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Zheng L, Han Z, Wang S, Gao A, Liu L, Pan H, Zhang H. Transcriptomic analysis and knockout experiments reveal the role of suhB in the biocontrol effects of Pantoea jilinensis D25 on Botrytis cinerea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 919:170771. [PMID: 38336045 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Tomato gray mold, caused by Botrytis cinerea, is an important disease in tomato. Pantoea jilinensis D25, isolated form tomato rhizosphere soil, can prevent B. cinerea infection in tomato. To determine the underlying biocontrol mechanism, the transcriptome of P. jilinensis D25 was assessed. Differential expression analysis revealed that 941 genes were upregulated and 997 genes were downregulated. Through transcriptome analysis, the suhB gene was knocked out. ΔPj-suhB exhibited lower swimming motility and colonization abilities than strain D25. After 4 days of co-cultivation, ΔPj-suhB could reduce the colony diameter, mycelial weight, and spore production of B. cinerea with the inhibitory rates of 31.72 %, 39.62 %, and 47.42 %, respectively, compared with control. However, the inhibitory rates of strain D25 were 52.91 %, 60.09 %, and 76.85 %, respectively, compared with control. Strain D25 could significantly downregulate pathogenesis-related genes in B. cinerea, whereas the expression level of these genes in B. cinerea was higher after treatment with ΔPj-suhB than after that with strain D25. In vitro experiments revealed that the lesion area and disease control efficacy were 1.520 and 0.038 cm2 and 68.7 % and 99.0 %, respectively, after ΔPj-suhB and strain D25 treatments. Pot experiments revealed that ΔPj-suhB and strain D25 could prevent tomato plants from B. cinerea infection with the disease reduction rate of 37.5 % and 75.0 %, respectively. Though the activities of defense-related enzymes and expression level of defense related genes in tomato plants were increased under ΔPj-suhB treatment, these effects were higher after strain D25 treatment. Thus, these results demonstrated that suhB was the key gene in strain D25 underlying its biocontrol effect and mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lining Zheng
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China
| | - Zhe Han
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China
| | - Shengyi Wang
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China
| | - Ao Gao
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China
| | - Ling Liu
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China
| | - Hongyu Pan
- College of Plant Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, PR China
| | - Hao Zhang
- College of Plant Protection, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, PR China.
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2
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Nowakowska AW, Wojciechowski JW, Szulc N, Kotulska M. The role of tandem repeats in bacterial functional amyloids. J Struct Biol 2023; 215:108002. [PMID: 37482232 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2023.108002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
Repetitivity and modularity of proteins are two related notions incorporated into multiple evolutionary concepts. We discuss whether they may also be essential for functional amyloids. Amyloids are proteins that create very regular and usually highly insoluble fibrils, which are often associated with neurodegeneration. However, recent discoveries showed that amyloid structure of a protein could also be beneficial and desired, e.g., to promote cell adhesion. Functional amyloids are proteins which differ in their characteristics from pathological amyloids, so that the fibril formation could be more under control of an organism. We propose that repeats in the sequence could regulate the aggregation propensity of these proteins. The inclusion of multiple symmetric interactions, due to the presence of the repeats, could be supporting and strengthening the desirable structural properties of functional amyloids. Our results show that tandem repeats in bacterial functional amyloids have a distinct characteristic. The pattern of repeats supports the appropriate level of fibril formation and better controllability of fibril stability. The repeats tend to be more imperfect, which attenuates excessive aggregation propensity. Their desired structure and function are also reinforced by their amino acid profile. Although in the study we focused on bacterial functional amyloids, due to their importance in biofilm formation, we propose that similar mechanisms could be employed in other functional amyloids which are designed by evolution to aggregate in a desirable manner, but not necessarily in pathological amyloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicja W Nowakowska
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Poland.
| | - Jakub W Wojciechowski
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Poland
| | - Natalia Szulc
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Poland; Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Department of Physics and Biophysics, Poland; LPCT, CNRS, Universite de Lorraine, F-54000 Nancy, France
| | - Malgorzata Kotulska
- Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Poland.
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3
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Pirhaghi M, Najarzadeh Z, Moosavi-Movahedi F, Shafizadeh M, Mamashli F, Atarod D, Ghasemi A, Morshedi D, Meratan AA, Otzen DE, Saboury AA. The anti-platelet drug ticlopidine inhibits FapC fibrillation and biofilm production: Highlighting its antibiotic activity. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2023; 1871:140883. [PMID: 36455808 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2022.140883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Multidrug resistance of bacteria and persistent infections related to biofilms, as well as the low availability of new antibacterial drugs, make it urgent to develop new antibiotics. Here, we evaluate the antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties of ticlopidine (TP), an anti-platelet aggregation drug, TP showed antibacterial activity against both gram-positive (MRSA) and gram-negative (E. coli, and P. aeruginosa) bacteria over a long treatment period. TP significantly reduced the survival of gram-negative bacteria in human blood though impact on gram-positives was more limited. TP may cause death in MRSA by inhibiting staphyloxanthin pigment synthesis, leading to oxidative stress, while scanning electron microscopy imaging indicate a loss of membrane integrity, damage, and consequent death due to lysis in gram-negative bacteria. TP showed good anti-biofilm activity against P. aeruginosa and MRSA, and a stronger biofilm degradation activity on P. aeruginosa compared to MRSA. Measuring fluorescence of the amyloid-reporter Thioflavin T (ThT) in biofilm implicated inhibition of amyloid formation as part of TP activity. This was confirmed by assays on the purified protein in P. aeruginosa, FapC, whose fibrillation kinetics was inhibited by TP. TP prolonged the lag phase of aggregation and reduced the subsequent growth rate and prolonging the lag phase to very long times provides ample opportunity to exert TP's antibacterial effect. We conclude that TP shows activity as an antibiotic against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria thanks to a broad range of activities, targeting bacterial metabolic processes, cellular structures and the biofilm matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitra Pirhaghi
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran; Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Centre (iNANO), Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Zahra Najarzadeh
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Centre (iNANO), Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | | | - Mahshid Shafizadeh
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Mamashli
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Deyhim Atarod
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Atiyeh Ghasemi
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Dina Morshedi
- Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Industrial and Environmental Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ali Akbar Meratan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences (IASBS), Zanjan, Iran
| | - Daniel E Otzen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Centre (iNANO), Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Ali Akbar Saboury
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
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4
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Rather MA, Gupta K, Mandal M. Microbial biofilm: formation, architecture, antibiotic resistance, and control strategies. Braz J Microbiol 2021; 52:1701-1718. [PMID: 34558029 PMCID: PMC8578483 DOI: 10.1007/s42770-021-00624-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The assembly of microorganisms over a surface and their ability to develop resistance against available antibiotics are major concerns of interest. To survive against harsh environmental conditions including known antibiotics, the microorganisms form a unique structure, referred to as biofilm. The mechanism of biofilm formation is triggered and regulated by quorum sensing, hostile environmental conditions, nutrient availability, hydrodynamic conditions, cell-to-cell communication, signaling cascades, and secondary messengers. Antibiotic resistance, escape of microbes from the body's immune system, recalcitrant infections, biofilm-associated deaths, and food spoilage are some of the problems associated with microbial biofilms which pose a threat to humans, veterinary, and food processing sectors. In this review, we focus in detail on biofilm formation, its architecture, composition, genes and signaling cascades involved, and multifold antibiotic resistance exhibited by microorganisms dwelling within biofilms. We also highlight different physical, chemical, and biological biofilm control strategies including those based on plant products. So, this review aims at providing researchers the knowledge regarding recent advances on the mechanisms involved in biofilm formation at the molecular level as well as the emergent method used to get rid of antibiotic-resistant and life-threatening biofilms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muzamil Ahmad Rather
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University (A Central University), Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India
| | - Kuldeep Gupta
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University (A Central University), Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India
| | - Manabendra Mandal
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University (A Central University), Napaam, Tezpur, 784028, Assam, India.
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Idrees M, Sawant S, Karodia N, Rahman A. Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm: Morphology, Genetics, Pathogenesis and Treatment Strategies. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:7602. [PMID: 34300053 PMCID: PMC8304105 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18147602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a nosocomial bacterium causing different infectious diseases, ranging from skin and soft tissue infections to more serious and life-threatening infections such as septicaemia. S. aureus forms a complex structure of extracellular polymeric biofilm that provides a fully secured and functional environment for the formation of microcolonies, their sustenance and recolonization of sessile cells after its dispersal. Staphylococcus aureus biofilm protects the cells against hostile conditions, i.e., changes in temperature, limitations or deprivation of nutrients and dehydration, and, more importantly, protects the cells against antibacterial drugs. Drugs are increasingly becoming partially or fully inactive against S. aureus as they are either less penetrable or totally impenetrable due to the presence of biofilms surrounding the bacterial cells. Other factors, such as evasion of innate host immune system, genome plasticity and adaptability through gene evolution and exchange of genetic material, also contribute to the ineffectiveness of antibacterial drugs. This increasing tolerance to antibiotics has contributed to the emergence and rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a serious problem that has resulted in increased morbidity and mortality of human and animal populations globally, in addition to causing huge financial losses to the global economy. The purpose of this review is to highlight different aspects of S. aureus biofilm formation and its overall architecture, individual biofilm constituents, clinical implications and role in pathogenesis and drug resistance. The review also discusses different techniques used in the qualitative and quantitative investigation of S. aureus biofilm and various strategies that can be employed to inhibit and eradicate S. aureus biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ayesha Rahman
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton WV1 1LY, UK; (M.I.); (S.S.); (N.K.)
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Multifunctional Amyloids in the Biology of Gram-Positive Bacteria. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8122020. [PMID: 33348645 PMCID: PMC7766987 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8122020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Since they were discovered, amyloids have proven to be versatile proteins able to participate in a variety of cellular functions across all kingdoms of life. This multitask trait seems to reside in their ability to coexist as monomers, aggregates or fibrillar entities, with morphological and biochemical peculiarities. It is precisely this common molecular behaviour that allows amyloids to cross react with one another, triggering heterologous aggregation. In bacteria, many of these functional amyloids are devoted to the assembly of biofilms by organizing the matrix scaffold that keeps cells together. However, consistent with their notion of multifunctional proteins, functional amyloids participate in other biological roles within the same organisms, and emerging unprecedented functions are being discovered. In this review, we focus on functional amyloids reported in gram-positive bacteria, which are diverse in their assembly mechanisms and remarkably specific in their biological functions that they perform. Finally, we consider cross-seeding between functional amyloids as an emerging theme in interspecies interactions that contributes to the diversification of bacterial biology.
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7
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Levkovich SA, Gazit E, Laor Bar-Yosef D. Two Decades of Studying Functional Amyloids in Microorganisms. Trends Microbiol 2020; 29:251-265. [PMID: 33041179 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2020.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In the past two decades, amyloids, typically associated with human diseases, have been described to play various functional roles in nearly all life forms. The structural and functional diversity of microbial 'functional amyloids' has dramatically increased in recent years, expanding the canonical definition of these assembled molecules. Here, we provide a broad review of the current understanding of microbial functional amyloids and their diverse roles, putting the spotlight on recent discoveries in the field. We discuss their functions as structural scaffolds, surface-tension modulators, adhesion molecules, cell-cycle and gametogenesis regulators, toxins, and mediators of host-pathogen interactions. We outline how noncanonical amyloid morphologies and sophisticated regulatory mechanisms underlie their functional diversity and emphasize their therapeutic and biotechnological implications and applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shon A Levkovich
- School of Molecular Cell Biology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Ehud Gazit
- School of Molecular Cell Biology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; BLAVATNIK CENTER for Drug Discovery, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Iby and Aladar Fleischman Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel; Sagol Interdisciplinary School of Neurosciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.
| | - Dana Laor Bar-Yosef
- School of Molecular Cell Biology and Biotechnology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
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8
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Kosolapova AO, Antonets KS, Belousov MV, Nizhnikov AA. Biological Functions of Prokaryotic Amyloids in Interspecies Interactions: Facts and Assumptions. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E7240. [PMID: 33008049 PMCID: PMC7582709 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloids are fibrillar protein aggregates with an ordered spatial structure called "cross-β". While some amyloids are associated with development of approximately 50 incurable diseases of humans and animals, the others perform various crucial physiological functions. The greatest diversity of amyloids functions is identified within prokaryotic species where they, being the components of the biofilm matrix, function as adhesins, regulate the activity of toxins and virulence factors, and compose extracellular protein layers. Amyloid state is widely used by different pathogenic bacterial species in their interactions with eukaryotic organisms. These amyloids, being functional for bacteria that produce them, are associated with various bacterial infections in humans and animals. Thus, the repertoire of the disease-associated amyloids includes not only dozens of pathological amyloids of mammalian origin but also numerous microbial amyloids. Although the ability of symbiotic microorganisms to produce amyloids has recently been demonstrated, functional roles of prokaryotic amyloids in host-symbiont interactions as well as in the interspecies interactions within the prokaryotic communities remain poorly studied. Here, we summarize the current findings in the field of prokaryotic amyloids, classify different interspecies interactions where these amyloids are involved, and hypothesize about their real occurrence in nature as well as their roles in pathogenesis and symbiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anastasiia O. Kosolapova
- Laboratory for Proteomics of Supra-Organismal Systems, All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology (ARRIAM), 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia (K.S.A.); (M.V.B.)
- Faculty of Biology, St. Petersburg State University (SPbSU), 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Kirill S. Antonets
- Laboratory for Proteomics of Supra-Organismal Systems, All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology (ARRIAM), 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia (K.S.A.); (M.V.B.)
- Faculty of Biology, St. Petersburg State University (SPbSU), 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Mikhail V. Belousov
- Laboratory for Proteomics of Supra-Organismal Systems, All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology (ARRIAM), 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia (K.S.A.); (M.V.B.)
- Faculty of Biology, St. Petersburg State University (SPbSU), 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Anton A. Nizhnikov
- Laboratory for Proteomics of Supra-Organismal Systems, All-Russia Research Institute for Agricultural Microbiology (ARRIAM), 196608 St. Petersburg, Russia (K.S.A.); (M.V.B.)
- Faculty of Biology, St. Petersburg State University (SPbSU), 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia
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9
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Rosenberg M, Visnapuu M, Vija H, Kisand V, Kasemets K, Kahru A, Ivask A. Selective antibiofilm properties and biocompatibility of nano-ZnO and nano-ZnO/Ag coated surfaces. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13478. [PMID: 32778787 PMCID: PMC7417576 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-70169-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Spread of pathogenic microbes and antibiotic-resistant bacteria in health-care settings and public spaces is a serious public health challenge. Materials that prevent solid surface colonization or impede touch-transfer of viable microbes could provide means to decrease pathogen transfer from high-touch surfaces in critical applications. ZnO and Ag nanoparticles have shown great potential in antimicrobial applications. Less is known about nano-enabled surfaces. Here we demonstrate that surfaces coated with nano-ZnO or nano-ZnO/Ag composites are not cytotoxic to human keratinocytes and possess species-selective medium-dependent antibiofilm activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Colonization of nano-ZnO and nano-ZnO/Ag surfaces by E. coli and S. aureus was decreased in static oligotrophic conditions (no planktonic growth). Moderate to no effect was observed for bacterial biofilms in growth medium (supporting exponential growth). Inversely, nano-ZnO surfaces enhanced biofilm formation by C. albicans in oligotrophic conditions. However, enhanced C. albicans biofilm formation on nano-ZnO surfaces was effectively counteracted by the addition of Ag. Possible selective enhancement of biofilm formation by the yeast C. albicans on Zn-enabled surfaces should be taken into account in antimicrobial surface development. Our results also indicated the importance of the use of application-appropriate test conditions and exposure medium in antimicrobial surface testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Rosenberg
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Tallinn, Estonia.
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia.
| | - M Visnapuu
- Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - H Vija
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - V Kisand
- Institute of Physics, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - K Kasemets
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - A Kahru
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Tallinn, Estonia
- Estonian Academy of Sciences, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - A Ivask
- Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Tallinn, Estonia
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
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10
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Barran-Berdon AL, Ocampo S, Haider M, Morales-Aparicio J, Ottenberg G, Kendall A, Yarmola E, Mishra S, Long JR, Hagen SJ, Stubbs G, Brady LJ. Enhanced purification coupled with biophysical analyses shows cross-β structure as a core building block for Streptococcus mutans functional amyloids. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5138. [PMID: 32198417 PMCID: PMC7083922 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62115-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptococcus mutans is an etiologic agent of human dental caries that forms dental plaque biofilms containing functional amyloids. Three amyloidogenic proteins, P1, WapA, and Smu_63c were previously identified. C123 and AgA are naturally occurring amyloid-forming fragments of P1 and WapA, respectively. We determined that four amyloidophilic dyes, ThT, CDy11, BD-oligo, and MK-H4, differentiate C123, AgA, and Smu_63c amyloid from monomers, but non-specific binding to bacterial cells in the absence of amyloid precludes their utility for identifying amyloid in biofilms. Congo red-induced birefringence is a more specific indicator of amyloid formation and differentiates biofilms formed by wild-type S. mutans from a triple ΔP1/WapA/Smu_63c mutant with reduced biofilm forming capabilities. Amyloid accumulation is a late event, appearing in older S. mutans biofilms after 60 hours of growth. Amyloid derived from pure preparations of all three proteins is visualized by electron microscopy as mat-like structures. Typical amyloid fibers become evident following protease digestion to eliminate non-specific aggregates and monomers. Amyloid mats, similar in appearance to those reported in S. mutans biofilm extracellular matrices, are reconstituted by co-incubation of monomers and amyloid fibers. X-ray fiber diffraction of amyloid mats and fibers from all three proteins demonstrate patterns reflective of a cross-β amyloid structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana L Barran-Berdon
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Sebastian Ocampo
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Momin Haider
- Department of Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | | | - Gregory Ottenberg
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Amy Kendall
- Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Elena Yarmola
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Surabhi Mishra
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Joanna R Long
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Stephen J Hagen
- Department of Physics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Gerald Stubbs
- Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - L Jeannine Brady
- Department of Oral Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.
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11
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Kang Y, Li L, Li S, Zhou X, Xia K, Liu C, Qu Q. Temporary Inhibition of the Corrosion of AZ31B Magnesium Alloy by Formation of Bacillus subtilis Biofilm in Artificial Seawater. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12030523. [PMID: 30744166 PMCID: PMC6384576 DOI: 10.3390/ma12030523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that microorganisms tend to form biofilms on metal surfaces to accelerate/decelerate corrosion and affect their service life. Bacillus subtilis was used to produce a dense biofilm on an AZ31B magnesium alloy surface. Corrosion behavior of the alloy with the B. subtilis biofilm was evaluated in artificial seawater. The results revealed that the biofilm hampered extracellular electron transfer significantly, which resulted in a decrease of icorr and increase of Rt clearly compared to the control group. Moreover, an ennoblement of Ecorr was detected under the condition of B. subtilis biofilm covering. Significant reduction of the corrosion was observed by using the cyclic polarization method. All of these prove that the existence of the B. subtilis biofilm effectively enhances the anti-corrosion performance of the AZ31B magnesium alloy. This result may enhance the usage of bio-interfaces for temporary corrosion control. In addition, a possible corrosion inhibition mechanism of B. subtilis on AZ31B magnesium alloy was proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxin Kang
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Lei Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Shunling Li
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Xin Zhou
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Ke Xia
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Chang Liu
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Qing Qu
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
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12
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Erskine E, MacPhee CE, Stanley-Wall NR. Functional Amyloid and Other Protein Fibers in the Biofilm Matrix. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:3642-3656. [PMID: 30098341 PMCID: PMC6173796 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 07/17/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Biofilms are ubiquitous in the natural and man-made environment. They are defined as microbes that are encapsulated in an extracellular, self-produced, biofilm matrix. Growing evidence from the genetic and biochemical analysis of single species biofilms has linked the presence of fibrous proteins to a functional biofilm matrix. Some of these fibers have been described as functional amyloid or amyloid-like fibers. Here we provide an overview of the biophysical and biological data for a wide range of protein fibers found in the biofilm matrix of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elliot Erskine
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Cait E MacPhee
- James Clerk Maxwell Building, School of Physics, University of Edinburgh, The Kings Buildings, Mayfield Road, Edinburgh, EH9 3JZ, UK.
| | - Nicola R Stanley-Wall
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK.
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13
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Li S, Li L, Qu Q, Kang Y, Zhu B, Yu D, Huang R. Extracellular electron transfer of Bacillus cereus biofilm and its effect on the corrosion behaviour of 316L stainless steel. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 173:139-147. [PMID: 30278362 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.09.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Here, a heterogeneous Bacillus cereus (B. cereus) biofilm on the surface of 316 L stainless steel (SS) was observed. With electrochemical measurement and surface analysis, it was found that B. cereus biofilm could inhibit SS pitting corrosion, attributing to the blocking effect of bacterial biofilm on extracellular electron transfer (EET). Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV) results also showed that B. cereus biofilm clearly impeded the EET. The proposed mechanism for the decreased corrosion rates of SS involves the interactions of extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) with SS and biofilm formation blocking electron transfer, preventing the passive layer from destroying. After biofilm formation following initial attachment of cells and EPS, electron transfer between SS and the cathodic depolarizer (oxygen) was hindered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunling Li
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China
| | - Lei Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China
| | - Qing Qu
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China.
| | - Yaxin Kang
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China
| | - Baolin Zhu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-resources in Yunnan, Yunnan University, Kunming 650091, China
| | - Datao Yu
- CNPC. Soulth-east Asia Pipeline Co. Ltd, Beijing 100000, China
| | - Rui Huang
- CNPC. Soulth-east Asia Pipeline Co. Ltd, Beijing 100000, China
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14
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Wang Y, Jiang J, Gao Y, Sun Y, Dai J, Wu Y, Qu D, Ma G, Fang X. Staphylococcus epidermidis small basic protein (Sbp) forms amyloid fibrils, consistent with its function as a scaffolding protein in biofilms. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:14296-14311. [PMID: 30049797 PMCID: PMC6139570 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.002448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilms are communities of microbes embedded in a microbial extracellular matrix. Their formation is considered the main virulence mechanism enabling the opportunistic bacterial pathogen Staphylococcus epidermidis to cause devastating nosocomial, implant-associated infections. Biofilms often contain proteins, and an 18-kDa protein called small basic protein (Sbp) recently was discovered in the S. epidermidis biofilm matrix and may serve as a scaffolding protein in both polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA)-dependent and accumulation-associated protein (Aap)-dependent biofilm formations. In Aap-mediated biofilm formation, Sbp colocalizes with Domain-B of Aap, implying that Sbp directly interacts with Aap's Domain-B. However, the structure of Sbp and its interaction with Aap, as well as the molecular mechanism underlying Sbp's roles in biofilm formation, are incompletely understood. In this work, we used small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), NMR, analytical size-exclusion chromatography, and isothermal titration calorimetry analyses to determine the Sbp structure and characterize its interaction with Aap's Domain-B. We found that Sbp is monomeric and partially folded in solution, and, unexpectedly, we observed no direct interactions between Sbp and Aap Domain-B. Instead, we noted that Sbp forms amyloid fibrils both in vitro and in vivo Atomic force, transmission electron, and confocal fluorescence microscopy methods confirmed the formation of Sbp amyloid fibrils and revealed their morphology. Taken together, the Sbp amyloid fibril structures identified here may account for Sbp's role as a scaffolding protein in the S. epidermidis biofilm matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- From the Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jingbo Jiang
- From the Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yachao Gao
- From the Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yang Sun
- From the Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jianfeng Dai
- Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Public Health, Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, 138 Yixueyuan Road, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Di Qu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology of the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Public Health, Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, 138 Yixueyuan Road, Shanghai 200032, China, and
| | - Gang Ma
- Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Diagnosis of Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Xianyang Fang
- From the Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China,
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15
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Van Gerven N, Van der Verren SE, Reiter DM, Remaut H. The Role of Functional Amyloids in Bacterial Virulence. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:3657-3684. [PMID: 30009771 PMCID: PMC6173799 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid fibrils are best known as a product of human and animal protein misfolding disorders, where amyloid formation is associated with cytotoxicity and disease. It is now evident that for some proteins, the amyloid state constitutes the native structure and serves a functional role. These functional amyloids are proving widespread in bacteria and fungi, fulfilling diverse functions as structural components in biofilms or spore coats, as toxins and surface-active fibers, as epigenetic material, peptide reservoirs or adhesins mediating binding to and internalization into host cells. In this review, we will focus on the role of functional amyloids in bacterial pathogenesis. The role of functional amyloids as virulence factor is diverse but mostly indirect. Nevertheless, functional amyloid pathways deserve consideration for the acute and long-term effects of the infectious disease process and may form valid antimicrobial targets. Functional amyloids are widespread in bacteria, pathogenic and non-pathogenic. Bacterial biofilms most commonly function as structural support in the extracellular matrix of biofilms or spore coats, and in cell–cell and cell-surface adherence. The amyloid state can be the sole structured and functional state, or can be facultative, as a secondary state to folded monomeric subunits. Bacterial amyloids can enhance virulence by increasing persistence, cell adherence and invasion, intracellular survival, and pathogen spread by increased environmental survival. Bacterial amyloids may indirectly inflict disease by triggering inflammation, contact phase activation and possibly induce or aggravate human pathological aggregation disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nani Van Gerven
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; Structural and Molecular Microbiology, Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sander E Van der Verren
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; Structural and Molecular Microbiology, Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Dirk M Reiter
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; Structural and Molecular Microbiology, Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Han Remaut
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium; Structural and Molecular Microbiology, Structural Biology Research Center, VIB, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.
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16
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Fünfhaus A, Göbel J, Ebeling J, Knispel H, Garcia-Gonzalez E, Genersch E. Swarming motility and biofilm formation of Paenibacillus larvae, the etiological agent of American Foulbrood of honey bees (Apis mellifera). Sci Rep 2018; 8:8840. [PMID: 29892084 PMCID: PMC5995878 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27193-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
American Foulbrood is a worldwide distributed, fatal disease of the brood of the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera). The causative agent of this fatal brood disease is the Gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium Paenibacillus larvae, which can be classified into four different genotypes (ERIC I-IV), with ERIC I and II being the ones isolated from contemporary AFB outbreaks. P. larvae is a peritrichously flagellated bacterium and, hence, we hypothesized that P. larvae is capable of coordinated and cooperative multicellular behaviors like swarming motility and biofilm formation. In order to analyze these behaviors of P. larvae, we firstly established appropriate functional assays. Using these assays we demonstrated that P. larvae ERIC II, but not P. larvae ERIC I, was capable of swarming. Swarming motility was hampered in a P. larvae ERIC II-mutant lacking production of paenilarvin, an iturin-like lipopeptide exclusively expressed by this genotype. Both genotypes were able to form free floating biofilm aggregates loosely attached to the walls of the culture wells. Visualizing the biofilms by Congo red and thioflavin S staining suggested structural differences between the biofilms formed. Biofilm formation was shown to be independent from paenilarvin production because the paenilarvin deficient mutant was comparably able to form a biofilm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Fünfhaus
- Institute for Bee Research, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Bee Diseases, Hohen Neuendorf, Germany
| | - Josefine Göbel
- Institute for Bee Research, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Bee Diseases, Hohen Neuendorf, Germany
| | - Julia Ebeling
- Institute for Bee Research, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Bee Diseases, Hohen Neuendorf, Germany
| | - Henriette Knispel
- Institute for Bee Research, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Bee Diseases, Hohen Neuendorf, Germany
| | - Eva Garcia-Gonzalez
- Institute for Bee Research, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Bee Diseases, Hohen Neuendorf, Germany
| | - Elke Genersch
- Institute for Bee Research, Department of Molecular Microbiology and Bee Diseases, Hohen Neuendorf, Germany.
- Freie Universität Berlin, Fachbereich Veterinärmedizin, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Tierseuchen, Berlin, Germany.
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17
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Masforrol Y, Gil J, García D, Noda J, Ramos Y, Betancourt L, Guirola O, González S, Acevedo B, Besada V, Reyes O, González LJ. A deeper mining on the protein composition of VA-MENGOC-BC®: An OMV-based vaccine against N. meningitidis serogroup B and C. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2017; 13:2548-2560. [PMID: 29083947 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2017.1356961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The protein composition of an Outer Membrane Vesicle (OMV) preparation that constitutes the active pharmaceutical ingredient of VA-MENGOC-BC®, an effective vaccine against Neisseria meningitidis serogroups B, and C is presented. This preparation has a high lipid content and five abundant membrane proteins (FetA, PorA, PorB, RmpM, and Opc), constituting approximately 70% of the total protein mass. The protein composition was determined by combining the use of the Hexapeptide Ligand Library and an orthogonal tandem fractionation of tryptic peptides by reverse-phase chromatography at alkaline and acid pH. This approach equalizes the concentration of tryptic peptides derived from low- and high-abundance proteins as well as considerably simplifying the number of peptides analyzed by LC-MS/MS, enhancing the possibility of identifying low-abundance species. Fifty-one percent of the proteins originally annotated as membrane proteins in the genome of the MC58 strain were identified. One hundred and sixty-eight low-abundance cytosolic proteins presumably occluded within OMV were also identified. Four (NadA, NUbp, GNA2091, and fHbp), out of the five antigens constituting the Bexsero® vaccine, were detected in this OMV preparation. In particular, fHbp is also the active principle of the Trumenba® vaccine developed by Pfizer. The HpuA and HpuB gene products (not annotated in the MC58 genome) were identified in the CU385 strain, a clinical isolate that is used to produce this OMV. Considering the proteins identified here and previous work done by our group, the protein catalogue of this OMV preparation was extended to 266 different protein species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yordanka Masforrol
- a Peptide Synthesis Group, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Jeovanis Gil
- b Mass Spectrometry Laboratory and Department of Proteomics , Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Darien García
- d Vaccine Department, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Jesús Noda
- b Mass Spectrometry Laboratory and Department of Proteomics , Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Yassel Ramos
- b Mass Spectrometry Laboratory and Department of Proteomics , Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Lázaro Betancourt
- b Mass Spectrometry Laboratory and Department of Proteomics , Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Osmany Guirola
- c Bioinformatics Department, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Sonia González
- d Vaccine Department, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Boris Acevedo
- e Quality Assurance Departments, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Havana , Cuba
| | - Vladimir Besada
- b Mass Spectrometry Laboratory and Department of Proteomics , Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Osvaldo Reyes
- a Peptide Synthesis Group, Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
| | - Luis Javier González
- b Mass Spectrometry Laboratory and Department of Proteomics , Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology , Havana , Cuba
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18
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Guo Z, Liu T, Cheng YF, Guo N, Yin Y. Adhesion of Bacillus subtilis and Pseudoalteromonas lipolytica to steel in a seawater environment and their effects on corrosion. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 157:157-165. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.05.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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19
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Dragoš A, Kovács ÁT, Claessen D. The Role of Functional Amyloids in Multicellular Growth and Development of Gram-Positive Bacteria. Biomolecules 2017; 7:biom7030060. [PMID: 28783117 PMCID: PMC5618241 DOI: 10.3390/biom7030060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Revised: 08/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid fibrils play pivotal roles in all domains of life. In bacteria, these fibrillar structures are often part of an extracellular matrix that surrounds the producing organism and thereby provides protection to harsh environmental conditions. Here, we discuss the role of amyloid fibrils in the two distant Gram-positive bacteria, Streptomyces coelicolor and Bacillus subtilis. We describe how amyloid fibrils contribute to a multitude of developmental processes in each of these systems, including multicellular growth and community development. Despite this variety of tasks, we know surprisingly little about how their assembly is organized to fulfill all these roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Dragoš
- Terrestrial Biofilms Group, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany.
| | - Ákos T Kovács
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Dennis Claessen
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333BE Leiden, The Netherlands.
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