Perioperative use of opioids: Current controversies and concerns

Development of a nomogram for predicting acute pain among patients after abdominal surgery: A prospective observational study

AIMS

To develop a nomogram to provide a screening tool for recognising patients at risk of post-operative pain undergoing abdominal operations.

BACKGROUND

Risk prediction models for acute post-operative pain can allow initiating prevention strategies, which are valuable for post-operative pain management and recovery. Despite the increasing number of studies on risk factors, there were inconsistent findings across different studies. In addition, few studies have comprehensively explored predictors of post-operative acute pain and built prediction models.

DESIGN

A prospective observational study.

METHODS

A total of 352 patients undergoing abdominal operations from June 2022 to December 2022 participated in this investigation. A nomogram was developed for predicting the probability of acute pain after abdominal surgery according to the results of binary logistic regression. The nomogram's predictive performance was assessed by discrimination and calibration. Internal validation was performed via Bootstrap with 1000 re-samplings.

RESULTS

A total of 139 patients experienced acute post-operative pain following abdominal surgery, with an incidence of 39.49%. Age <60, marital status (unmarried, divorced, or widowed), consumption of intraoperative remifentanil >2 mg, indwelling of drainage tubes, poor quality sleep, high pain catastrophizing, low pain self-efficacy, and PCIA not used were predictors of inadequate pain control in patients after abdominal surgery. Using these variables, we developed a nomogram model. All tested indicators showed that the model has reliable discrimination and calibration.

CONCLUSIONS

This study established an online dynamic predictive model that can offer an individualised risk assessment of acute pain after abdominal surgery. Our model had good differentiation and calibration and was verified internally as a useful tool for risk assessment.

RELEVANCE TO CLINICAL PRACTICE

The constructed nomogram model could be a practical tool for predicting the risk of experiencing acute post-operative pain in patients undergoing abdominal operations, which would be helpful to realise personalised management and prevention strategies for post-operative pain.

REPORTING METHOD

The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines were adopted in this study.

PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

Before the surgery, research group members visited the patients who met the inclusion criteria and explained the purpose and scope of the study to them. After informed consent, they completed the questionnaire. The patients' pain scores (VAS) were regularly assessed and documented by the bedside nurse for the first 3 days following surgery. Other information was obtained from medical records.

Opioid reduction and enhanced recovery in orthopaedic surgery (OREOS): a protocol for a feasibility randomised controlled trial in patients undergoing total knee arthroplasty

BACKGROUND

Knee arthritis is a leading cause of limited function and long-term disability in older adults. Despite a technically successful total knee arthroplasty (TKA), around 20% of patients continue to have persisting pain with reduced function, and low quality of life. Many of them continue using opioids for pain control, which puts them at risk for potential long-term adverse effects such as dependence, overdose and risk of falls. Although persisting pain and opioid use after TKA have been recognised to be important issues, individual strategies to decrease their burden have limitations and multi-component interventions, despite their potential, have not been well studied. In this study, we propose a multi-component pathway including personalized pain management, facilitated by a pain management coordinator. The objectives of this pilot trial are to evaluate feasibility (recruitment, retention, and adherence), along with opioid-free pain control at 8 weeks after TKA.

METHODS

This is a protocol for a multicentre pilot randomised controlled trial using a 2-arm parallel group design. Adult participants undergoing unilateral total knee arthroplasty will be considered for inclusion and randomised to control and intervention groups. Participants in the intervention group will receive support from a pain management coordinator who will facilitate a multicomponent pain management pathway including (1) preoperative education on pain and opioid use, (2) preoperative risk identification and mitigation, (3) personalized post-discharge analgesic prescriptions and (4) continued support for pain control and recovery up to 8 weeks post-op. Participants in the control group will undergo usual care. The primary outcomes of this pilot trial are to assess the feasibility of participant recruitment, retention, and adherence to the interventions, and key secondary outcomes are persisting pain and opioid use.

DISCUSSION

The results of this trial will determine the feasibility of conducting a definitive trial for the implementation of a multicomponent pain pathway to improve pain control and reduce harms using a coordinated approach, while keeping an emphasis on patient centred care and shared decision making.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Prospectively registered in Clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04968132).

Opioid-free versus opioid-sparing anaesthesia in ambulatory total hip arthroplasty: a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Enhanced recovery after surgery pathways are essential for ambulatory surgery. They usually recommend lower intraoperative opioid use to avoid opioid-related adverse effects. This has led to opioid-sparing anaesthesia (OSA) techniques, with the extreme approach of opioid-free anaesthesia (OFA) mostly with dexmedetomidine. As evidence is lacking in day-case primary total hip arthroplasty, this study was performed to assess the potential benefits in postoperative analgesia of OFA over OSA.

METHODS

In this single-centre, prospective, triple blind study, we randomly allocated 80 patients undergoing day-case primary THA under general anaesthesia. Patients received a total intravenous anaesthesia with a laryngeal mask and multimodal analgesic regimen with non-opioid analgesics. The OSA group received low dose of sufentanil, and the OFA group received dexmedetomidine The primary outcome was the opioid consumption in the first 24 h in oral morphine equivalents (OME).

RESULTS

There was no difference in median cumulative OME consumption at 24 h between the OSA and OFA groups (12 [0-25] mg vs 16 [0-30] mg, respectively; P=0.7). Pain scores were similar and low in both groups with comparable walking recovery time. Adverse events were sparse and equivalent in both groups except for dizziness, which was more frequent in the OSA group (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

In day-case total hip arthoplasty under general anaesthesia, opioid-free anaesthesia and opioid-sparing anaesthesia both provide early recovery and effective postoperative pain relief. When compared with opioid-sparing anaesthesia, opioid-free anaesthesia does not decrease opioid consumption in the first 24 h. These findings do not suggest any significant benefit from complete intraoperative avoidance of opioids.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT0507270.

The effects of ultrasound-guided QLB and TAPB combined with opioid-free anesthesia (OFA) on clinical efficacy of the patients undergoing abdominal surgery

Background

Although opioids provide effective analgesia for abdominal surgery, they also present serious unwanted side effects. Ultrasound-guild quadratus lumborum block (QLB) and transversus abdominis plane block (TAPB) have been proven to offer long-lasting and efficient analgesia during abdominal surgery. However, the clinical efficacy of ultrasound-guided QLB and TAPB combined with opioid-free anesthesia (OFA) in abdominal surgery remains unclear.

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the impact of ultrasound-guided QLB and TAPB combined with opioid-free anesthesia (OFA) on the clinical efficacy of abdominal surgery.

Methods

A total of 122 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery at People's Hospital of Wanning between March 2021 and April 2022 were enrolled in this study. Participants were randomly divided into two groups: the experimental group (QLB/TAPB + OFA, 62 patients) and the control group (opioid anesthesia, 60 patients). The clinical efficacy of the QLB/TAPB combined with OFA technique was evaluated by analyzing patients' vital signs, postoperative consciousness recovery time, numeric rating scale (NRS) score, and immune function in both groups.

Results

We observed that systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), and mean arterial pressure (MAP) in experimental group were significantly higher than those in control group after induction (p < 0.05). Heart rate (HR) in experimental group was significantly lower than in the control group at intraoperative 1h (p < 0.05). Additionally, bispectral index (BIS), state entropy (SE), and response entropy (RE) levels in the experimental group were significantly higher than those in the control group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, extubation and awakening time were significantly shorter in the experimental group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). The NRS scores in the experimental group were markedly lower than those in the control group. Moreover, IL-6 and CRP levels in the experimental group were obviously lower than in the control group after postoperative 1d (p < 0.05). Interestingly, IL-6 (p < 0.001), CRP (p < 0.001), and PCT (p = 0.037) levels in female patients of the experimental group were all significantly lower than those in the control group after postoperative 1d.

Conclusions

Ultrasound-guided QLB and TAPB combined with OFA technique can reduce pain intensity and enhance the patients' immune function in abdominal surgery.

Effect of opioid-free anesthesia on the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled studies

BACKGROUND

Research on opioid-free anesthesia has increased in recent years; however, it has never been determined whether it is more beneficial than opioid anesthesia. This meta-analysis was primarily used to assess the effect of opioid-free anesthesia compared with opioid anesthesia on the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting.

METHODS

We searched the electronic databases of PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Embase from 2014 to 2022 to identify relevant articles and extract relevant data. The incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, time to extubation, pain score at 24 hours postoperatively, and time to first postoperative rescue analgesia were compared between patients receiving opioid-free anesthesia and those receiving standard opioid anesthesia. Differences in the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting were evaluated using risk ratios (95% confidence interval [CI]). The significance of the differences was assessed using mean differences and 95% CI. The heterogeneity of the subject trials was evaluated using the I2 test. Statistical analysis was performed using the RevMan 5.4 software.

RESULTS

Fourteen randomized controlled trials, including 1354 participants, were evaluated in the meta-analysis. As seen in the forest plot, the OFA group had a lower risk of postoperative nausea and vomiting than the control group (risk ratios = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.33-0.51, P < .00001; n = 1354), and the meta-analysis also found that the OFA group had lower postoperative analgesia scores at 24 hours (P < .000001), but time to extubation (P = .14) and first postoperative resuscitation analgesia time (P < .54) were not significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

Opioid-free anesthesia reduces the incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting while providing adequate analgesia without interfering with postoperative awakening.

Day-surgery adult patients with obesity and obstructive sleep apnea: Current controversies and concerns

Obesity and obstructive sleep apnea are considered independent risk factors that can adversely affect perioperative outcomes. A combination of these two conditions in the ambulatory surgery patient can pose significant challenges for the anesthesiologist. Nevertheless, these patients should not routinely be denied access to ambulatory surgery. Instead, patients should be appropriately optimized. Anesthesiologists and surgeons must work together to implement fast-track anesthetic and surgical techniques that will ensure successful ambulatory outcomes.

Feasibility of the pupillary pain index as a guide for depth of analgesia during opioid-sparing anesthesia with continuous infusion of dexmedetomidine

BACKGROUND

The pupillary dilation reflex (PDR) is an objective indicator of analgesic levels in anesthetized patients. Through measurement of the PDR during increasing tetanic stimulation (10-60 mA), it is possible to obtain the pupillary pain index (PPI), a score that assesses the level of analgesia.

OBJECTIVES

The depth of analgesia during opioid-sparing anesthesia (OSA) with continuous infusion of dexmedetomidine in addition to general anesthesia was assessed.

DESIGN

Observational prospective feasibility pilot study SETTING: This study was performed in the operating rooms of the Spedali Civili University-affiliated hospital of Brescia, Italy.

PATIENTS

Forty-five adults who underwent elective open (5-cm incision) surgery under general anesthesia (78% inhalation anesthesia), from Feb. 18th to Aug. 1st, 2019, were enrolled. Exclusion criteria were as follows: implanted pacemaker or ICD, ophthalmological comorbidities, chronic opioid use, peripheral neuropathy, other adjuvant drugs, epidural analgesia, or locoregional block.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The first aim was to verify the feasibility of applying a study protocol to evaluate the depth of analgesia during intraoperative dexmedetomidine administration using an instrumental pupillary evaluation. The secondary outcome was to evaluate appropriate analgesia, drug dosage, anesthesia depth, heart rate, blood pressure, transient side effects, postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV), and pain numerical rating scale (NRS) score.

RESULTS

Thirty out of 50 patients (60%) treated with dexmedetomidine during the study period were included in the DEX group (8 males, age 42 ± 13 years, BMI 45 ± 8), and 15 other patients were included in the N-DEX group (8 males, age 62 ± 13 years, BMI 26 ± 6). Patients who underwent bariatric, abdominal, or plastic surgery were enrolled. At least 3 pupillary evaluations were taken for each patient. PPI ≤ 3 was observed in 97% of patients in the DEX group and 53% in the N-DEX group. Additionally, the DEX group received less than half the remifentanil dose than the N-DEX group (0.13 ± 0.07 vs 0.3 ± 0.11 mcg kg-1 min-1). The average dose of dexmedetomidine administered was 0.17 ± 0.08 mcg kg-1 h-1.

CONCLUSION

The feasibility of applying the protocol was verified. An OSA strategy involving dexmedetomidine may be associated with improved analgesic stability: a randomized controlled trial is necessary to verify this hypothesis.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trial.gov registration number: NCT05785273.

Association of Intraoperative Opioid Administration With Postoperative Pain and Opioid Use

IMPORTANCE

Opioids administered to treat postsurgical pain are a major contributor to the opioid crisis, leading to chronic use in a considerable proportion of patients. Initiatives promoting opioid-free or opioid-sparing modalities of perioperative pain management have led to reduced opioid administration in the operating room, but this reduction could have unforeseen detrimental effects in terms of postoperative pain outcomes, as the relationship between intraoperative opioid usage and later opioid requirements is not well understood.

OBJECTIVE

To characterize the association between intraoperative opioid usage and postoperative pain and opioid requirements.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This retrospective cohort study evaluated electronic health record data from a quaternary care academic medical center (Massachusetts General Hospital) for adult patients who underwent noncardiac surgery with general anesthesia from April 2016 to March 2020. Patients who underwent cesarean surgery, received regional anesthesia, received opioids other than fentanyl or hydromorphone, were admitted to the intensive care unit, or who died intraoperatively were excluded. Statistical models were fitted on the propensity weighted data set to characterize the effect of intraoperative opioid exposures on primary and secondary outcomes. Data were analyzed from December 2021 to October 2022.

EXPOSURES

Intraoperative fentanyl and intraoperative hydromorphone average effect site concentration estimated using pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic models.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary study outcomes were the maximal pain score during the postanesthesia care unit (PACU) stay and the cumulative opioid dose, quantified in morphine milligram equivalents (MME), administered during the PACU stay. Medium- and long-term outcomes associated with pain and opioid dependence were also evaluated.

RESULTS

The study cohort included a total of 61 249 individuals undergoing surgery (mean [SD] age, 55.44 [17.08] years; 32 778 [53.5%] female). Increased intraoperative fentanyl and intraoperative hydromorphone were both associated with reduced maximum pain scores in the PACU. Both exposures were also associated with a reduced probability and reduced total dosage of opioid administration in the PACU. In particular, increased fentanyl administration was associated with lower frequency of uncontrolled pain; a decrease in new chronic pain diagnoses reported at 3 months; fewer opioid prescriptions at 30, 90, and 180 days; and decreased new persistent opioid use, without significant increases in adverse effects.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Contrary to prevailing trends, reduced opioid administration during surgery may have the unintended outcome of increasing postoperative pain and opioid consumption. Conversely, improvements in long-term outcomes might be achieved by optimizing opioid administration during surgery.

The postoperative analgesic efficacy of different regional anesthesia techniques in breast cancer surgery: A network meta-analysis

Background

Regional anesthesia have been successfully performed for pain management in breast cancer surgery, but it is unclear which is the best regional anesthesia technique. The aim of the present network meta-analysis was to assess the analgesic efficacy and disadvantages of regional anesthesia techniques.

Methods

Multiple databases were searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The association between regional anesthesia and analgesic efficacy was evaluated by Bayesian network meta-analysis.

Results

We included 100 RCTs and 6639 patients in this study. The network meta-analysis showed that paravertebral nerve block, pectoral nerve-2 block, serratus anterior plane block, erector spinae plane block, rhomboid intercostal block, and local anesthetic infusion were associated with significantly decreased postoperative pain scores, morphine consumption and incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting compared with no block. Regarding the incidence of chronic pain, no significance was detected between the different regional anesthesia techniques. In the cumulative ranking curve analysis, the rank of the rhomboid intercostal block was the for postoperative care unit pain scores, postoperative 24-hour morphine consumption, and incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting.

Conclusion

Regional anesthesia techniques including, paravertebral nerve block, pectoral nerve-2 block, serratus anterior plane block, erector spinae plane block, rhomboid intercostal block, and local anesthetic infusion, can effectively alleviate postoperative acute analgesia and reduce postoperative morphine consumption, but cannot reduce chronic pain after breast surgery. The rhomboid intercostal block might be the optimal technique for postoperative analgesia in breast cancer surgery, but the strength of the evidence was very low.

Systematic review registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/(PROSPERO), identifier CRD 42020220763.

Status quo of pain-related patient reported outcomes and perioperative pain management in 10 415 patients from 10 countries: analysis of registry data

BACKGROUND

Postoperative pain is common at the global level, despite considerable attempts for improvement, reflecting the complexity of offering effective pain relief. In this study, clinicians from Mexico, China, and eight European countries evaluated perioperative pain practices and patient-reported outcomes (PROs) in their hospitals as a basis for carrying out quality improvement (QI) projects in each country.

METHODS

PAIN OUT, an international perioperative pain registry, provided standardized methodology for assessing management and multi-dimensional PROs on the first postoperative day, in patients undergoing orthopedic, general surgery, obstetric & gynecology or urological procedures.

RESULTS

Between 2017-2019, data obtained from 10,415 adult patients in 105 wards, qualified for analysis. At the ward level: 50% (median) of patients reported worst pain intensities ≥7/10 NRS, 25% spent ≥50% of the time in severe pain and 20-34% reported severe ratings for pain-related functional and emotional interference. Demographic variables, country and surgical discipline explained a small proportion of the variation in the PROs, leaving about 88% unexplained. Most treatment processes varied considerably between wards. Ward effects accounted for about 7% and 32% of variation in PROs and treatment processes, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive evaluation demonstrates that many patients in this international cohort reported poor pain-related PROs on the first postoperative day. PROs and treatments varied greatly. Most of the variance of the PROs could not be explained. The findings served as a basis for devising and implementing QI programs in participating hospitals.

Erector Spinae Plane Catheter Analgesia in Minimally Invasive Mitral Valve Surgery: A Retrospective Case-Control Study for Inclusion in an Enhanced Recovery Program

Background. A retrospective case-control study was conducted to assess the feasibility of erector spinae plane (ESP) block as part of a multimodal enhanced recovery program for patients undergoing minimally invasive mitral valve replacement surgery. Methods. This retrospective analysis was conducted at a single center between January and August 2019. 61 patients were included; 23 received ESP and 38 did not. Erector spinae catheters (ESCs) were placed preoperatively, using a loading dose of 30 mL .5% ropivacaine, followed by an infusion of .2% ropivacaine at 10 mL/h throughout the study period. Primary outcome was 48-hour opioid consumption. Secondary outcomes included intraoperative morphine equivalents, extubation within 24 hours, reintubation, ICU length of stay and hospital length of stay and 30-day mortality. Results. Median [inter-quartile range] of the postoperative morphine milligram equivalents (MMEs) in the first 48 hours was 70[45-121] MMEs in the ESC) group, and 109[70-148] MMEs in the no ESC group (P-value = .16). No significant difference was observed in intraoperative morphine equivalents, extubation within 24 hours or ICU length of stay. The ESC group had shorter hospital length of stay (6.0 vs 7.0 days, P-value = .043). Conclusion. This study found a statistically insignificant, though potentially clinically significant reduction in postoperative opioid consumption. A reduced hospital length of stay as well as an acceptable safety profile was also observed in the ESC group. An adequately powered, prospective trial is warranted to accurately assess the potential role for ESP catheters for patients undergoing minimally invasive mitral valve surgery.

Multimodal Analgesia in the Aesthetic Plastic Surgery: Concepts and Strategies

Postoperative pain management is crucial for aesthetic plastic surgery procedures. Poorly controlled postoperative pain results in negative physiologic effects and can affect length of stay and patient satisfaction. In light of the growing opioid epidemic, plastic surgeons must be keenly familiar with opioid-sparing multimodal analgesia regimens to optimize postoperative pain control.

Methods

A review study based on multimodal analgesia was conducted.

Results

We present an overview of pain management strategies pertaining to aesthetic plastic surgery and offer a multimodal analgesia model for outpatient aesthetic surgery practices.

Conclusion

This review article presents an evidence-based approach to multimodal pain management for aesthetic plastic surgery.

Effect of Systemic Lidocaine on Postoperative Early Recovery Quality in Patients Undergoing Supratentorial Tumor Resection

Purpose

Lidocaine has been gradually used in general anesthesia. This study was designed to investigate the effect of systemic lidocaine on postoperative quality of recovery (QoR) in patients undergoing supratentorial tumor resection, and to explore its brain-injury alleviation effect in neurosurgical anesthesia.

Patients and Methods

Sixty adult patients undergoing elective supratentorial tumor resection. Patients were randomly assigned either to receive lidocaine (Group L: 1.5 mg/kg bolus completed 10 min before anesthesia induction followed by an infusion at 2.0 mg/kg/h) or to receive normal saline (Group C: received volume-matched normal saline at the same infusion rate). Primary outcome measures were Quality of Recovery-40 (QoR-40) scores on postoperative day (POD) 1 and 2. Plasma concentrations of S100B protein (S100B), neuron specific enolase (NSE), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) before anesthesia induction and at the end of surgery were assessed. Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) scores were assessed at 1, 2, 6, 12, 24 and 48 h after surgery. Perioperative parameters and adverse events were also recorded.

Results

Patients between two groups had comparable baseline characteristics. Global QoR-40 scores on POD 1 and POD 2 were significantly higher (P <0.001) in group L (165.5±3.8 vs 173.7±4.7) than those in group C (155.6±4.0 vs 163.2±4.5); and scores of physical comfort, emotional state, and pain in group L were superior to those in group C (P <0.05). In group L, patients possessed lower plasma concentration of pro-inflammatory factors (IL-6, TNF-α) and brain injury-related factors (S100B, NSE) (P <0.05), consumed less remifentanil and propofol, and experienced lower pain intensity. Multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated age and pain were correlated with postperative recovery quality.

Conclusion

Systemic lidocaine improved early recovery quality after supratentorial tumor resection with general anesthesia, and had certain brain-injury alleviation effects. These benefits may be attributed to the inflammation-alleviating and analgesic properties of lidocaine.

Enhanced recovery after surgery: Current status and future progress

Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) pathways were first introduced almost a quarter of a century ago and represent a paradigm shift in perioperative care that reduced postoperative complications and hospital length of stay, improved postoperative quality of life, and reduced overall healthcare costs. Gradual recognition of the generalizability of the interventions and transferable improvements in postoperative outcomes, led them to become standard of care for several surgical procedures. In this article, we critically review the current status of ERAS pathways, address related controversies, and propose measures for future progress.

Management of postoperative nausea and vomiting in adults: current controversies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) continue to plague the surgical patient population with an adverse impact on postoperative outcomes. The aim of this review is to critically assess current evidence for PONV management, including studies evaluating baseline risk reduction and antiemetic prophylaxis, to provide a pragmatic approach to prevention and treatment of PONV in routine clinical practice.

RECENT FINDINGS

Multiple recent reviews and guidelines have been published on this topic with some limitations. In the current ERAS era, all patients irrespective of their PONV risk should receive two to three antiemetics for prophylaxis. Patients at a high risk of PONV [i.e. prior history of PONV, history of motion sickness, high opioid requirements after surgery (e.g. inability to use nonopioid analgesic techniques)] should receive three to four antiemetics for prophylaxis.

SUMMARY

This review provides a practical approach to PONV prevention based on recent literature.

General anesthetic techniques for enhanced recovery after surgery: Current controversies

General anesthesia technique can influence not only immediate postoperative outcomes, but also long-term outcomes beyond hospital stay (e.g., readmission after discharge from hospital). There is lack of evidence regarding superiority of total intravenous anesthesia over inhalation anesthesia with regards to postoperative outcomes even in high-risk population including cancer patients. Optimal balanced general anesthetic technique for enhance recovery after elective surgery in adults includes avoidance of routine use preoperative midazolam, avoidance of deep anesthesia, use of opioid-sparing approach, and minimization of neuromuscular blocking agents and appropriate reversal of residual paralysis. Given that the residual effects of drugs used during anesthesia can increase postoperative morbidity and delay recovery, it is prudent to use a minimal number of drug combinations, and the drugs used are shorter-acting and administered at the lowest possible dose. It is imperative that the discerning anesthesiologist consider whether each drug used is really necessary for accomplishing perioperative goals.

Opioid-sparing effects of ultrasound-guided erector spinae plane block for adult patients undergoing surgery: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Erector spinae plane block (ESPB) is a new method of administering analgesics to patients perioperatively. The aim of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the opioid-sparing effects of erector spinae plane block in patients during the perioperative period compared to conventional analgesia and identify its role in the development of opioid-free anesthesia.

METHODS

Relevant study articles were retrieved from PubMed, the Web of Science, Medline via Ovid, Embase via Ovid, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) on June 11, 2020. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing the use of ESPB with control (no/sham block). The primary outcome was opioid consumption at 24 h after surgery and intraoperative opioid consumption. A random-effects model was used to calculate the standardized mean difference (SMD) and odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) if there was significant heterogeneity in the data; otherwise, the fixed-effect model was used.

RESULTS

A total of 25 randomized controlled trials involving 1461 patients were included. The use of ultrasound-guided ESPB was associated with reduced opioid consumption at 24 h after surgery [SMD: -2.14, 95% CI: -2.61 to -1.67, p < 0.001] and during the intraoperative period [SMD: -2.30, 95% CI: -3.21 to -1.40, p < 0.001]. In addition, it took a longer time to administer the first rescue analgesia in the ESPB group [SMD: 3.60, 95% CI: 2.23-4.97, p < 0.001] and the group was associated with lower incidences of postoperative nausea or vomiting (PONV) [OR: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.34-0.72, p < 0.001].

CONCLUSIONS

Ultrasound-guided ESPB could provide an opioid-sparing effect and effective analgesia in adults undergoing surgeries with general anesthesia, and then promote opioid-free anesthesia development.

Erector spinae plane block versus thoracic paravertebral block for pain management after total bilateral mastectomies

This prospectively designed, clinical quality improvement project compared pain scores and opioid consumption between ultrasound-guided, erector spinae plane blocks (ESPB) and thoracic paravertebral blocks (PVB) in patients undergoing total bilateral mastectomies without reconstruction. Twenty-five patients were included in an enhanced recovery pathway and received an ESPB on one side and a PVB on the contralateral side. Numeric rating scores at rest and with movement for each side were recorded in the recovery room at 2, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours and on days 3 to 7. There were no significant differences in the resting or movement-evoked pain scores between sides receiving ESPB or PVB at any time point up to day 7 after surgery. Both ESPB and PVB confer equal analgesic effects in patients undergoing mastectomies. ESPB provides an alternative to PVB in reducing postoperative pain in patients undergoing mastectomy as part of an enhanced recovery pathway.

Outcomes of Sleep Apnea Surgery in Outpatient and Inpatient Settings

BACKGROUND

Upper airway surgery is an alternative treatment for patients with severe obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). However, there is controversy regarding selection criteria for outpatient versus inpatient settings for these surgical procedures. The aim of this retrospective study was to compare postoperative outcomes of patients undergoing airway surgery in outpatient and inpatient settings based on length of stay at the facility.

METHODS

The 2011-2017 American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement databases were used to select adult patients with a diagnosis of OSA undergoing elective airway surgery procedures. Single-level (eg, uvulopalatopharyngoplasty [UPPP]) or multilevel surgery (eg, concomitant procedures on base of tongue, maxilla, palate, nose/turbinate, or tracheotomy) was identified using appropriate current procedural terminology (CPT) codes. Surgery setting was classified as outpatient (length of hospital stay = 0 days) or inpatient (length of stay ≥1 day). Propensity scores derived from logistic regression models were used to match inpatient to outpatient cases at a ratio of 1:1. Primary outcome was a composite of 30-day readmissions, reoperations, and/or postoperative complications. Outcomes between the matched groups were compared with McNemar's tests and generalized mixed linear regression analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 3208 cases were identified (1049 [32.7%] outpatient and 2159 [67.3%] inpatient). Inpatients were older, had more comorbidities, larger body mass index, and more multilevel procedures. UPPP was performed in about 96% of both inpatients and outpatients. The overall rate of composite of readmission, reoperations, and/or complications in the whole unmatched sample was 6.4% (6.8% and 5.5% in inpatients and outpatients, respectively). The propensity-matching algorithm produced a sample of 987 patients per surgical setting well balanced on available baseline characteristics. The incidence of the composite primary outcome was not significantly different between the groups (6.2% and 5.9% in inpatients and outpatients, respectively; odds ratio [OR] [95% confidence interval {CI}], 1.06 [0.73-1.53]; P = .77).

CONCLUSIONS

This retrospective study found that the complications and 30-day readmission rates after airway surgery for OSA are low. There were no significant differences in the composite outcome of 30-day readmissions, reoperations, or complications between inpatient and outpatient settings. Adequately designed prospective studies are necessary to confirm the retrospective observations of this study.

Obturator nerve block does not provide analgesic benefits in total hip arthroplasty under multimodal analgesic regimen: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Although regional analgesia is considered an important component of optimal pain management, use of peripheral nerve blocks for total hip arthroplasty remains controversial. Since the obturator nerve innervates the anteromedial part of the joint capsule, we hypothesized that an obturator nerve block would decrease the opioid consumption after total hip arthroplasty.

METHODS

In this single center, prospective, triple blinded study, we randomly allocated 60 patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty under opioid-sparing total intravenous general anesthesia to a preoperative obturator nerve block or a sham block (placebo group) using 20 mL of ropivacaine 0.2% or saline, respectively. All patients received a multimodal analgesic regimen with non-opioid analgesics including periarticular local infiltration analgesia. The primary outcome was the intravenous opioid consumption in the post-anesthesia care unit.

RESULTS

Median (IQR) intravenous oxycodone consumption in the post-anesthesia care unit was 4 (2, 7.5) mg in the obturator nerve block group and 3 (0, 4) mg in the placebo group (p=0.05). There were no differences in pain scores between groups in the first 24 hours except at arrival on the surgical ward with significant higher pain scores in the placebo group (p=0.03). The ability to stand up and walk within 24 hours was comparable between groups as was the time to first walk (180 (90, 720) vs 240 (120, 780) min for the obturator nerve block and placebo groups, respectively; p=0.62).

CONCLUSIONS

Obturator nerve block did not improve postoperative opioid consumption after total hip arthroplasty performed under general anesthesia with a multimodal analgesic regimen.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04085640.

Perioperative Opioid Administration

Opioids form an important component of general anesthesia and perioperative analgesia. Discharge opioid prescriptions are identified as a contributor for persistent opioid use and diversion. In parallel, there is increased enthusiasm to advocate opioid-free strategies, which include a combination of known analgesics and adjuvants, many of which are in the form of continuous infusions. This article critically reviews perioperative opioid use, especially in view of opioid-sparing versus opioid-free strategies. The data indicate that opioid-free strategies, however noble in their cause, do not fully acknowledge the limitations and gaps within the existing evidence and clinical practice considerations. Moreover, they do not allow analgesic titration based on patient needs; are unclear about optimal components and their role in different surgical settings and perioperative phases; and do not serve to decrease the risk of persistent opioid use, thereby distracting us from optimizing pain and minimizing realistic long-term harms.

Practical Review of Abdominal and Breast Regional Analgesia for Plastic Surgeons: Evidence and Techniques

Regional analgesia has been increasing in popularity due to its opioid- sparing analgesic effects and utility in multimodal analgesia strategies. Several regional techniques have been used in plastic surgery; however, there is a lack of consensus on the indications and the comparative efficacy of these blocks. The goal of this review is to provide evidence-based recommendations on the most relevant types of interfascial plane blocks for abdominal and breast surgery. A systematic search of the PUBMED, EMBASE, and Cochrane databases was performed to identify the evidence associated with the different interfascial plane blocks used in plastic surgery. The search included all studies from inception to March 2020. A total of 126 studies were included and used in the synthesis of the information presented in this review. There is strong evidence for using the transversus abdominis plane blocks in both abdominoplasties as well as abdominally-based microvascular breast reconstruction as evidenced by a significant reduction in post-operative pain and opioid consumption. Pectoralis (I and II), serratus anterior, and erector spinae plane blocks all provide good pain control in breast surgeries. Finally, the serratus anterior plane block can be used as primary block or an adjunct to the pectoralis blocks for a wider analgesia coverage of the breast. All the reviewed blocks are safe and easy to administer. Interfascial plane blocks are effective and safe modalities used to reduce pain and opioid consumption after abdominal and breast plastic surgery.

Effect of Fentanyl-Based Intravenous Patient-Controlled Analgesia with and without Basal Infusion on Postoperative Opioid Consumption and Opioid-Related Side Effects: A Retrospective Cohort Study

Purpose

We aimed to investigate the effect of a basal opioid infusion in fentanyl-based intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (IV-PCA) on postoperative opioid consumption, pain intensity, and occurrence of opioid-related side effects.

Patients and Methods

We retrospectively reviewed 2097 consecutive patients who received IV-PCA after elective general, thoracic, urologic, and plastic surgery under general anesthesia between June 2019 and October 2019. The patients were divided into two groups: IV-PCA with basal infusion (basal group) and IV-PCA without basal infusion (no basal group). We performed a propensity score matching (PSM) analysis to adjust for baseline differences between both groups. We compared the fentanyl PCA consumption (mcg), pain intensity, rescue analgesic administration, and occurrence of opioid-related side effects (nausea, vomiting, somnolence or dizziness, and overall side effects) during the first 48 hours postoperatively between the two groups before and after PSM.

Results

We analyzed 1317 eligible patients. Of these, 757 (57.5%) patients received IV-PCA without basal infusion. The PSM of the total cohort yielded 539 pairs of cases. After PSM, the fentanyl PCA consumption was significantly lower in the no basal group at 48 hours postoperatively as compared to the basal group (at 24 hours, the median difference: −80 mcg, P<0.001, 95% CI=−112 – −45 mcg; at 48 hours, the median difference: −286 mcg, P<0.001, 95% CI=−380 – −190 mcg), without significantly increasing pain intensity and administration of rescue analgesia. The occurrence of overall opioid-related side effects was also significantly lower in the no basal group (at 24 hours: 31.0% vs 23.0%, OR=0.67, P=0.003, 95% CI=0.51 – 0.87; at 48 hours: 18.9% vs 11.0%, OR=0.48, P<0.001, 95% CI=0.31 – 0.75).

Conclusion

Basal infusion of fentanyl-based IV-PCA was significantly associated with an increase in fentanyl consumption and the occurrence of opioid-related side effects in postsurgical patients.

Pain management after laminectomy: a systematic review and procedure-specific post-operative pain management (prospect) recommendations

PURPOSE

With lumbar laminectomy increasingly being performed on an outpatient basis, optimal pain management is critical to avoid post-operative delay in discharge and readmission. The aim of this review was to evaluate the available literature and develop recommendations for optimal pain management after one- or two-level lumbar laminectomy.

METHODS

A systematic review utilizing the PROcedure-SPECific Post-operative Pain ManagemenT (PROSPECT) methodology was undertaken. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) published in the English language from 1 January 2008 until 31 March 2020-assessing post-operative pain using analgesic, anaesthetic and surgical interventions-were identified from MEDLINE, EMBASE and Cochrane Databases.

RESULTS

Out of 65 eligible studies identified, 39 RCTs met the inclusion criteria. The analgesic regimen for lumbar laminectomy should include paracetamol and a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) or cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitor administered preoperatively or intraoperatively and continued post-operatively, with post-operative opioids for rescue analgesia. In addition, surgical wound instillation or infiltration with local anaesthetics prior to wound closure is recommended. Some interventions-gabapentinoids and intrathecal opioid administration-although effective, carry significant risks and consequently were omitted from the recommendations. Other interventions were also not recommended because there was insufficient, inconsistent or lack of evidence.

CONCLUSION

Perioperative pain management for lumbar laminectomy should include paracetamol and NSAID- or COX-2-specific inhibitor, continued into the post-operative period, as well as intraoperative surgical wound instillation or infiltration. Opioids should be used as rescue medication post-operatively. Future studies are necessary to evaluate the efficacy of our recommendations.

Enhanced recovery pathways for ambulatory surgery

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Implementation of enhanced recovery pathways have allowed migration of complex surgical procedures from inpatient setting to the outpatient setting. These programs improve patient safety and patient-reported outcomes. The present article discusses the principles of enhanced recovery pathways in adults undergoing ambulatory surgery with an aim of improving patient safety and postoperative outcomes.

RECENT FINDINGS

Procedure and patient selection is one of the key elements that influences perioperative outcomes after ambulatory surgery. Other elements include optimization of comorbid conditions, patient and family education, minimal preoperative fasting and adequate hydration during the fasting period, use of fast-track anesthesia technique, lung-protective mechanical ventilation, maintenance of fluid balance, and multimodal pain, nausea, and vomiting prophylaxis.

SUMMARY

Implementation of enhanced recovery pathways requires a multidisciplinary approach in which the anesthesiologist should take a lead in collaborating with surgeons and perioperative nurses. Measuring compliance with enhanced recovery pathways through an audit program is essential to evaluate success and need for protocol modification. The metrics to assess the impact of enhanced recovery pathways include complication rates, patient reported outcomes, duration of postoperative stay in the surgical facility, unplanned hospital admission rate, and 7-day and 30-day readmission rates.

The Dentoalveolar Surgical Patient: Perioperative Principles Based on Contemporary Controversies

Dentoalveolar surgery comprises more than 50% of the practice of oral and maxillofacial surgeons worldwide and is the most commonly performed category of surgical procedure. Optimal strategies for management of many medical problems, however, remain unclear. Remaining current on medical and surgical perioperative strategies is a standard for best practice. This article provides contemporary approaches for the perioperative management of patients presenting for dentoalveolar surgery. Attention will be directed to the perioperative management of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and obesity. These diseases are chosen owing to controversies with respect to good scientific evidence that supports a standard of perioperative care.

Basics and Best Practices of Multimodal Pain Management for the Plastic Surgeon

Pain management is a central focus for the plastic surgeon’s perioperative planning, and it no longer represents a postoperative afterthought. Protocols that rely on opioid-only pain therapy are outdated and discouraged, as they do not achieve optimal pain relief, increase postoperative morbidity, and contribute to the growing opioid epidemic. A multimodal approach to pain management using non-opioid analgesic techniques is an integral component of enhanced recovery after surgery protocols. Careful perioperative planning for optimal pain management must be achieved in multidisciplinary collaboration with the perioperative care team including anesthesiology. This allows pain management interventions to occur at 3 critical opportunities—preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative settings.