeneity (Î2 = 89.9%; p < .01). Meta-analysis according to gender revealed a general improvement in body image-related outcomes for girls (SMD 0.40 [95%CI 0.07, 0.73]), but not boys (SMD 0.23 [95%CI -0.24, 0.70]).

DISCUSSION

By investigating child, parental and teaching interventions and including outcomes such as weight control and disordered eating behaviors, a trend toward a reduction in eating disorder risk factors was observed, particularly body image-related outomes in girls. Future directions include embedded disordered eating prevention materials within existing lifestyle interventions and inclusion of more diverse samples.

Media influence components as predictors of children's body image and eating problems: A longitudinal study of boys and girls during middle childhood

Body image problems are reported during middle childhood and are associated with exposure to appearance-focused media. This longitudinal study investigated the extent to which three media influence components, Awareness, Pressure, and Internalization of media ideals, predict body image and eating problems in children and whether gender moderates this effect. A total sample of N = 688 participants (46 % girls, aged 8-11 at T1) was studied. Self-report questionnaires were administered on the media influence components, body image and eating problems at T1 and T2 (1 year later). After controlling for age, adjusted body mass index and baseline levels of body image and eating problems, results show that media influence components significantly predicted Restraint and Concerns about Eating, Weight, and Shape one year later. Awareness, however, uniquely predicted increases in Eating Concerns in boys, while Pressure predicted increases in Concerns on Eating, Weight, and Shape in girls only. The current results indicate that media influences, some of which may be gender-specific risk factors, predict subsequent body image concerns of girls and boys during middle childhood. Thus, both boys and girls should be addressed in future research and prevention programs.

Sexualización de niñas en redes sociales: la necesidad de inteligencia semántica en Instagram

Instagram es la red social favorita de los millennials. Sus normas comunitarias prohíben los desnudos, salvo en casos de mastectomías, lactancia materna, cuadros y esculturas. Su inteligencia artificial solo detecta porcentajes de piel en fotografías. Al no poseer inteligencia semántica, sus algoritmos no descubren otras formas de hipersexualización. En este subterfugio, niñas y chicas muestran sus cuerpos vestidos y cosificados, con uniformes escolares, rodeadas de elementos infantiles. Recrean el mito de Lolita y consiguen millones de seguidores. Este trabajo describe este oscuro fenómeno para investigar: los hashtags que emplean esa nueva forma de pornografía no censurable por los algoritmos; las percepciones objetivas y subjetivas de esas fotografías; y una propuesta de intervención en materia de género. El trabajo contiene dos fases: una exploración bibliográfica longitudinal, que ahonda en Instagram y sus condiciones de uso, la identidad personal y narratividad, y la inteligencia semántica para leer fotografías; y una indagación que correlaciona la reciprocidad de los hashtags, su denotación normal y su connotación hipersexualizada. Los resultados se ordenan en torno a dos modalidades: niñas que no tienen edad legal para tener una cuenta y chicas que sí tienen edad legal para tener una cuenta. La parte cuantitativa recoge: etiqueta, nombre de la cuenta, país y seguidores. La parte cualitativa explora: descripción de los elementos de las fotografías, significados normales y significados pornográficos implícitos. Se concluye que es necesario: detectar otros hashtags que describan otras pornografías; ampliar esta prospectiva internacionalmente; extrapolar esta investigación a otras redes sociales, como YouTube y TikTok; compartir los resultados con las redes sociales y las Fuerzas y Cuerpos de Seguridad; monitorizar el uso de las redes sociales por parte de los progenitores; formación en los entornos educativos; adquisición de inteligencia semántica por parte de las redes sociales y de los menores.

Do we cause harm? Understanding the impact of research with young children about their body image

Although research into the early development of body image and eating behaviors is essential, concerns have been raised about whether their assessment might precipitate body or eating concerns in children. We aimed to identify how parents perceived their young children (under 9 years) had been impacted from involvement in the longitudinal Children's Body Image Development Study (CBIDS) that assessed body image and eating behaviors. Participants were 218 parents (99 % mothers) who completed an online questionnaire assessing whether and why their child discontinued participation in CBIDS, and the perceived impact of participation on children's body image, weight attitudes, language about bodies, internalisation of appearance ideals, peer appearance conversations, dietary restraint, muscle building activities, and physical activity. Impact and reasons for cessation of participation were assessed retrospectively. Almost all parents were positive or neutral about their child's involvement, 0.5%-3.2% of parents perceived a negative impact in an area, and 0.9 % of parents moderately agreed that they regretted participating in CBIDS. Themes for positive and negative aspects of CBIDS involvement were explored using thematic analysis. Although research is essential to guide development of prevention strategies, this study highlights the need to implement safeguards to ensure a positive experience for all children.

Breaking Free: One Adolescent Woman’s Recovery from Dating Violence Through Creative Dance

Dating violence against adolescent women can devastate their health and long-term quality of life. While high school programs have been developed to address this worldwide epidemic, somatic antidotes are still not widely utilized despite evidence from the psychophysiology of relational violence trauma that there is an inextricable link between the body and mind and effective recovery requires a holistic approach. Creative dance, derived from dance education, can support female adolescent trauma victims of dating violence to reconnect with physical, mental, and emotional experiences that were severed during traumatic exposure. This qualitative arts-based case study narratively explores one adolescent woman’s experience of creative dance as an intervention for survivors of dating violent relationships. Conceptually, I draw from dance education, Authentic Movement, and Amber Gray’s Restorative Movement Psychotherapy. A feminist lens is utilized in an attempt to address calls to action from previous DMT researchers to tackle oppressive structural forces and increase activism in dance/movement therapy. Findings show that inner-directed dance can therapeutically facilitate restoration after trauma by recovering the social engagement system and decision-making capacity, reducing social isolation, and increasing bodily self-awareness, and self-esteem.

Self-sexualization in preadolescent girls: Associations with self-objectification, weight concerns, and parent’s academic expectations

We investigated the relationship of self-sexualization to self-objectification, weight concerns, self-efficacy, academic outcomes, and career aspirations among preadolescent girls. Participants were 89 six- to nine-year-old girls; parental reports were also obtained. Two thirds of girls showed signs of self-sexualization by choosing a sexualized doll over a nonsexualized doll as who they preferred to look like and/or who they currently look like. Girls who self-sexualized reported higher self-objectification and weight concerns than girls who did not self-sexualize. Self-sexualization was unrelated to social, emotional, and academic self-efficacy and to girls’ career confidence and interest. However, parents of girls who self-sexualized reported their daughters had lower academic performance and enjoyed school less compared to girls who did not self-sexualize. Additionally, parents of girls who self-sexualized had lower academic expectations for their daughters. It is possible that in preadolescence self-sexualization affects girls’ body cognitions and parental expectations without (yet) affecting self-efficacy or academic goals.

Less human and help-worthy: Sexualization affects children’s perceptions of and intentions toward bullied peers

In Western cultures, the sexualization of children has increased over the past decades. In two studies, we investigated the consequences of children’s sexualization for their peers’ willingness to provide help in a case of bullying. In both studies, children (total N = 396; ages 7 to 11 years) were randomly assigned to view either a sexualized or non-sexualized target and answered questions about the target’s traits and treatment. Our findings provide evidence that early sexualization exposes preadolescent children to the dehumanizing consequences associated with adult women’s sexualization. We found that sexualized targets were perceived as less than fully human in terms of both human nature and human uniqueness (Studies 1 and 2) and that, among girls, human nature ratings mediated the association between sexualization and reduced helping intentions toward both male (Study 2) and female targets (Studies 1 and 2).

Peer sexual harassment predicts African American girls’ psychological distress and sexual experimentation

Peer sexual harassment (PSH) occurs frequently and across contexts during adolescence. The current study examined the relations among PSH in school, psychological distress, sexual experimentation, and sexual risk-taking in a sample of African American middle and high school girls. Results indicate that negative body appraisals mediated the relationship between PSH and psychological distress, suggesting that PSH is one way to operationalize interpersonal sexualization and sexual objectification. PSH was directly associated with sexual experimentation, but the association between PSH and sexual experimentation was not mediated by negative body appraisals. Neither PSH nor negative body appraisals were related to sexual risk-taking. This suggests that frequent exposure to high levels of sexualization and sexual objectification, in the form of PSH, is associated with more psychological distress and sexual experimentation, but not with sexual risk-taking, regardless of how girls feel about their bodies.

Sexualization and youth: Concepts, theories, and models

Youth in Western countries are exposed to many messages that sexualize women. We selectively review the literature on sexualization with the goal of clarifying and integrating theories, constructs, and models of the pathways and mechanisms via which exposure to such messages may affect youth. In the first section of the article, we define sexualization and discuss historical change concerning the construct. In the second section, we highlight the role that core values concerning sexuality and gender play in designing and interpreting research on sexualization. In the third section, we provide a conceptual analysis of the various psychological constructs related to sexualization, noting their roots in particular theories. In the fourth section, we discuss developmental issues and, in fifth and sixth sections, we present conceptual models of the antecedents and consequences of believing that sexual attractiveness to men is an important aspect of the female gender role among girls and boys, respectively.

Achieving body confidence for young children: Development and pilot study of a universal teacher-led body image and weight stigma program for early primary school children

Negative body image attitudes develop in early childhood and there is a need for school-based resources during the early school years, but no teacher-delivered curriculum-based resources exist to mitigate these attitudes in young children. Achieving Body Confidence for Young Children (ABC-4-YC), a universal body dissatisfaction and weight stigma prevention program, was developed and then delivered in a pilot study. Fifty-one 5- to 8-year-old children completed pre- and post-intervention interviews assessing body image attitudes, and seven teachers provided feedback. Significant improvement in body esteem and positive teacher feedback were found. The results provide preliminary support for ABC-4-YC to improve children's body image attitudes, but extensive evaluation is needed.

"I Can/Should Look Like a Media Figure": The Association Between Direct and Indirect Media Exposure and Teens' Sexualizing Appearance Behaviors

Prior research has examined the influence of media exposure on adolescents' sexualized self-concept, but engagement in sexualizing appearance behaviors remains understudied, especially among a younger age group (i.e., early adolescents). This three-wave panel study among 971 nine- to 14-year-olds (M_age = 12.99, SD = 1.03) showed that discussing media content with friends (i.e., indirect media exposure) was indirectly related to sexualizing appearance behaviors through perceived attainability of the appearance ideal. Direct media exposure was not significantly related to sexualizing appearance behaviors, nor to perceived pressure or perceived attainability. Direct and indirect media exposure influenced boys and girls in similar ways, although the model showed a better fit among the girls. In addition, reward sensitivity did not moderate the examined relations.

Sexualizing Media Use and Self-Objectification: A Meta-Analysis

Objectification theorists suggest that exposure to sexualizing media increases self-objectification among individuals. Correlational and experimental research examining this relation has received growing attention. The aim of this meta-analysis was to investigate the influence of sexualizing media use on self-objectification among women and men. For this purpose, we analyzed 54 papers yielding 50 independent studies and 261 effect sizes. The data revealed a positive, moderate effect of sexualizing media on self-objectification (r = .19). The effect was significant and robust, 95% CI [.15, .23], p < .0001. We identified a conditional effect of media type, suggesting that the use of video games and/or online media led to stronger self-objectification effects when compared to television use. Other sample characteristics or study characteristics did not moderate the overall effect. Thus, our findings highlight the importance of sexualizing media exposure on women’s and men’s objectified self-concept. We discuss future research directions and implications for practice. We hope that the article will stimulate researchers in their future work to address the research gaps outlined here. Moreover, we hope that the findings will encourage practitioners and parents to reflect on the role of the use of sexualizing media in the development of individuals’ self-objectification. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl10.1177/0361684317743019

Trappings of femininity: A test of the "beauty as currency" hypothesis in shaping college women's gender activism

This study investigated whether believing beauty is a primary currency for women operates as an antecedent force in the relation between self-objectification and gender activism. Ninety-four ethnically diverse women attending a small liberal arts college in the southeastern United States completed the study questionnaires online for course credit. Preliminary results demonstrated beauty as currency belief, self-objectification, and support for the gender status quo were negatively associated with gender activism. A serial mediation analysis revealed support for the proposed model: Beauty as currency belief was indirectly and inversely linked to gender activism through self-objectification and support for the gender status quo, offering initial evidence for our beauty as currency hypothesis. These findings suggest belief in the notion women will reap more benefits from their bodies than other attributes or pursuits may be an important legitimizing feature of feminine beauty ideology that works through self-objectification against gender social change.

More than Just Child's Play?: An Experimental Investigation of the Impact of an Appearance-Focused Internet Game on Body Image and Career Aspirations of Young Girls

In recent years, elements of the modern environment (such as television, Internet, toys and clothes) have been criticized for having an increasingly sexualized or appearance focus, which has been suggested to be detrimental to girls’ development. The current study examined the impact of an appearance-focused Internet game on young girls’ body image and career cognitions and aspirations. Eighty British girls aged 8–9 years were randomly assigned to play an appearance-focused or a non-appearance focused game for 10 minutes. Girls in the appearance-focused game condition displayed greater body dissatisfaction compared to the control condition. Type of game did not impact girls’ perceived capacity to do various jobs. However, girls who played the appearance-focused game reported a greater preference for feminine careers compared to the control group. This provides preliminary evidence that appearance-focused Internet games may be detrimental to young girls’ body image and aspirations. Internet games should be included in our consideration of influential messages for young girls.