The experience of embodiment scale: Development and psychometric evaluation

The Intuitive Eating Scale-3: Development and psychometric evaluation

Intuitive eating has been found to protect against disordered eating and preserve well-being. Yet, there are methodological (length), conceptual (inconsideration of medical, value-based, and access-related reasons for food consumption), and psychometric (item wording) concerns with its most common measure, the Intuitive Eating Scale-2 (IES-2). To address these concerns, we developed the IES-3 and investigated its psychometric properties with U.S. community adults. Across three online studies, we evaluated the IES-3's factorial validity using exploratory factor analysis (EFA; Study 1; N = 957; Mage = 36.30), as well as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM), bifactor-CFA, and bifactor-ESEM (Study 2; N = 1152; Mage = 40.95), and cross-validated the optimal model (Study 3; N = 884; Mage = 38.54). We examined measurement invariance across samples and time, differential item functioning (age, body mass index [BMI], gender), composite reliability, and validity. Study 1 revealed a 12-item, 4-factor structure (unconditional permission to eat, eating for physical reasons, reliance on hunger and satiety cues, body-food choice congruence). In Study 2, a bifactor-ESEM model with a global intuitive eating factor and four specific factors best fit the data, which was temporally stable across three weeks. This model also had good fit in Study 3 and, across Studies 2 and 3, and was fully invariant and lacked measurement bias in terms of age, gender, and BMI. Associations between latent IES-3 factors and age, gender, and BMI were invariant across Studies 2 and 3. Composite reliability and validity (relationships with disordered eating, embodiment, body image, well-being, and distress; negligible relationship with impression management) of the retained model were also supported. The 12-item IES-3 demonstrates strong psychometric properties in U.S. community adults. Research is now needed using the IES-3 in other cultural contexts and social identity groups.

Associations between nature exposure and body image: A critical, narrative review of the evidence

Researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers are having to deal with the negative impact of body image concerns in populations globally. One cost-effective way of promoting healthier body image outcomes is through exposure to natural environments. A growing body of research has shown that spending time in, interacting with, and even just looking at natural environments can promote healthier body image outcomes. In this narrative review, I consider the different forms of evidence documenting an association between nature exposure and body image (i.e., cross-sectional and mediational, experimental and quasi-experimental, comparative, prospective, experience sampling, and qualitative research). Beyond this, I shine a critical light on the available evidence, highlighting concerns with methodological (i.e., who research has focused on and what types of natural environments have been considered), psychometric (i.e., how body image and nature exposure are measured), and conceptual issues (how the association is explained). I conclude that, although there are issues affecting the way the existing body of research is to be understood, there are reasons to be hopeful that nature exposure can be leveraged to promote healthier body image outcomes in diverse populations.

The Experience of Embodiment Scale: An examination of its psychometric properties in women from the Republic of Cyprus

The Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES) is a recently developed instrument that assesses experiences of living in the body. Here, we prepared a novel Greek translation of the EES and examined its psychometric properties. We initially prepared a Greek translation of the EES using a 5-step procedure recommended for test adaptation studies. Next, in a cross-sectional study, we asked a sample of 933 women from Cyprus to complete the Greek EES, alongside additional, previously validated measures assessing body appreciation, psychological well-being (self-esteem, life satisfaction), eating restriction, perfectionism, and internalisation of appearance ideals. Our analyses showed that EES factorial models based on confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) roundly had poor fit. Conversely, models based on exploratory structural equation modelling (ESEM)-which accounts for the fact that EES items cross-load across factors-had adequate fit to the data. Additionally, we found that both higher-order and bifactor-ESEM models that controlled for the uniqueness of negatively worded items had adequate fit. The bifactor-ESEM model had the best fit of all the models tested, and was invariant across ethnicity (Greeks and Greek-Cypriots) and was unaffected by differential item functioning based on age and body mass index. Additionally, construct validity of the final, optimal model was adequate, especially for its G-factor, as indicated by significant associations with additional constructs in expected directions. These results suggest that a bifactor-ESEM model of the Greek EES has adequate psychometric properties. Our work highlights important psychometric issues relating to the manner in which the EES should (or could) be conceptualised and modelled, which should be considered more fully in future work.

Mindful monitoring and accepting the body in physical activity mediates the associations between physical activity and positive body image in a sample of young physically active adults

Introduction

The study aimed to extend research on the possible mechanisms that explain the associations between physical activity (PA), mindfulness during PA and positive body image. In the present study, we tested the mediating role of state mindfulness during PA in the association between PA and trait body appreciation. We also explored the moderating roles of sex and body mass index (BMI) in these associations.

Methods

In total, 759 students participated in the study but after applying the inclusion criteria 539 questionnaires were approved for analysis, with a mean age of 23.3 ± 7.2 years (49.7% were women). Study participants completed the online survey, which included sociodemographic details, PA data, the State Mindfulness Scale for Physical Activity 2 (SMS-PA-2) and the Body Appreciation Scale 2 (BAS-2).

Results

Monitoring and accepting the body during exercise mediated the association between PA and body appreciation. BMI moderated the association between accepting the body during exercise and body appreciation: for heavier individuals with BMI > 24.99 kg/m2, the associations between accepting the body during exercise and body appreciation were higher (B = 0.53, p < 0.001) compared to those whose body weight was in the normal range (B = 0.21, p < 0.001).

Conclusion

Strengthening mindfulness and promoting mindful body acceptance during exercise might enhance a positive body image, especially in individuals with a higher BMI.

Experiences of embodiment during pregnancy and the postpartum period: A qualitative study

Pregnancy and the postpartum period have been identified as times when women experience important changes in their physical bodies. Yet, little is known about the ways in which these experiences may be related to positive embodiment, or in contrast experienced as restricting and objectifying. Thus, the aim of this study was to qualitatively examine the way in which women experienced embodiment during the course of pregnancy and the postpartum period. Twenty women, mean age (SD)= 31.85, (2.3) years, 95 % White, participated in individual interviews and completed online surveys. Findings revealed that women described experiencing both aspects of positive embodiment including body connection and comfort, agency and functionality, attuned self-care, connection to appetite, and inhabiting the body as a subjective site. Findings also revealed negative aspects including body disconnection and discomfort, disrupted functionality, challenged self-care, appetite suppression, and the body as a public and objectified site. Findings highlight the potential for the pregnancy and postpartum periods to be important times for positive embodiment in women, and a source of appreciation of the body and its functionality. However, social pressures may also constrain embodiment during this period. These findings have implications for identifying pathways to positive embodiment in pregnancy and postpartum.

Disordered eating in a 10-year perspective from adolescence to young adulthood: Stability, change, and body dissatisfaction as a predictor

INTRODUCTION

Although there are many studies of disordered eating (DE) in adolescence, studies examining the longitudinal stability and change of DE and its longitudinal associations with other factors are still rather scarce. Such studies are important to inform parents and clinicians how stable DE is and to what extent it will go away with increased maturity. Longitudinal studies may also be of help in establishing predictors of long-term problems. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the stability of DE over a 10-year period from early adolescence to young adulthood, and to explore body dissatisfaction as a predictor in a 10-year perspective.

METHODS

Data were taken from a three-wave longitudinal project (SoL) with survey data collected among the students in Grades 7and 8 in a Swedish municipality in 2007 (T1), 1 year later (T2), and in a 10-year follow-up in 2017 (T3). DE was measured by the eight-item version of the Risk Behaviour Related to Eating Disorders (RiBED-8), and a quasi-clinical criterion of six or more critical answers on the RiBED-8 was used to classify DE cases.

RESULTS

Of the girls, 5.8% passed the cutoff for DE at T1, whereas 9.1% did so at T2 and 7.9% at T3. The boys showed markedly lower figures: 0.5% both at T1 and T2, and 1.5% at T3. There was significant individual stability of DE over the 10-year period, with almost 30% of the girls who passed the cutoff for DE at T1 also doing so 10 years later. Body dissatisfaction in early adolescence predicted the incidence of new cases of DE 10 years later, even when controlling for degree of DE in early adolescence. The results also indicate that DE in early adolescence may be a passing phase among adolescents who express relatively high body satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

The present results show a complex picture of different individual trajectories of DE, with degree of body satisfaction playing a significant role for the outcome in a 10-year perspective. Body dissatisfaction appears to be a risk factor for the development of new cases of DE, whereas body satisfaction may protect against the continuation of DE into adulthood.

A single-subject research design evaluating a co-created yoga program for adults with gynecologic cancer: feasibility study protocol

BACKGROUND

Worldwide, > 1.3 million adults are diagnosed with a gynecologic cancer each year, affecting their wellbeing and quality of life. This manuscript describes the protocol for a study that sought to assess the feasibility, acceptability, and fidelity of a community-based co-created yoga program and proposed evaluative methods, and estimate program effects on self-reported outcomes.

METHODS

Using a multiple baseline single-subject research design with a follow-up phase (ABA), quantitative and qualitative data were collected from program participants and the instructor. Participants were randomly assigned to varying baseline lengths and completed weekly surveys for 3-5 weeks pre-program. Then, participants engaged in a bi-modal 12-week hatha yoga program consisting of 2 60-min group classes a week, with optional supplemental features (January-April, 2023). Participants completed surveys after classes 1, 12, and 24. All yoga classes were audio- and video-recorded. Post-program, participants completed surveys 1, 4, and 8 weeks after the last class and took part in a semi-structured interview 1 week after to discuss program acceptability, suitability, relevance, and potential benefits. Feasibility outcomes (i.e., recruitment, retention, and program adherence rates, engagement with optional program features) were tracked by the instructor assistant and study team during the study. The yoga instructor was interviewed about their experience delivering the program 2 weeks after the last class.

PLANNED ANALYSIS

Feasibility outcomes will be analyzed using descriptive statistics. Interview transcripts will be coded using reflexive thematic analysis. Class recordings will be coded using duration and frequency coding. Survey responses for self-reported outcomes will be analyzed visually and using multilevel modeling.

EXPECTED OUTCOMES

Data will help determine refinements, if any, required to the program and instructor guidebook, implementation approach, and proposed evaluation methods before scale-up projects and definitive trials are started.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05610982. November 3, 2022.

Challenges and opportunities for conceptualizing intuitive eating in autistic people

Although intuitive eating (IE) has become an increasingly adopted intervention target, current conceptualisations of IE have yet to pivot away from (neuro)normative physiology and phenomenology. Autistic individuals commonly report disordered eating behaviours and/or poorer well-being but appear to benefit from adaptive interventions using an affirmative approach. This article uses autism as a case example to summarise challenges related to IE's prevailing conceptualisation, before proposing how future research and current practice can be extended to the autistic population. Scholars are encouraged to evaluate the full 10-principal IE framework while utilising a participatory-led approach. We argue that research using a mixed methods design is urgently needed to comprehensively explore the (re)conceptualisation of IE in autistic people. While IE shows promise for producing positive outcomes in the autistic population, we discuss the potential challenges for research and practice due to its current emphasis on accurate interoception, emotional awareness and processing, and executive functioning. This suggests the need for research and practice to integrate autistic needs and experiences into future developments with an affirmative approach. Public Significance: IE is an effective intervention for reducing disordered eating behaviours. Autistic individuals commonly present disordered eating behaviours and have unique nutritional needs which often require intervention. However, there is limited understanding of IE among the autistic population. Research-informed definitions involving autistic perspectives will support translating the IE framework to this underrepresented population.

Inhabiting the body: Exploring the link between embodiment and identity in community adolescents

The intricate relationship between the body and identity has been highlighted in previous studies. However, a holistic approach to the body that focuses on embodiment is lacking in research examining body - identity linkages. The current study (N = 917 adolescents; 58% female; Mage = 16.17, range = 14-19 years) examined the psychometric properties of a Dutch translation of the Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES) and explored the link between embodiment and personal identity. First, confirmatory factor analysis revealed a second-order factor structure for the EES and adequate reliability coefficients were obtained. Metric invariance across gender was demonstrated for the first- and second-order factors. Second, path analysis demonstrated that experiencing embodiment was positively associated with adaptive identity work. Third, five identity statuses emerged using cluster analysis. Adolescents in statuses reflecting less adaptive identity functioning displayed lower levels of embodiment. The EES shows promising indications of reliability and factor structure for assessing adolescents' Experience of Embodiment, and the present study demonstrates that embodiment is meaningfully related to identity functioning. These findings support the call for the adoption of a positive psychology framework within this research field, with attention given to more broadly defined body-related concepts such as embodiment.

Long-lasting effects of World War II trauma on PTSD symptoms and embodiment levels in a national sample of Poles

The main aim of this study was to investigate the long-lasting influences of World War II (WWII) trauma in a national sample of Poles, based on Danieli's (1998) survivors' post-trauma adaptational styles (fighter, numb, victim) and their link with current post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and embodiment level among participants. We also sought to investigate whether the level of knowledge about WWII trauma among ancestors could moderate that association. The study was conducted among a representative sample of 1598 adult Poles obtained from an external company. Participants filled out the Danieli Inventory of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma, the knowledge about traumatic World War II experiences in the family questionnaire, the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale-5, and the Experience of Embodiment Scale. We observed a positive relationship between all survivors' post-trauma adaptational styles and current levels of PTSD symptoms among participants. In addition, PTSD level mediated the relationships between those adaptational styles and embodiment intensity; that mediation was additionally moderated by a lack of knowledge about WWII trauma among ancestors in our participants. Our study adds to the literature on intergenerational trauma by highlighting the importance of evaluating embodiment in understanding the mechanisms of trauma transmission. Furthermore, it highlights the moderating effect of knowledge of family history in this mechanism and the need to share family histories with subsequent generations.

Mindfulness, Physical Activity and Sports Participation: Validity Evidence of the Lithuanian Translation of the State Mindfulness Scale for Physical Activity 2 in Physically Active Young Adults

The aim of the present study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Lithuanian translation of State Mindfulness in Physical Activity (SMS-PA-2) in a sample of physically active students. A total sample of 539 students from universities and colleges (50.3% men; mean age 23.3 ± 7.2 years) were asked to provide demographical data, report physical activity (PA) and PA habits and fill in measures of trait awareness, autonomous motivation in physical activity, trait body appreciation, trait body functionality appreciation and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours and self-esteem via an online anonymous survey. Students also provided information about their participation in organized team sports, organized individual sports, recreational sports and home exercise. Results. The SMS-PA-2 replicated the original four-factor structure, with good internal consistency (except for the Accepting Mind subscale). Invariance analyses across sex groups revealed an acceptable fit of the configural, metric and scalar models. However, in the multi-group analysis, metric invariance and scalar invariance were not confirmed. The SMS-PA-2 was positively associated with leisure-time PA, PA habits, more self-determined motivation for exercise, trait awareness, trait body appreciation, trait body functionality appreciation and self-esteem. A negative association was observed between the SMS-PA-2 and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours. Home exercisers and students engaged in team sports demonstrated lower levels of state mindfulness in PA than those engaged in organized individual and recreational sports. The Lithuanian version of the SMS-PA-2 is a reliable and valid instrument for measuring state mindfulness in PA. This instrument is recommended for researchers who aim to investigate the role of state mindfulness in the PA in Lithuanian-language-speaking samples of young adults. Future studies should explore the Lithuanian version of the SMS-PA-2 by asking participants to fill questionnaires in immediately after the PA session, and measurement invariance between sexes should be further tested.

Investigating the emotional content of older adults engaging in a fall prevention exercise program integrated with dance movement therapy: a preliminary study

Fall prevention interventions for older adults have primarily focused on the physical aspects, overlooking the emotional aspects inherent in falls. This qualitative study presents a novel fall prevention intervention that integrates physical therapy exercise (PTE) based on the Otago Exercise Program with Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) to address the emotional experience during PTE. The aim of this study is to explore the emotional content expressed by older adults during balance-focused exercises and the unique emotional content expressions following the PTE + DMT intervention compared to the PTE intervention. Eleven older adults (aged 81-91 years) from a day center were randomly assigned to either the PTE + DMT group (n = 6) or the PTE group (n = 5). Interpretative phenomenological analysis of the instructors' observations and process diary identified three themes that emerged during the sessions: (1) self-image and self-worth, (2) the individual in relation to others, and (3) past memories. These themes highlight both similarities and differences between the groups. These findings provide valuable insights into the emotional experiences encountered by older adults, particularly in the context of falls prevention practices. Recognizing, understanding, and facilitating the expression of these experiences can enhance the effectiveness of fall prevention interventions and contribute to the overall health of older adults.

The co-creation, initial piloting, and protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial of a coach-led positive body image intervention for girls in sport

BACKGROUND

Globally, girls disengage from sports at an earlier age and higher rate than boys. This is, in part, due to the unique body image challenges that girls face, relative to their male peers. Existing intervention efforts that aim to reduce girls' negative body image and movement experiences have proven marginally effective, if not ineffective. This paper outlines the co-creation, initial piloting and protocol for a cluster randomised controlled trial of Body Confident Athletes (BCA); an in-person, coach-led intervention that aims to foster positive body image and sports enjoyment among girls.

METHODS

Following co-creation and an initial pilot, a two-armed cluster randomised controlled trial will assess the immediate (post-intervention) and short-term (1-month and 3-month follow-up) impact of BCA on girls' (N = 1,036; 11-17 years old) body image, sports enjoyment, and affect. Sport organisations will be randomly allocated (1:1) into either an intervention or waitlist control condition. Girls and coaches in the intervention condition will complete three 60-minute sessions over three consecutive weeks. The primary outcome will be the immediate change in girls' body esteem, with secondary outcomes assessing the immediate and short-term changes in girls' body appreciation, self-objectification, attuned self-care, sports enjoyment, and affect.

DISCUSSION

This research is the first to utilise an international multi-stakeholder partnership to co-create and evaluate an intervention that addresses the intersection of girls' body image and sport experiences. The theoretical and methodological considerations of this research have led to a feasible intervention and trial protocol, and if proven effective, BCA may assist in reducing the global gender disparity in sports participation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT05594524 , registered 25^th October 2022.

Sport bodies: An examination of positive body image, sport-confidence, and subjective sport performance in Jamaican athletes

Guided by the Sport-Confidence Model, this study examined the associations among a positive body image, sport-confidence, and sport performance evaluations. Using a cross-sectional design, a purposive sample of 314 Jamaican athletes (male = 70.7%; Mage = 22.85; SD = 4.89) completed measures of body and functionality appreciation, sport-confidence, and subjective sport performance. Results from path analysis provided evidence for good model-data fit. Body (B = 9.03, p < .001) and functionality (B = 4.93, p = .036) appreciation exerted direct effects on sport-confidence. Sport-confidence exerted a direct effect on sport performance evaluations (B = 0.09, p < .001). Body (B = 0.79, CI95% [0.44, 1.17]) and functionality (B = 0.43, CI95% [0.05, 0.92]) appreciation exerted indirect effects on sport performance evaluations through sport-confidence. Results indicate that supporting the development of a positive body image in athletes may contribute to feelings of sport-confidence and positive performance outcomes.

Feeling difficult to identify: Alexithymia is inversely associated with positive body image in adults from the United Kingdom

BACKGROUND

Research has increasingly examined the ways in which internal bodily experiences influence body image, including the relationship between alexithymia - the reduced ability to identify and describe one's own emotional feelings and bodily sensations - and negative body image. However, relationships between facets of alexithymia and positive body image remain unexplored.

METHODS

To bridge this gap in the literature, we assessed relationships between facets of alexithymia and multiple, core indices of positive body image in an online sample of adults from the United Kingdom. A total of 395 participants (226 women, 169 men) aged 18 to 84 years completed measures of alexithymia, body appreciation, functionality appreciation, body image flexibility, body acceptance by others, and positive rational acceptance.

RESULTS

Once the effects of age had been accounted for, alexithymia was significantly and negatively associated with all five body image constructs in hierarchical multiple regressions. In the final models, the alexithymia facet of Difficulties Identifying Feeling emerged as a significant and negative predictor of all indices of positive body image.

LIMITATIONS

The use of cross-sectional data limits the causal conclusions that can be drawn.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings extend previous work by demonstrating the unique relationship between alexithymia and positive body image, providing important implications for body image research and practice.

Exploring the role of positive body image in healthy orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa: A gender comparison

Current scholarship on orthorexia nervosa remains undecided about the role of body image in this novel eating disorder. This study aimed to explore the role of positive body image in differentiating between healthy orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa and assess how this might differ for men and women. A total of 814 participants (67.1% women; age M = 40.30, SD = 14.50) completed the Teruel Orthorexia scale, as well as measures of embodiment, intuitive eating, body appreciation and functionality appreciation. A cluster analysis revealed four distinct profiles characterized by high healthy orthorexia and low orthorexia nervosa; low healthy orthorexia and low orthorexia nervosa; low healthy orthorexia and high orthorexia nervosa; and high healthy orthorexia and high orthorexia nervosa. A MANOVA identified significant differences for positive body image between these four clusters, as well as that there were no significant differences between men and women for healthy orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa, despite men scoring significantly higher than women on all measures of positive body image. Cluster × gender interaction effects were found for intuitive eating, functionality appreciation, body appreciation and experience of embodiment. These findings indicate that the role of positive body image in healthy orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa may differ for men and women, making these relationships worthy of further exploration.

The developmental theory of embodiment: Quantitative measurement of facilitative and adverse experiences in the social environment

The present program of research involved developing and evaluating three fully structured measures of facilitative and adverse social experiences during adulthood described by the developmental theory of embodiment (DTE) as shaping the quality of the experiences of living in the body. The Physical Freedom Scale - adulthood (PFSa) addresses physical experiences, the Mental Freedom Scale - adulthood (MFSa) assesses exposure to social environments that either facilitate or constrict freedom from constraining social discourses, and the Social Power and Relational Connections Scale - adulthood (SPRCSa) covers experiences of accessing, or being barred from, social power and empowering relational connections. The pilot study ( N = 92) involved item revision and deletion. Study 1 (N = 412) involved factor analyses of the three scales, leading to the emergence of six, three, and four factors in the PFSa, MFSa, and SPRCSa, respectively. The study also provided initial support for the internal consistency of the scales and subscales, as well as their convergent validity. Study 2 (N = 373) confirmed the factor structure of the scales from study 2. Study 3 (N = 64) demonstrated that the scales and their factors were stable over a 3-week period. The scales can be used to study integrated sociocultural models of embodiment.

Recovery beyond functional restoration: a systematic review of qualitative studies of the embodied experiences of people who have survived a stroke

OBJECTIVE

To synthesise the qualitative evidence of embodied experiences of people who have survived a stroke, the experiences of making sense of oneself, others and the world in the poststroke bodies.DesignQualitative systematic review.

DATA SOURCES

Five electronic databases, PsycINFO, PubMed, MEDLINE, CINAHL Plus and Cochrane Library, were employed to search for qualitative studies published up to February 2022.

INCLUSION CRITERIA

Literature in English that employed qualitative methods to investigate the embodied experiences of people who have survived a stroke.

QUALITY APPRAISAL

Two reviewers independently appraised the quality of the included studies based on the tool developed by Salter et al in 2008. It consists of seven questions assessing the credibility and relevance of the studies. Discrepancies were resolved until a consensus was reached.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Thematic synthesis was applied to synthesise the related findings from all the included studies. Two reviewers were involved in the process.

RESULTS

1482 records were identified. After the screening process, 34 studies were included in this review. Three analytical themes and their related descriptive themes emerged. Analytical themes included 'disconnection between oneself, others and the world,' 'the transitional period: exploring and negotiating,' and 'reconnecting with oneself, others and the world'.

CONCLUSION

The findings demonstrated that the embodied experiences of people who have survived a stroke progressed from feeling disconnected to reconnecting with themselves, others and the world. Stroke recovery should not only be limited to functional restoration. Approaching 're-embodiment', the realignment between oneself and one's body, is crucial in reintegrating with others and the world on the trajectory toward recovery.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020183125.

Healthy orthorexia vs orthorexia nervosa: associations with body appreciation, functionality appreciation, intuitive eating and embodiment

PURPOSE

Current conceptualizations and measures of orthorexia nervosa may not be accurately distinguishing between the healthy vs pathological pursuit of a healthy diet, leading to very high prevalence rates and risking the pathologizing and stigmatizing of healthy eating more generally. Recent research has identified healthy orthorexia as a novel construct conceptually distinct from orthorexia nervosa, which represents the non-pathological pursuit of a healthy diet. In light of the strong body of evidence supporting the role of positive body image in eating behavior, the current study aimed to examine the associations between healthy orthorexia, orthorexia nervosa, intuitive eating and indices of positive body image.

METHODS

The current study employed a cross-sectional design. An online community sample (N = 835; 62% women; M_age = 40.24, SD = 14.45) completed self-report questionnaires including the Teruel Orthorexia Scale, Body Appreciation Scale-2, Functionality Appreciation Scale, Intuitive Eating Scale-2, and Experience of Embodiment Scale.

RESULTS

Intuitive eating and indices of positive body image were significantly positively associated with healthy orthorexia and inversely associated with orthorexia nervosa. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis found that intuitive eating and indices of body image were uniquely associated with 13.3% of the variance of healthy orthorexia above and beyond that accounted for by orthorexia nervosa. Intuitive eating moderated the relationship between healthy orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study provide support for intuitive eating and indices of positive body image as worthy of further exploration as important factors which distinguish between healthy orthorexia and orthorexia nervosa.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

V, descriptive study.

Adolescent girls' participation in sports is associated with lower negative effects of internalization of thin body ideals on self-objectification: findings from a cross-sectional study

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to test a partial sociocultural model of integrated tripartite influence and objectification theories in adolescent girls and to assess the moderating role of participation in sport.

METHODS

This study is part of a larger research that involved a sample of adolescent girls and boys from the 11^th grade. In the present study, data on 842 girls were analysed. The mean age of the sample was 16.9 ± 0.5 years. The adolescent girls completed online questionnaires assessing internalization of thin body ideals, disordered eating attitudes and behaviours, and self-objectification, as well as various aspects of participation in sports. To assess the primary hypotheses, moderated mediation models were tested.

RESULTS

Self-objectification mediated associations between internalization of thin body ideals and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours in adolescent girls. Participation in an achievement sport moderated the association between internalization of thin body ideals and self-objectification, but not between the latter and disordered eating attitudes and behaviours. Internalization of thin body ideals was not significantly associated with self-objectification in girls participating in achievement sport. The association between internalization of thin body ideals and self-objectification was stronger in adolescent girls not involved in any sports activities than in leisure-time exercisers.

CONCLUSION

It is important to promote involvement in sport for all adolescent girls, since it might help them to decrease the negative effect of internalization of thin body ideals on self-objectification and to value body functions over appearance. Decreasing self-objectification and teaching about body functionality might be an effective strategy in programmes aimed at decreasing disordered eating in adolescent girls participating in achievement sport.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level of evidence V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

"Intermission!" A short-term social media fast reduces self-objectification among pre-teen and teen dancers

Social media use is pervasive among youth and is associated with body image disturbance and self-objectification. The present study investigated whether a 3-day social media fast in a sample for whom social media is especially salient, female adolescent dancers, can mitigate such negative effects. Through an online survey, 65 pre-teen and teen girls, aged 10-19, completed measures of self-objectification (body surveillance and body shame), self-esteem and self-compassion both prior to and following three days of abstaining from all social media. During the fast, girls reflected on their experiences in group messages on the messaging app, WhatsApp. Overall, the fast had positive effects on participants, for whom body surveillance and body shame was significantly reduced after the fast. Self-compassion significantly mediated the change in both body surveillance and body shame, and self-esteem was a significant mediator of improvements in body shame. The content of girls' group messages revealed a number of themes, such as more positive mental states during the fast. Future research should continue to examine the potential of brief social media fasts as a means to alleviate appearance pressures adolescent girls face on these platforms in daily life.

Traumatic stress, body shame, and internalized weight stigma as mediators of change in disordered eating: a single-arm pilot study of the Body Trust® framework

To enhance access to evidence-based treatment it is increasingly important to evaluate scalable virtual programs that support the needs of those struggling with disordered eating. This study described a scientifically grounded, trauma-informed framework known as Body Trust,® and aimed to pilot test the preliminary effectiveness and mechanisms of change in a Body Trust® program to improve disordered eating. Using quality outcomes data, we examined 70 mostly white (87%) female-identifying (97%) individuals enrolled in a 6-module online program based in the Body Trust® framework (M_age = 45.5 ±10.9; M_BMI = 33.7 ±8.0). Putative mediators included traumatic stress, internalized weight stigma, and body shame. Outcomes were objective and subjective binge episodes, overvaluation of weight and shape, and eating concerns. Generalized estimating equations were applied to determine pre-to-post changes. We applied Montoya's MEMORE macro, the joint-significance test, and calculated 95% Monte Carlo confidence intervals to assess mediation. Significant pre-to-post improvements with medium to large effect sizes were detected for all outcomes and mediators (ps<.008). All hypothesized mechanisms supported mediation. Using the Body Trust® framework shows early promise for alleviating disordered eating symptoms through targeting traumatic stress, body shame, and internalized weight stigma. Given the program's use of mindfulness techniques, future research should test target mechanisms like interoception.

Gender Socialization as a Predictor of Psychosocial Well-Being in Young Women with Breast Cancer

This study aimed to explore the relationship between gender socialization and psychosocial well-being among young women diagnosed with and treated for breast cancer. A total of 113 women between the ages of 18-49 completed a one-time questionnaire package. Four key measures of gender socialization were included: Gender Role Socialization Scale (GRSS), Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (OBCS), Mental Freedom Scale (MFS), and Silencing the Self Scale (SSS). Two measures of psychosocial well-being were included: Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Breast (FACT-B) and Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES). Correlational and regression analyses were conducted to assess the relationship between gender socialization variables and well-being. In multiple regression models, GRSS and MFS added significant increments to the prediction of variance of the FACT-B (R² = 23.0%). In contrast, the OBCS and MFS added significant increments to the prediction of variance of the EES (R² = 47.0%). Findings suggested that women with greater endorsements to proscribed gender socialization were associated with poor well-being scores. Women who endorsed a critical stance, resisting traditional gender-role expectations, objectification pressures, and other social discourses, were associated with greater well-being scores. Future studies are needed to examine the impact of gender socialization on the well-being of young people with breast cancer.

MAN v FAT Soccer: Feasibility Study and Preliminary Efficacy of a Sport-Based Weight-Loss Intervention for Overweight and Obese Men in Australia

MAN v FAT Soccer is a sport-based weight-loss program for overweight and obese men that originated in the United Kingdom (i.e., as MAN v FAT Football) and appears to successfully engage men with weight loss. We sought to explore whether the program would work in an Australian context by (a) establishing a foundation for the implementation of the program on a larger scale and (b) determining how large-scale implementation is most feasible. We conducted a nonrandomized, single intervention group feasibility trial of MAN v FAT Soccer in Australia with 418 male participants with a body mass index greater than 27.50 kg/m2. Results indicate that the program is acceptable, with participants reporting positive perceptions of the various components of the program and a high proportion reporting intentions to recommend the program to others (95.9%). Furthermore, preliminary effectiveness results indicate positive changes in weight (4.6% reduction) and physical activity (88.5% increase) and improvements in psychological outcomes such as depression (17.6% decrease), stress (19.0% decrease), and body appreciation (19.1% increase). Our findings provide general support for the feasibility of MAN v FAT Soccer and the notion that leveraging competition and masculinity may help drive men's health behavior change.

Efficacy of Eat Breathe Thrive: A randomized controlled trial of a yoga-based program

Evidence positions yoga as a promising intervention for enhancing positive embodiment and supporting the prevention of, and recovery from, eating disorders (EDs) by reducing ED symptomatology and building skills that facilitate an ongoing, embodied sense of wellbeing. However, yoga-based programs are few and rigorous literature on their efficacy is limited. This study examined the efficacy and feasibility of a yoga-based program called Eat Breathe Thrive (EBT) which aims to prevent EDs and support embodiment. Participants (N = 168, 93.5 % women) from a community sample in the United States and United Kingdom, ages 18-65, were randomly allocated to a 2-h, 7-week EBT program or waitlist-control condition. Compared to controls, EBT participants experienced significant decreases in ED behaviors, depression, and difficulties regulating emotions. They reported significantly greater use of mindfulness skills, such as interoceptive awareness, mindful self-care, and mindful eating. After a single session, participants reported immediate improvement in their sense of well-being, indicating increased state positive embodiment. Most effects were sustained at 6-month follow-up. The majority of individuals attended most sessions. Self-reported treatment integrity was excellent. Directions for future research are proposed. Results support the efficacy and feasibility of an integrated yoga intervention that fosters positive ways of inhabiting the body.

A systematic review of interventions aiming to promote positive body image in children and adolescents

Evidence shows interventions can improve positive body image in adult women. This systematic review examined the evidence of efficacy of interventions that aimed to increase positive body image in children and young people aged under 18 years. The authors followed PRISMA guidelines for the review. Searches of CINAHL Plus, Medline, PsychINFO, Wiley Online Library, SCOPUS and grey literature were conducted up to February 2021 and identified 4171 papers. Thirteen studies evaluating 12 interventions, designed for children/adolescents aged 9-18 years, were eligible and evaluated using the Effective Public Health Practice Project (EPHPP) Quality Assessment Tool. The studies evaluated body appreciation, body-esteem, and embodiment. Studies using cognitive dissonance, peer support, and psychoeducation had evidence of improving body appreciation and body-esteem in adolescent girls. However, evidence of efficacy for younger children and boys was lacking and the studies ranged in methodological quality. Further research should rigorously evaluate positive body image interventions using second-generation measures that assess specific components of positive body image and consider how to promote positive body image in young children and boys.

Associations between Self-Objectification and Lifestyle Habits in a Large Sample of Adolescents

The aim of the present study was to test associations between self-objectification and health-related lifestyle habits in a large sample of adolescents. In 2019–2020, a large sample of adolescents (n = 1402, 40.4% boys) participated in the survey and, as a part of a larger study, filled in questionnaires on self-objectification and lifestyle. Self-objectification was assessed using the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (SOQ). The lifestyle questionnaire had three batteries: eating attitudes and behaviors, dietary habits, and questions on harmful behaviors together with time spending patterns: sedentary lifestyle and physical activity. The ages ranged from 15–19 years with a mean age of 16.97 ± 0.46 years. Self-objectification (SO) was associated with a less healthy lifestyle: more frequent dieting and unhealthy eating habits in girls, skipping breakfast, and a lower number of meals per day. Adolescent boys and girls with higher SO demonstrated more frequent smoking and alcohol consumption until they felt dizzy and more frequent consumption of soft drinks, energy drinks, and fast foods. Girls with higher SO demonstrated lower perceived physical activity and longer duration of internet browsing for non-educational purposes. The results of the present study inform healthy lifestyle promotion programs for adolescents, suggesting that including psychoeducation about self-objectification, body functionality, and positive embodiment might be an effective strategy.

A qualitative study of gendered psychosocial processes in eating disorder development

OBJECTIVE

Gender and sexual identity constitute social categories that have been found to be important when identifying persons at risk for eating disorders (ED), since prevalence rates are especially high for women as well as persons of gender and sexual minorities. The objective of this study is to enhance the understanding of how these social categories relate to ED development.

METHOD

A qualitative, inductive approach was used in order to develop empirically grounded hypotheses about gendered aspects in ED development. Data are 14 narrative interviews with persons of diverse sexual and gender identities who recovered from anorexia or bulimia nervosa. Interviews were analyzed in depth using Grounded Theory Methodology and Voice Centered Listening.

RESULTS

Results suggest that social experiences related to female gender, as well as social experiences related to non-compliance with social gender norms, can be important for ED development. Those social experiences were described as influencing participants' self-worth, body image and self-regulatory strategies, which were connected to ED symptomatology.

DISCUSSION

Future research should further validate the gendered aspects presented in this paper, since including a broader array of gendered social aspects in ED research might help to improve etiological understanding and prevention methods.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

This study contributes a special perspective to research on eating disorders and gender, because it is based on first-person perspectives of formerly affected persons and integrates the experiences of persons with different gender and sexual identities. Participants described four categories of gendered social experiences relevant for their eating disorders. We discuss the potential of these categories to guide future research on the development of eating disorders and their prevention.

#Bopo: Enhancing body image through body positive social media- evidence to date and research directions

Body positive content aims to disrupt the monopoly of idealized appearance-focused media and encourage individuals to adopt a positive stance towards their body by increasing diversity and inclusiveness and rejecting harmful appearance ideals. This paper provides an historical context for the body positivity movement, discusses the presence and characteristics of the online body positivity movement, presents evidence of its relationship to body image, and finally offers directions for future research. Findings provide initial support for the potential for body positive social media content to be beneficial for body image, and lower state appearance comparison has received support as a mechanism underpinning these effects. However, efforts to identify individual-level moderators have met with less success, and the research is somewhat confined to comparative effects with idealized social media content, and young women. Additional work to bridge the gaps in the extant data is needed. In particular, expanding the understanding of which types of body positive social media content can be most helpful to both prevent and decrease body image concerns and promote positive body image using a layered lens that considers the interactions of the individual, their context, and the type of body positive social media content will be most fruitful.

Yoga at Every Size: A Preliminary Evaluation of a Brief Online Size-Inclusive Yoga and Body Gratitude Journaling Intervention to Enhance Positive Embodiment in Higher Weight College Women

The present pilot randomized controlled trial (RCT) evaluated the feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary efficacy of a 4-week online yoga and body gratitude journaling intervention for strengthening positive embodiment among racially-diverse higher weight college women. Seventy-five participants were initially randomized to either the yoga condition (n = 36) or to a wait-list control (n = 39). Participants completed measures of positive and negative body image, weight bias internalization, self-compassion, drive for leanness, and physical activity acceptance at both baseline and post. Preliminary results among the 42 analyzed completers (mean age = 20.9, SD = 2.4; 30% Black or African American) revealed acceptable feasibility given the low-intensity nature of the intervention reflected in a 36% attrition rate. Self-reported adherence was strong for the yoga component with 81% of participants indicating that they practiced with the videos ≥3–4 times per week as suggested. Although 71% reported completing the body gratitude journal ≥1–2 times per week, daily adherence was minimal. Acceptability was also high among participants randomized to the yoga condition as indicated by 86% expressing at least moderate levels of satisfaction with the overall program. Qualitative feedback from participants further supported the acceptability of the program and pointed to important areas in further refining the protocol in the future. Preliminary efficacy was supported by significant reductions in internal body shame and gains in body appreciation, functional body appreciation, functional body satisfaction, functional body awareness, and behavioral commitment to physical activity engagement among the yoga vs. wait-list control participants. These promising findings once replicated in larger, higher-powered trials may have important implications for extending the reach and accessibility of mind-body wellness practices like yoga to benefit racially-/ethnically-diverse college women of higher weight. This research is further responsive to the growing need for efficacious remotely-delivered, and scalable behavioral health interventions in the ongoing era of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, additional research is warranted to explore ways of enhancing engagement of participants with lower levels of positive embodiment and to further incentivize the journaling component of the intervention.

Disordered eating through the lens of positive psychology: The role of embodiment, self-esteem and identity coherence

Applying a positive psychology perspective, this study aimed to identify potential intra-individual factors that might protect against the development of disordered eating in a community sample of young women and men (N = 510; 56 % women; M_age = 24.3). Based on existing literature, the study included the general resilience factors of self-esteem and identity coherence as well as two dimensions of positive embodiment (positive body connection and comfort, and agency and functionality). All factors were negatively correlated with disordered eating among women and men. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that positive embodiment, specifically positive body connection, was a significant predictor of lower degrees of disordered eating symptoms in both women and men, followed by self-esteem. The overall prediction model accounted for 42.6 % in the variation of disordered eating symptoms for women and 23.9 % for men. Prevention and treatment interventions promoting health factors that protect against the development of eating disorders are much needed. The present study informs such efforts by emphasizing the promotion of positive embodiment.

Translation and psychometric evaluation of the Experience of Embodiment Scale in a Swedish community sample of young women and men

This report describes a Swedish translation and psychometric evaluation of the Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES; Piran, Teall, & Counsell, 2020), an instrument for assessing a wide range of positive and negative experiences of living in the body. A community sample (N = 545) of Swedish young women (56%) and men (M_age = 24.4; SD = 0.52) completed the Swedish translation of the EES. To explore its construct validity, participants also completed measures of body esteem, disordered eating, internalization of appearance ideals, drive for muscularity and leanness, body mass index, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and psychological distress. Exploratory factor analyses (performed separately for women and men) revealed structures of the Swedish EES similar to those displayed during the development and first evaluations of the scale in North America. However, among men, the factors of agency and sexual desire combined to form one factor. On total scale level, the Swedish EES showed good internal consistency (McDonald's ω = .95 for women; ω = .94 for men), convergent validity, and incremental validity. Overall, the present findings support the Swedish version of the EES and the EES's cross-national use to assess the construct of embodiment, as well as its use among men.

Psychometric properties and validation of the Phenomenological Body Shame Scale - Revised (PBSS-R)

Body shame is a common experience among women yet a challenging phenomenon to operationalize, and measures of body shame often fail to capture its embodied aspects. In this article, we examined the structural and psychometric properties of an existing measure of body shame that was developed by Fredrickson et al. (1998) to assess the motivational and behavioral components of feeling body shame. Across three studies, women participants completed the Phenomenological Body Shame Scale (PBSS) and measures of theoretically related constructs in counterbalanced order via online survey platforms. The results demonstrate evidence of construct validity for an abbreviated, 8-item measure of phenomenological body shame (PBSS-R). In Study 1 (n = 341 community women), we evaluated and confirmed the scale's structural validity as a unidimensional measure. In Study 2 (n = 204 college women), we demonstrated positive associations between the PBSS-R and negative body image attitudes and behaviors, and negative associations with self-compassion, supporting the scale's external validity. In Study 3 (n = 235 community women), the PBSS-R explained variance in intuitive eating and happiness above theoretically related measures of self-objectification and body shame, supporting the scale's incremental validity. We recommend use of this abbreviated measure to assess the more embodied and less evaluative features of body shame in women.

Study Protocol for "Psilocybin as a Treatment for Anorexia Nervosa: A Pilot Study"

Background: Anorexia nervosa (AN) is a serious and life-threatening psychiatric condition. With a paucity of approved treatments, there is a desperate need for novel treatment avenues to be explored. Here, we present (1) an overview of the ways through which Public Patient Involvement (PPI) has informed a trial of psilocybin-assisted therapy for AN and (2) a protocol for a pilot study of psilocybin-assisted therapy in AN currently underway at Imperial College London. The study aims to assess the feasibility, brain mechanisms and preliminary outcomes of treating anorexia nervosa with psilocybin. Methods: (1) PPI: Across two online focus groups, eleven individuals with lived experience of AN were presented with an overview of the protocol. Their feedback not only identified solutions to possible barriers for future participants, but also helped the research team to better understand the concept of "recovery" from the perspective of those with lived experience. (2) Protocol: Twenty female participants [21-65 years old, body mass index (BMI) 15 kg/m2 or above] will receive three oral doses of psilocybin (up to 25 mg) over a 6-week period delivered in a therapeutic environment and enveloped by psychological preparation and integration. We will work with participant support networks (care teams and an identified support person) throughout and there will be an extended remote follow-up period of 12 months. Our two-fold primary outcomes are (1) psychopathology (Eating Disorder Examination) across the 6-month follow-up and (2) readiness and motivation to engage in recovery (Readiness and Motivation Questionnaire) across the 6-week trial period. Neurophysiological outcome measures will be: (1) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) brain changes from baseline to 6-week endpoint and (2) post-acute changes in electroencephalography (EEG) activity, including an electrophysiological marker of neuronal plasticity. Discussion: The results of this pilot study will not only shed light on the acceptability, brain mechanisms, and impression of the potential efficacy of psilocybin as an adjunct treatment for AN but will be essential in shaping a subsequent Randomised Control Trial (RCT) that would test this treatment against a suitable control condition. Clinical Trial Registration: identifier: NCT04505189.

What a body can do: Rethinking body functionality through a feminist materialist disability lens

A burgeoning body of literature shows a positive relationship between body functionality and positive body image. Although still nascent, research centring experiences of people with disabilities and bodily differences develops this literature. In this article, we offer directions for this research, bringing body functionality into dialogue with feminist materialist disability theory to examine relations between people's bodily perceptions and the socio-material worlds they occupy. Feminist disability theory re-imagines difference through an affirmative lens, conceptualising body image as relational and processual, and approaching difference through four orientations: difference is basic to the world; difference is not deficiency; difference is not the problem, our inhospitable and ableist world is; and centring difference exposes the mythical norm. We apply this lens to body functionality research, and outline implications for research, practice, and theory, arguing that building a bridge between these frameworks offers a stepping off point for exciting directions for body image research.

When looking 'hot' means not feeling cold: Evidence that self-objectification inhibits feelings of being cold

Self-objectification, the internalization of an observer's appearance-based perspective of one's body, has been theorized and demonstrated to reduce body awareness among women. In this field study, we propose self-objectification as the mechanism to explain the oft-observed phenomenon where women wearing little clothing appear unbothered by cold weather, positing that self-objectification obstructs women's feelings of cold. We surveyed women outside nightclubs on cold nights, assessed self-objectification, and asked participants to report how cold they felt. Anonymous photos were taken and coded for amount of skin exposure. We hypothesized that self-objectification would moderate the relationship between clothing coverage and reports of feeling cold. Our hypothesis was supported: women low in self-objectification showed a positive, intuitive, relationship between skin exposure and perceptions of coldness, but women more highly focused on their appearance did not feel colder when wearing less clothing. These findings offer support for the relationship between self-objectification and awareness of bodily sensations in the context of a naturalistic setting. We discuss implications of these findings, and also consider limitations, an alternative explanation, and directions for future research.

Translation and Validation of the Brazilian Portuguese Version of the Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale With Brazilian Women

In many countries, women are socialized to adopt a narrow definition of beauty. Research has revealed that, in the United States and China, the ability to broadly conceptualize beauty (perceive beauty in diverse body sizes, shapes, and appearances) is linked to women’s lower anti-fat attitudes, higher body appreciation, and higher well-being. In this study, we translated an existing measure of this construct, the Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale (BCBS), into Brazilian Portuguese and evaluated the factor structure and reliability and validity of its scores with a diverse sample of 563 Portuguese women. Findings revealed that the Brazilian Portuguese BCBS contains two factors—external/appearance features of beauty (BCBS-E) and internal features of beauty (BCBS-I)—contrary to the unidimensional factor structure found in previous studies. Support for internal consistency and 3-week test–retest reliability was garnered. Total BCBS and BCBS-E scores evidenced convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity, whereas the BCBS-I did not accrue substantial convergent or incremental validity support beyond its inverse bivariate association with anti-fat attitudes. We recommend the use of the Brazilian Portuguese BCBS in body image research programs as well as clinical practice and prevention programs with Brazilian women seeking support for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating.

Body functionality: A review of the literature

Body functionality describes everything that the body is able to do, across diverse domains (e.g., bodily senses, creative endeavours). Nearly a decade ago, leading scholars identified research on body functionality as a priority for the body image field. The field has responded, as shown by the recent rise of body functionality research. We considered this an opportune time to (a) define body functionality (what it is and is not); (b) present theoretical frameworks of body functionality; (c) articulate first-generation and current measures relating to body functionality; (d) offer functionality-focused body image interventions that can improve appreciation for one's body functionality (and body image more broadly); (e) summarise additional areas of research related to body functionality and positive body image; and (f) provide considerations and directions for future research and interventions incorporating body functionality. Research has underscored body functionality as a valuable construct with respect to positive body image and well-being, particularly when individuals appreciate what their bodies can do and conceptualise their body functionality holistically. Yet, the experience of body functionality is nuanced across social identities. Overall, the field has greatly advanced knowledge about body functionality, and we are excited to see the next generation of research that emerges.

Embodiment: Cultural and gender differences and associations with life satisfaction

Although cultural factors have an important impact on individuals' experiences of living in their bodies, to date no studies have examined cross-cultural or gender differences in individuals' experience of embodiment. This study compared Swedish and Canadian women's experience of embodiment (and other body image related constructs), as well as Swedish men and women's experience of embodiment. Associations between embodiment, body esteem, and life satisfaction in men and women were also examined. Participants were 302 Swedish women, 242 Swedish men, and 216 Canadian women. Results showed that Swedish women had overall more positive experience of embodiment, more positive body esteem, lower thin-ideal internalization and lower levels of disordered eating than Canadian women. In comparison to Swedish men, however, Swedish women had more negative experience of embodiment in some ways, but similar experience of embodiment in other ways. Although associations between embodiment, body esteem, and life satisfaction were strong, embodiment was a better predictor of life satisfaction than body esteem for both men and women. Results are interpreted through the lens of the developmental theory of embodiment and consider cultural differences between Sweden and Canada, as well as Swedish society's both progress and problems in promoting gender equity.