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Borkotoky S, Dey D, Banerjee M. Computational Insight Into the Mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 Membrane Fusion. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:423-431. [PMID: 33412850 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.0c01231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Membrane fusion, a key step in the early stages of virus propagation, allows the release of the viral genome in the host cell cytoplasm. The process is initiated by fusion peptides that are small, hydrophobic components of viral membrane-embedded glycoproteins and are typically conserved within virus families. Here, we attempted to identify the correct fusion peptide region in the Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 by all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of dual membrane systems with varied oligomeric units of putative candidate peptides. Of all of the systems tested, only a trimeric unit of a 40-amino-acid region (residues 816-855 of SARS-CoV-2 Spike) was effective in triggering the initial stages of membrane fusion, within 200 ns of simulation time. Association of this trimeric unit with dual membranes resulted in the migration of lipids from the upper leaflet of the lower bilayer toward the lower leaflet of the upper bilayer to create a structural unit reminiscent of a fusion bridge. We submit that residues 816-855 of Spike represent the bona fide fusion peptide of SARS-CoV-2 and that computational methods represent an effective way to identify fusion peptides in viral glycoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhomoi Borkotoky
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
| | - Debajit Dey
- School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, United States
| | - Manidipa Banerjee
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India
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Chen L, Wu Z, Wu X, Liao Y, Dai X, Shi X. The Application of Coarse-Grained Molecular Dynamics to the Evaluation of Liposome Physical Stability. AAPS PharmSciTech 2020; 21:138. [PMID: 32419093 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-020-01680-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Physical stability is one of critical characteristics of liposome, especially to its clinical application. Vesicle fusion was one of the common physical stability phenomena that occurred during the long storage period. Because vesicle fusion could be easily checked by the change of vesicle size, it was widely applied in the evaluation of liposome physical stability. However, since the method requires the liposome to be placed under certain conditions for long-term observation, a liposome physical stability test usually takes several weeks, which greatly hinders the research efficiency. In this study, to speed up the research efficiency, coarse-grained molecular dynamics was first applied in the study of liposome physical stability. By analyzing the microprocess of vesicle fusion, two parameters including diffusion constant and the total time of the vesicle morphology transition process were employed to study the liposome physical stability. Then, in order to verify the applicability of two parameters, the physical stability of elastic liposomes and conventional liposomes was compared at 3 different temperatures. It was found that the fusion probability and speed of elastic liposomes were higher than those of conventional liposomes. Thus, elastic liposomes showed a worse physical stability compared with that of conventional liposomes, which was consistent with former research. Through this research, a new efficient method based on coarse-grained molecular dynamics was proposed for the study of liposome physical stability.
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Muller MP, Jiang T, Sun C, Lihan M, Pant S, Mahinthichaichan P, Trifan A, Tajkhorshid E. Characterization of Lipid-Protein Interactions and Lipid-Mediated Modulation of Membrane Protein Function through Molecular Simulation. Chem Rev 2019; 119:6086-6161. [PMID: 30978005 PMCID: PMC6506392 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The cellular membrane constitutes one of the most fundamental compartments of a living cell, where key processes such as selective transport of material and exchange of information between the cell and its environment are mediated by proteins that are closely associated with the membrane. The heterogeneity of lipid composition of biological membranes and the effect of lipid molecules on the structure, dynamics, and function of membrane proteins are now widely recognized. Characterization of these functionally important lipid-protein interactions with experimental techniques is however still prohibitively challenging. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations offer a powerful complementary approach with sufficient temporal and spatial resolutions to gain atomic-level structural information and energetics on lipid-protein interactions. In this review, we aim to provide a broad survey of MD simulations focusing on exploring lipid-protein interactions and characterizing lipid-modulated protein structure and dynamics that have been successful in providing novel insight into the mechanism of membrane protein function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie P. Muller
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- College of Medicine
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Tao Jiang
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Chang Sun
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Muyun Lihan
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Shashank Pant
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Paween Mahinthichaichan
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Anda Trifan
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Emad Tajkhorshid
- NIH Center for Macromolecular Modeling and Bioinformatics, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology
- Department of Biochemistry
- Center for Biophysics and Quantitative Biology
- College of Medicine
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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Shi S, Nguyen PK, Cabral HJ, Diez-Barroso R, Derry PJ, Kanahara SM, Kumar VA. Development of peptide inhibitors of HIV transmission. Bioact Mater 2016; 1:109-121. [PMID: 29744399 PMCID: PMC5883972 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2016.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Treatment of HIV has long faced the challenge of high mutation rates leading to rapid development of resistance, with ongoing need to develop new methods to effectively fight the infection. Traditionally, early HIV medications were designed to inhibit RNA replication and protein production through small molecular drugs. Peptide based therapeutics are a versatile, promising field in HIV therapy, which continues to develop as we expand our understanding of key protein-protein interactions that occur in HIV replication and infection. This review begins with an introduction to HIV, followed by the biological basis of disease, current clinical management of the disease, therapeutics on the market, and finally potential avenues for improved drug development.
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Key Words
- AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
- ART, antiretroviral therapy
- CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
- Drug development
- FDA, US Food and Drug Administration
- FY, fiscal year
- HAART, highly active antiretroviral therapy
- HCV, hepatitis C Virus
- HIV
- HIV treatment
- HIV, human immunodeficiency virus
- INSTI, Integrase strand transfer inhibitors
- LEDGF, lens epithelium-derived growth factor
- NNRTI, Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
- NRTI, Nucleoside/Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
- Peptide inhibitor
- Peptide therapeutic
- R&D, research and development
- RT, reverse transcriptase
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Shi
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Peter K. Nguyen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Henry J. Cabral
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | | | - Paul J. Derry
- Department of Chemistry, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | | | - Vivek A. Kumar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
- Department of Chemical, Biological and Pharmaceutical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, University Heights, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
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Li ZL, Ding HM, Ma YQ. Interaction of peptides with cell membranes: insights from molecular modeling. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2016; 28:083001. [PMID: 26828575 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/28/8/083001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The investigation of the interaction of peptides with cell membranes is the focus of active research. It can enhance the understanding of basic membrane functions such as membrane transport, fusion, and signaling processes, and it may shed light on potential applications of peptides in biomedicine. In this review, we will present current advances in computational studies on the interaction of different types of peptides with the cell membrane. Depending on the properties of the peptide, membrane, and external environment, the peptide-membrane interaction shows a variety of different forms. Here, on the basis of recent computational progress, we will discuss how different peptides could initiate membrane pores, translocate across the membrane, induce membrane endocytosis, produce membrane curvature, form fibrils on the membrane surface, as well as interact with functional membrane proteins. Finally, we will present a conclusion summarizing recent progress and providing some specific insights into future developments in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-lu Li
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures and Department of Physics, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, People's Republic of China
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Nagao T, Mishima D, Javkhlantugs N, Wang J, Ishioka D, Yokota K, Norisada K, Kawamura I, Ueda K, Naito A. Structure and orientation of antibiotic peptide alamethicin in phospholipid bilayers as revealed by chemical shift oscillation analysis of solid state nuclear magnetic resonance and molecular dynamics simulation. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2015; 1848:2789-98. [PMID: 26248014 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2015.07.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The structure, topology and orientation of membrane-bound antibiotic alamethicin were studied using solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. (13)C chemical shift interaction was observed in [1-(13)C]-labeled alamethicin. The isotropic chemical shift values indicated that alamethicin forms a helical structure in the entire region. The chemical shift anisotropy of the carbonyl carbon of isotopically labeled alamethicin was also analyzed with the assumption that alamethicin molecules rotate rapidly about the bilayer normal of the phospholipid bilayers. It is considered that the adjacent peptide planes form an angle of 100° or 120° when it forms α-helix or 310-helix, respectively. These properties lead to an oscillation of the chemical shift anisotropy with respect to the phase angle of the peptide plane. Anisotropic data were acquired for the 4 and 7 sites of the N- and C-termini, respectively. The results indicated that the helical axes for the N- and C-termini were tilted 17° and 32° to the bilayer normal, respectively. The chemical shift oscillation curves indicate that the N- and C-termini form the α-helix and 310-helix, respectively. The C-terminal 310-helix of alamethicin in the bilayer was experimentally observed and the unique bending structure of alamethicin was further confirmed by measuring the internuclear distances of [1-(13)C] and [(15)N] doubly-labeled alamethicin. Molecular dynamics simulation of alamethicin embedded into dimyristoyl phophatidylcholine (DMPC) bilayers indicates that the helical axes for α-helical N- and 310-helical C-termini are tilted 12° and 32° to the bilayer normal, respectively, which is in good agreement with the solid state NMR results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Nagao
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Daisuke Mishima
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Namsrai Javkhlantugs
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan; Center for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, National University of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar 14201, Mongolia
| | - Jun Wang
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Daisuke Ishioka
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Kiyonobu Yokota
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Kazushi Norisada
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Izuru Kawamura
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Ueda
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan
| | - Akira Naito
- Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-5 Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan.
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Apellániz B, Huarte N, Largo E, Nieva JL. The three lives of viral fusion peptides. Chem Phys Lipids 2014; 181:40-55. [PMID: 24704587 PMCID: PMC4061400 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2014.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The presence of a fusion peptide (FP) is a hallmark of viral fusion glycoproteins. Structure–function relationships underlying FP conservation remain greatly unknown. FPs establish interactions satisfying their folding within pre-fusion glycoproteins. Upon fusion activation FPs insert into and restructure target membranes. FPs can finally combine with transmembrane domains to form integral membrane bundles.
Fusion peptides comprise conserved hydrophobic domains absolutely required for the fusogenic activity of glycoproteins from divergent virus families. After 30 years of intensive research efforts, the structures and functions underlying their high degree of sequence conservation are not fully elucidated. The long-hydrophobic viral fusion peptide (VFP) sequences are structurally constrained to access three successive states after biogenesis. Firstly, the VFP sequence must fulfill the set of native interactions required for (meta) stable folding within the globular ectodomains of glycoprotein complexes. Secondly, at the onset of the fusion process, they get transferred into the target cell membrane and adopt specific conformations therein. According to commonly accepted mechanistic models, membrane-bound states of the VFP might promote the lipid bilayer remodeling required for virus-cell membrane merger. Finally, at least in some instances, several VFPs co-assemble with transmembrane anchors into membrane integral helical bundles, following a locking movement hypothetically coupled to fusion-pore expansion. Here we review different aspects of the three major states of the VFPs, including the functional assistance by other membrane-transferring glycoprotein regions, and discuss briefly their potential as targets for clinical intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Apellániz
- Biophysics Unit (CSIC-UPV/EHU) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Nerea Huarte
- Biophysics Unit (CSIC-UPV/EHU) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Eneko Largo
- Biophysics Unit (CSIC-UPV/EHU) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain
| | - José L Nieva
- Biophysics Unit (CSIC-UPV/EHU) and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), P.O. Box 644, 48080 Bilbao, Spain.
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8
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Agopian A, Castano S. Structure and orientation study of Ebola fusion peptide inserted in lipid membrane models. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2014; 1838:117-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Revised: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 09/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Gabrys CM, Qiang W, Sun Y, Xie L, Schmick SD, Weliky DP. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance measurements of HIV fusion peptide 13CO to lipid 31P proximities support similar partially inserted membrane locations of the α helical and β sheet peptide structures. J Phys Chem A 2013; 117:9848-59. [PMID: 23418890 PMCID: PMC3932798 DOI: 10.1021/jp312845w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Fusion of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) membrane and the host cell membrane is an initial step of infection of the host cell. Fusion is catalyzed by gp41, which is an integral membrane protein of HIV. The fusion peptide (FP) is the ∼25 N-terminal residues of gp41 and is a domain of gp41 that plays a key role in fusion catalysis likely through interaction with the host cell membrane. Much of our understanding of the FP domain has been accomplished with studies of "HFP", i.e., a ∼25-residue peptide composed of the FP sequence but lacking the rest of gp41. HFP catalyzes fusion between membrane vesicles and serves as a model system to understand fusion catalysis. HFP binds to membranes and the membrane location of HFP is likely a significant determinant of fusion catalysis perhaps because the consequent membrane perturbation reduces the fusion activation energy. In the present study, many HFPs were synthesized and differed in the residue position that was (13)CO backbone labeled. Samples were then prepared that each contained a singly (13)CO labeled HFP incorporated into membranes that lacked cholesterol. HFP had distinct molecular populations with either α helical or oligomeric β sheet structure. Proximity between the HFP (13)CO nuclei and (31)P nuclei in the membrane headgroups was probed by solid-state NMR (SSNMR) rotational-echo double-resonance (REDOR) measurements. For many samples, there were distinct (13)CO shifts for the α helical and β sheet structures so that the proximities to (31)P nuclei could be determined for each structure. Data from several differently labeled HFPs were then incorporated into a membrane location model for the particular structure. In addition to the (13)CO labeled residue position, the HFPs also differed in sequence and/or chemical structure. "HFPmn" was a linear peptide that contained the 23 N-terminal residues of gp41. "HFPmn_V2E" contained the V2E mutation that for HIV leads to greatly reduced extent of fusion and infection. The present study shows that HFPmn_V2E induces much less vesicle fusion than HFPmn. "HFPtr" contained three strands with HFPmn sequence that were chemically cross-linked near their C-termini. HFPtr mimics the trimeric topology of gp41 and induces much more rapid and extensive vesicle fusion than HFPmn. For HFPmn and HFPtr, well-resolved α and β peaks were observed for A6-, L9-, and L12-labeled samples. For each of these samples, there were similar HFP (13)CO to lipid (31)P proximities in the α and β structures, which evidenced comparable membrane locations of the HFP in either structure including insertion into a single membrane leaflet. The data were also consistent with deeper insertion of HFPtr relative to HFPmn in both the α and β structures. The results supported a strong correlation between the membrane insertion depth of the HFP and its fusogenicity. More generally, the results supported membrane location of the HFP as an important determinant of its fusogenicity. The deep insertion of HFPtr in both the α and β structures provides the most relevant membrane location of the FP for HIV gp41-catalyzed membrane fusion because HIV gp41 is natively trimeric. Well-resolved α and β signals were observed in the HFPmn_V2E samples with L9- and L12- but not A6-labeling. The α signals were much more dominant for L9- and L12-labeled HFPmn_V2E than the corresponding HFPmn or HFPtr. The structural model for the less fusogenic HFPmn_V2E includes a shorter helix and less membrane insertion than either HFPmn or HFPtr. This greater helical population and different helical structure and membrane location could result in less membrane perturbation and lower fusogenicity of HFPmn_V2E and suggest that the β sheet fusion peptide is the most functionally relevant structure of HFPmn, HFPtr, and gp41.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles M. Gabrys
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824
| | - Wei Qiang
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824
| | - Yan Sun
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824
| | - Li Xie
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824
| | - Scott D. Schmick
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824
| | - David P. Weliky
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824
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Venken T, Voet A, De Maeyer M, De Fabritiis G, Sadiq SK. Rapid Conformational Fluctuations of Disordered HIV-1 Fusion Peptide in Solution. J Chem Theory Comput 2013; 9:2870-4. [DOI: 10.1021/ct300856r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tom Venken
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Modelling and BioMacS, Department of Chemistry, Division of Biochemistry,
Molecular and Structural Biology, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200G
box 2403, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Arnout Voet
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Modelling and BioMacS, Department of Chemistry, Division of Biochemistry,
Molecular and Structural Biology, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200G
box 2403, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Marc De Maeyer
- Laboratory for Biomolecular
Modelling and BioMacS, Department of Chemistry, Division of Biochemistry,
Molecular and Structural Biology, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200G
box 2403, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
| | - Gianni De Fabritiis
- Computational Biophysics Laboratory
(GRIB-IMIM), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona Biomedical Research
Park (PRBB), C/Doctor Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - S. Kashif Sadiq
- Computational Biophysics Laboratory
(GRIB-IMIM), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona Biomedical Research
Park (PRBB), C/Doctor Aiguader 88, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
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