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Soles A, Selimovic A, Sbrocco K, Ghannoum F, Hamel K, Moncada EL, Gilliat S, Cvetanovic M. Extracellular Matrix Regulation in Physiology and in Brain Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:7049. [PMID: 37108212 PMCID: PMC10138624 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) surrounds cells in the brain, providing structural and functional support. Emerging studies demonstrate that the ECM plays important roles during development, in the healthy adult brain, and in brain diseases. The aim of this review is to briefly discuss the physiological roles of the ECM and its contribution to the pathogenesis of brain disease, highlighting the gene expression changes, transcriptional factors involved, and a role for microglia in ECM regulation. Much of the research conducted thus far on disease states has focused on "omic" approaches that reveal differences in gene expression related to the ECM. Here, we review recent findings on alterations in the expression of ECM-associated genes in seizure, neuropathic pain, cerebellar ataxia, and age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Next, we discuss evidence implicating the transcription factor hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) in regulating the expression of ECM genes. HIF-1 is induced in response to hypoxia, and also targets genes involved in ECM remodeling, suggesting that hypoxia could contribute to ECM remodeling in disease conditions. We conclude by discussing the role microglia play in the regulation of the perineuronal nets (PNNs), a specialized form of ECM in the central nervous system. We show evidence that microglia can modulate PNNs in healthy and diseased brain states. Altogether, these findings suggest that ECM regulation is altered in brain disease, and highlight the role of HIF-1 and microglia in ECM remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Soles
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Adem Selimovic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Kaelin Sbrocco
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Ferris Ghannoum
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Katherine Hamel
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Emmanuel Labrada Moncada
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Stephen Gilliat
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Marija Cvetanovic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
- Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 2101 6th Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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John U, Patro N, Patro I. Perineuronal nets: Cruise from a honeycomb to the safety nets. Brain Res Bull 2022; 190:179-194. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 09/17/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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3
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Ayengin K, Alp HH, Huyut Z, Yıldırım S, Altındag F, Avci V. The effects of CoQ10 supplement on matrix metalloproteinases, oxidative DNA damage and pro-inflammatory cytokines in testicular ischaemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Andrologia 2020; 53:e13839. [PMID: 33368479 DOI: 10.1111/and.13839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 08/18/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to study the effect of coenzyme Q10 on pro-inflammatory cytokine, matrix metalloproteinase, oxidative DNA damage, caspase 3 and caspase 8 in ischaemia/reperfusion injury led to by testicular torsion/detorsion. Our research is a controlled experimental animal research using rats. This study was conducted with fifty-six adult male Albino Wistar rats. Interleucine-1β, 2, 6, 10, tumour necrosis factor-α, matrix metalloproteinase-2, 3, 9, 13, tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase-1, 2, malondialdehyde and leucocyte 8-hydroxy-2-deoxy guanosine/106 deoxyguanosine was detected in serum and tissue samples. In addition, immunohistochemical analysis of caspase 2 and caspase 8 was performed. In testicular I/R injury, especially 24 hr after detorsion, oxidative damage pro-inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases were increased. At the coenzyme Q10 group, a meaningful decrease was observed in these parameters. In addition, a decrease in the expression of caspase3 and caspase 8 was viewed in coenzyme Q10-treated groups. The coenzyme Q10 has beneficial effects on oxidative damage, pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, remodelling of extracellular matrix and apoptosis in testicular I/R injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Ayengin
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Van Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
| | - Hamit Hakan Alp
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Van Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
| | - Zübeyir Huyut
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Van Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
| | - Serkan Yıldırım
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary, Ataturk University, Erzurum, Turkey
| | - Fikret Altındag
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, Van Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
| | - Veli Avci
- Department of Pediatric Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Van Yuzuncu Yıl University, Van, Turkey
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Sadowska M, Mehlhorn C, Średniawa W, Szewczyk ŁM, Szlachcic A, Urban P, Winiarski M, Jabłonka JA. Spreading Depressions and Periinfarct Spreading Depolarizations in the Context of Cortical Plasticity. Neuroscience 2020; 453:81-101. [PMID: 33227236 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.10.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Studies of cortical function-recovery require a comparison between normal and post-stroke conditions that lead to changes in cortical metaplasticity. Focal cortical stroke impairs experience-dependent plasticity in the neighboring somatosensory cortex and usually evokes periinfarct depolarizations (PiDs) - spreading depression-like waves. Experimentally induced spreading depressions (SDs) affect gene expression and some of these changes persist for at least 30 days. In this study we compare the effects of non-stroke depolarizations that impair cortical experience-dependent plasticity to the effects of stroke, by inducing experience-dependent plasticity in rats with SDs or PiDs by a month of contralateral partial whiskers deprivation. We found that whiskers' deprivation after SDs resulted in normal cortical representation enlargement suggesting that SDs and PiDs depolarization have no influence on experience-dependent plasticity cortical map reorganization. PiDs and the MMP-9, -3, -2 or COX-2 proteins, which are assumed to influence metaplasticity in rats after stroke were compared between SDs induced by high osmolarity KCl solution and the PiDs that followed cortical photothrombotic stroke (PtS). We found that none of these factors directly caused cortical post-stroke metaplasticity changes. The only significant difference between stoke and induced SD was a greater imbalance in interhemispheric activity equilibrium after stroke. The interhemispheric interactions that were modified by stroke may therefore be promising targets for future studies of post-stroke experience-dependent plasticity and of recuperation studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Sadowska
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Władysław Średniawa
- Laboratory of Neuroinformatics, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology of PAS, Warsaw, Poland; Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; College of Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Łukasz M Szewczyk
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Szlachcic
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Paulina Urban
- Laboratory of Functional and Structural Genomics, Center of New Technologies, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland; College of Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Winiarski
- Laboratory of Emotions Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, PAS, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jan A Jabłonka
- Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
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Chen X, Patra A, Sadowska GB, Stonestreet BS. Ischemic-Reperfusion Injury Increases Matrix Metalloproteinases and Tissue Metalloproteinase Inhibitors in Fetal Sheep Brain. Dev Neurosci 2018; 40:234-245. [PMID: 30048980 DOI: 10.1159/000489700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypoxic-ischemic brain injury is a leading cause of neurodevelopmental morbidities in preterm and full-term infants. Blood-brain barrier dysfunction represents an important component of perinatal hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a vital component of the blood-brain barrier. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are important ECM components. They contribute to brain development, blood-brain barrier maintenance, and to regenerative and repair processes after hypoxic-ischemic brain injury. We hypothesized that ischemia at different durations of reperfusion affects the ECM protein composition of MMPs and TIMPs in the cerebral cortex of fetal sheep. Cerebral cortical samples were snap-frozen from sham control fetuses at 127 days of gestation and from fetuses after exposure to 30-min carotid occlusion and 4-, 24-, and 48-h of reperfusion. Protein expression of MMP-2, -8, -9, and -13 and TIMP-1, -2, -3, and -4 was measured by Western immunoblotting along with the gelatinolytic activity of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by zymography. The expression of MMP-8 was increased (Kruskal-Wallis, p = 0.04) in fetuses 48 h after ischemia. In contrast, changes were not observed in the protein expression of MMP-2, -9, or -13. The gelatinolytic activity of pro-MMP-2 was increased (ANOVA, p = 0.02, Tukey HSD, p = 0.05) 24 h after ischemia. TIMP-1 and -3 expression levels were also higher (TIMP-1, ANOVA, p = 0.003, Tukey HSD, p = 0.01; TIMP-3, ANOVA, p = 0.006, Tukey HSD, p = 0.01) 24 h after ischemia compared with both the sham controls and with fetuses exposed to 4 h of reperfusion. The changes in the expression of TIMP-1, -2, and -3 correlated with the changes in the MMP-8 and -13 protein expression. We speculate that regulation of MMP-8, MMP-13, and TIMPs contributes to ECM remodeling after is chemic-reperfusion injury in the fetal brain.
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Hsieh TH, Lee HHC, Hameed MQ, Pascual-Leone A, Hensch TK, Rotenberg A. Trajectory of Parvalbumin Cell Impairment and Loss of Cortical Inhibition in Traumatic Brain Injury. Cereb Cortex 2018; 27:5509-5524. [PMID: 27909008 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many neuropsychiatric symptoms that follow traumatic brain injury (TBI), including mood disorders, sleep disturbance, chronic pain, and posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE) are attributable to compromised cortical inhibition. However, the temporal trajectory of cortical inhibition loss and its underlying mechanisms are not known. Using paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (ppTMS) and immunohistochemistry, we tracked functional and cellular changes of cortical inhibitory network elements after fluid-percussion injury (FPI) in rats. ppTMS revealed a progressive loss of cortical inhibition as early as 2 weeks after FPI. This profile paralleled the increasing levels of cortical oxidative stress, which was accompanied by a gradual loss of parvalbumin (PV) immunoreactivity in perilesional cortex. Preceding the PV loss, we identified a degradation of the perineuronal net (PNN)-a specialized extracellular structure enwrapping cortical PV-positive (PV+) inhibitory interneurons which binds the PV+ cell maintenance factor, Otx2. The trajectory of these impairments underlies the reduced inhibitory tone, which can contribute to posttraumatic neurological conditions, such as PTE. Taken together, our results highlight the use of ppTMS as a biomarker to track the course of cortical inhibitory dysfunction post-TBI. Moreover, the neuroprotective role of PNNs on PV+ cell function suggests antioxidant treatment or Otx2 enhancement as a promising prophylaxis for post-TBI symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsung-Hsun Hsieh
- Neuromodulation Program, Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Department of Physical Therapy and Graduate Institute of Rehabilitation Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.,Neuroscience Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou Medical Center, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan
| | - Henry Hing Cheong Lee
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Mustafa Qadir Hameed
- Neuromodulation Program, Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Alvaro Pascual-Leone
- Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Takao K Hensch
- Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, MA 02138, USA
| | - Alexander Rotenberg
- Neuromodulation Program, Division of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurophysiology, Department of Neurology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Department of Neurology, F.M. Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.,Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Ischemic injury leads to extracellular matrix alterations in retina and optic nerve. Sci Rep 2017; 7:43470. [PMID: 28262779 PMCID: PMC5338032 DOI: 10.1038/srep43470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Retinal ischemia occurs in a variety of eye diseases. Restrained blood flow induces retinal damage, which leads to progressive optic nerve degeneration and vision loss. Previous studies indicate that extracellular matrix (ECM) constituents play an important role in complex tissues, such as retina and optic nerve. They have great impact on de- and regeneration processes and represent major candidates of central nervous system glial scar formation. Nevertheless, the importance of the ECM during ischemic retina and optic nerve neurodegeneration is not fully understood yet. In this study, we analyzed remodeling of the extracellular glycoproteins fibronectin, laminin, tenascin-C and tenascin-R and the chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) aggrecan, brevican and phosphacan/RPTPβ/ζ in retinae and optic nerves of an ischemia/reperfusion rat model via quantitative real-time PCR, immunohistochemistry and Western blot. A variety of ECM constituents were dysregulated in the retina and optic nerve after ischemia. Regarding fibronectin, significantly elevated mRNA and protein levels were observed in the retina following ischemia, while laminin and tenascin-C showed enhanced immunoreactivity in the optic nerve after ischemia. Interestingly, CSPGs displayed significantly increased expression levels in the optic nerve. Our study demonstrates a dynamic expression of ECM molecules following retinal ischemia, which strengthens their regulatory role during neurodegeneration.
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Dubey D, McRae PA, Rankin-Gee EK, Baranov E, Wandrey L, Rogers S, Porter BE. Increased metalloproteinase activity in the hippocampus following status epilepticus. Epilepsy Res 2017; 132:50-58. [PMID: 28292736 DOI: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2017.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Increased neuronal plasticity and neuronal cell loss has been implicated in the development of epilepsy following injury. Parvalbumin fast spiking inhibitory interneurons have a robust extracellular matrix coating their cell bodies and the proximal dendrites called the perineuronal net (PNN). The role of the PNN is not clear but it has been implicated in closing of the critical period, altering seizure thresholds and providing neuronal protection from oxidative stress. The PNN is susceptible to degradation following a prolonged seizure and there is an increase in proteolytic-fragments of the PNN enriched proteoglycan aggrecan (Dzwonek et al., 2004). Here we demonstrate an increase in matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) activity in the hippocampus following status epilepticus (SE). We further assessed MMP3 and 13, two of 24 identified MMPs, both MMP3 and 13 mRNA increase in the hippocampus after SE and MMP13 activity increases by functional assay as well as it co-localizes with PNN in rat brain. In contrast, two of the brain expressed ADAMTS (A Disintegrin And Metalloproteinase with ThromboSpondin motifs) also implicated in aggrecan degradation, did not consistently increase following SE though ADAMTS4 is highly expressed in glia and ADAMTS5 in neuronal cell bodies and their processes. The increase in MMP activity following SE suggests that in the future studies, MMP inhibitors are candidates for blocking PNN degradation and assessing the role of the PNN loss in epileptogenesis and cellular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepti Dubey
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, 1201 Welch Road, P211 MSLS, Stanford CA 94305, United States
| | - Paulette A McRae
- The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Department of Pediatrics and Division of Neurology, 34th and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia PA 19104, United States
| | - Elyse K Rankin-Gee
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, 1201 Welch Road, P211 MSLS, Stanford CA 94305, United States
| | - Esther Baranov
- The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Department of Pediatrics and Division of Neurology, 34th and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia PA 19104, United States
| | - Luke Wandrey
- The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Department of Pediatrics and Division of Neurology, 34th and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia PA 19104, United States
| | - Stephanie Rogers
- The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Department of Pediatrics and Division of Neurology, 34th and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia PA 19104, United States
| | - Brenda E Porter
- Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Stanford University, 1201 Welch Road, P211 MSLS, Stanford CA 94305, United States; The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Department of Pediatrics and Division of Neurology, 34th and Civic Center Boulevard, Philadelphia PA 19104, United States.
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Su J, Cole J, Fox MA. Loss of Interneuron-Derived Collagen XIX Leads to a Reduction in Perineuronal Nets in the Mammalian Telencephalon. ASN Neuro 2017; 9:1759091416689020. [PMID: 28090790 PMCID: PMC5298462 DOI: 10.1177/1759091416689020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Perineuronal nets (PNNs) are lattice-like supramolecular assemblies of extracellular glycoproteins that surround subsets of neuronal cell bodies in the mammalian telencephalon. PNNs emerge at the end of the critical period of brain development, limit neuronal plasticity in the adult brain, and are lost in a variety of complex brain disorders diseases, including schizophrenia. The link between PNNs and schizophrenia led us to question whether neuronally expressed extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules associated with schizophrenia contribute to the assembly of these specialized supramolecular ECM assemblies. We focused on collagen XIX-a minor, nonfibrillar collagen expressed by subsets of telencephalic interneurons. Genetic alterations in the region encoding collagen XIX have been associated with familial schizophrenia, and loss of this collagen in mice results in altered inhibitory synapses, seizures, and the acquisition of schizophrenia-related behaviors. Here, we demonstrate that loss of collagen XIX also results in a reduction of telencephalic PNNs. Loss of PNNs was accompanied with reduced levels of aggrecan (Acan), a major component of PNNs. Despite reduced levels of PNN constituents in collagen XIX-deficient mice ( col19a1-/-), we failed to detect reduced expression of genes encoding these ECM molecules. Instead, we discovered a widespread upregulation of extracellular proteases capable of cleaving Acan and other PNN constituents in col19a1-/- brains. Taken together, these results suggest a mechanism by which the loss of collagen XIX speeds PNN degradation and they identify a novel mechanism by which the loss of collagen XIX may contribute to complex brain disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmin Su
- Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, USA
| | - James Cole
- Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, USA
| | - Michael A. Fox
- Virginia Tech Carilion Research Institute, Roanoke, VA, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, Roanoke, VA, USA
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Matrix metalloproteinase-13 participates in neuroprotection and neurorepair after cerebral ischemia in mice. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 91:236-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
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Ma F, Rodriguez S, Buxo X, Morancho A, Riba-Llena I, Carrera A, Bustamante A, Giralt D, Montaner J, Martinez C, Bori I, Rosell A. Plasma Matrix Metalloproteinases in Patients With Stroke During Intensive Rehabilitation Therapy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2016; 97:1832-1840. [PMID: 27373742 DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2016.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study plasma levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) as potential markers of recovery during intensive rehabilitation therapy (IRT) after stroke. DESIGN Prospective and descriptive 3-month follow-up study. SETTING Rehabilitation unit and research center. PARTICIPANTS Patients with first-ever ischemic stroke (n=15) enrolled to IRT (≥3h/d and 5d/wk) and healthy volunteers (n=15) (N=30). INTERVENTIONS Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The primary outcome was to measure plasma MMP3, MMP12, and MMP13 levels and evaluate potential associations with motor/functional scales using a battery of tests (National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale, modified Rankin scale, Barthel Index, Fugl-Meyer Assessment, Functional Ambulation Categories, Medical Research Council scale, Chedoke Arm and Hand Activity Inventory, and the 10-m walk test) before IRT and at 1- and 3-month follow-ups. The secondary outcome was to evaluate the use of these MMPs as biomarkers as predictors of patient's outcome. RESULTS MMP levels remained stable during the study period and were similar to those in the healthy volunteer group. However, baseline MMP12 and MMP13 levels were strongly associated with stroke severity and were found to be elevated in those patients with the poorest outcomes. Interestingly, plasma MMP3 was independent of baseline stroke characteristics but was found to be increased in patients with better motor/functional recovery and in patients with larger improvements during rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS MMPs might act as biologic markers of recovery during rehabilitation therapy related to their roles in both injury and tissue remodeling. Future confirmatory investigations in multicenter studies are warranted by our data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Ma
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Susana Rodriguez
- Unidad de Rehabilitación Neurológica y Daño Cerebral, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavi Buxo
- Unidad de Rehabilitación Neurológica y Daño Cerebral, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Morancho
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iolanda Riba-Llena
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ana Carrera
- Unidad de Rehabilitación Neurológica y Daño Cerebral, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alejandro Bustamante
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dolors Giralt
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan Montaner
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Martinez
- Unidad de Rehabilitación Neurológica y Daño Cerebral, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Immaculada Bori
- Unidad de Rehabilitación Neurológica y Daño Cerebral, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Rosell
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory and Neuroscience Department, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
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Lemmens K, Bollaerts I, Bhumika S, de Groef L, Van Houcke J, Darras VM, Van Hove I, Moons L. Matrix metalloproteinases as promising regulators of axonal regrowth in the injured adult zebrafish retinotectal system. J Comp Neurol 2015; 524:1472-93. [PMID: 26509469 DOI: 10.1002/cne.23920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Overcoming the failure of axon regeneration in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) after injury remains a major challenge, which makes the search for proregenerative molecules essential. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated in axonal outgrowth during CNS development and show increased expression levels during vertebrate CNS repair. In mammals, MMPs are believed to alter the suppressive extracellular matrix to become more permissive for axon regrowth. We investigated the role of MMPs in axonal regeneration following optic nerve crush (ONC) in adult zebrafish, which fully recover from such injuries due to a high intrinsic axon growth capacity and a less inhibitory environment. Lowering general retinal MMP activity through intravitreal injections of GM6001 after ONC strongly reduced retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axonal regrowth, without influencing RGC survival. Based on a recently performed transcriptome profiling study, the expression pattern of four MMPs after ONC was determined via combined use of western blotting and immunostainings. Mmp-2 and -13a were increasingly present in RGC somata during axonal regrowth. Moreover, Mmp-2 and -9 became upregulated in regrowing RGC axons and inner plexiform layer (IPL) synapses, respectively. In contrast, after an initial rise in IPL neurites and RGC axons during the injury response, Mmp-14 expression decreased during regeneration. Altogether, a phase-dependent expression pattern for each specific MMP was observed, implicating them in axonal regrowth and inner retina remodeling after injury. In conclusion, these data suggest a novel, neuron-intrinsic function for multiple MMPs in axon regrowth that is distinct from breaking down environmental barriers. J. Comp. Neurol. 524:1472-1493, 2016. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Lemmens
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Development and Regeneration, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Ilse Bollaerts
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Development and Regeneration, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Stitipragyan Bhumika
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lies de Groef
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Development and Regeneration, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jessie Van Houcke
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Development and Regeneration, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Veerle M Darras
- Laboratory of Comparative Endocrinology, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Inge Van Hove
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Development and Regeneration, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lieve Moons
- Laboratory of Neural Circuit Development and Regeneration, Biology Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Rankin-Gee EK, McRae PA, Baranov E, Rogers S, Wandrey L, Porter BE. Perineuronal net degradation in epilepsy. Epilepsia 2015; 56:1124-33. [DOI: 10.1111/epi.13026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elyse K. Rankin-Gee
- Department of Neurology; Stanford University School of Medicine; Palo Alto California U.S.A
| | - Paulette A. McRae
- Department of Neurology; The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; The Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia PA U.S.A
| | - Esther Baranov
- Department of Neurology; The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; The Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia PA U.S.A
| | - Stephanie Rogers
- Department of Neurology; The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; The Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia PA U.S.A
| | - Luke Wandrey
- Department of Neurology; The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; The Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia PA U.S.A
| | - Brenda E. Porter
- Department of Neurology; Stanford University School of Medicine; Palo Alto California U.S.A
- Department of Neurology; The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia; The Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania; Philadelphia PA U.S.A
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Lenglet S, Montecucco F, Mach F, Schaller K, Gasche Y, Copin JC. Analysis of the expression of nine secreted matrix metalloproteinases and their endogenous inhibitors in the brain of mice subjected to ischaemic stroke. Thromb Haemost 2014; 112:363-78. [PMID: 24671655 DOI: 10.1160/th14-01-0007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of more than twenty secreted and cell-surface endopeptidases. Among them, MMP2, MMP3 and MMP9 are involved in blood-brain barrier injury and neuronal death after cerebral ischaemia. On the other hand, very little is known about the expression of the other secreted MMPs. Herein, we compared the global changes in MMP1, MMP2, MMP3, MMP7, MMP8, MMP9, MMP10, MMP12 and MMP13, and their endogenous inhibitors TIMP1 and TIMP2, both at the mRNA and protein levels, during the hyperacute (6 h), acute (24 h) and subacute (72 h) stages following transient focal cerebral ischaemia and treatment with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rtPA). We observed a significant increase in MMP1, MMP2, MMP9, MMP10, MMP13 and TIMP1 levels during the acute stage of reperfusion, which was further amplified during the subacute stage for MMP1, MMP2, MMP10 and TIMP1. In general, no change of MMP3, MMP7, MMP8, MMP12 and TIMP2 was observed. However, rtPA treatment induced a rapid increase in MMP1/TIMP2, MMP2/TIMP2, MMP8/TIMP2 and MMP9/TIMP2 ratios during the hyperacute stage of reperfusion compared to saline treatment, which may have potential implications in the early disruption of the blood-brain barrier after rtPA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - J-C Copin
- Jean-Christophe Copin, Division of Cardiology, Fondation for Medical Researches, Avenue de la Roseraie 64, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland, E-mail: ;
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15
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Inflammation modulates expression of laminin in the central nervous system following ischemic injury. J Neuroinflammation 2012; 9:159. [PMID: 22759265 PMCID: PMC3414761 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-9-159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ischemic stroke induces neuronal death in the core of the infarct within a few hours and the secondary damage in the surrounding regions over a long period of time. Reduction of inflammation using pharmacological reagents has become a target of research for the treatment of stroke. Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), a marker of inflammation, is induced during stroke and enhances inflammatory reactions through the release of enzymatic products, such as prostaglandin (PG) E2. METHODS Wild-type (WT) and COX-2 knockout (COX-2KO) mice were subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Additionally, brain slices derived from these mice or brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) conditions. The expression levels of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins were assessed and correlated with the state of inflammation. RESULTS We found that components of the ECM, and specifically laminin, are transiently highly upregulated on endothelial cells after MCAO or OGD. This upregulation is not observed in COX-2KO mice or WT mice treated with COX-2 inhibitor, celecoxib, suggesting that COX-2 is associated with changes in the levels of laminins. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, we report that transient ECM remodeling takes place early after stroke and suggest that this increase in ECM protein expression may constitute an effort to revascularize and oxygenate the tissue.
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Abstract
AbstractMatrix metalloproteinases play a crucial role in the remodelling of the extracellular matrix through direct degradation of its structural proteins and control of extracellular signalling. The most common cause of ischemic brain damage is an atherothrombotic lesion in the supplying arteries. The progress of the atherosclerotic plaque development and the related thrombotic complications are mediated in part by matrix metalloproteinases. In addition to their role in the underlying disease, various members of this protease family are upregulated in the acute phase of ischemic brain damage as well as in the post-ischemic brain recovery following stroke. This review summarizes the current understanding of the matrix metalloproteinase-related molecular events at three stages of the ischemic cerebrovascular disease (in the atherosclerotic plaque, in the neurovascular unit of the brain and in the regenerating brain tissue).
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17
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Dejonckheere E, Vandenbroucke RE, Libert C. Matrix metalloproteinases as drug targets in ischemia/reperfusion injury. Drug Discov Today 2011; 16:762-78. [PMID: 21745586 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2011.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2011] [Revised: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Deficient blood supply (ischemia) is a common consequence of some surgical procedures and certain pathologies. Once blood circulation is re-established (reperfusion), a complex series of events results in recruitment of inflammatory cells, rearrangement of the extracellular matrix and induction of cell death, which lead to organ dysfunction. Although ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury is an important cause of death, there is no effective therapy targeting the molecular mechanism of disease progression. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are important regulators of many cellular activities, have a central role in disease progression after I/R injury, as suggested by numerous studies using MMP inhibitors or MMP-deficient mice. Here, we review the involvement of MMP activity in the various processes following I/R injury and the therapeutic potential of MMP inhibition.
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Karetko-Sysa M, Skangiel-Kramska J, Nowicka D. Disturbance of perineuronal nets in the perilesional area after photothrombosis is not associated with neuronal death. Exp Neurol 2011; 231:113-26. [PMID: 21683696 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Perineuronal nets (PNNs) are a condensed form of extracellular matrix that covers the surface of a subset of neurons. Their presence limits neuronal plasticity and may protect neurons against harmful agents. Here we analyzed the relationship between spatiotemporal changes in PNN expression and cell death markers after focal cortical photothrombotic stroke in rats. We registered a substantial decrease in PNN density using Wisteria floribunda agglutinin staining and CAT-315 and brevican immunoreactivity; the decrease occurred not only in the lesion core but also in the perilesional and remote cortex as well as in homotopic contralateral cortical regions. Fluoro Jade C and TUNEL staining in perilesional and remote areas, however, showed a low density of dying cells. Our results suggest that the PNN reduction was not a result of cellular death and could be considered an attempt to create conditions favorable for synaptic remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Karetko-Sysa
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, The Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Warsaw, Poland
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19
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Cuadrado E, Rosell A, Penalba A, Slevin M, Alvarez-Sabín J, Ortega-Aznar A, Montaner J. Vascular MMP-9/TIMP-2 and neuronal MMP-10 up-regulation in human brain after stroke: a combined laser microdissection and protein array study. J Proteome Res 2009; 8:3191-7. [PMID: 19317417 DOI: 10.1021/pr801012x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) play an important role in brain injury after ischemic stroke. In the present study, we aimed to assess the global expression of MMP-Family proteins in the human brain after stroke by using a combination of Searchlight Protein Array and Laser Microdissection to determine their cellular origin. This study demonstrated that MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-8, MMP-9, MMP-10, MMP-13, and TIMP-1 were upregulated in the infarcted tissue compared to healthy control areas. Using laser microdissection we obtained specific neuronal and vascular populations from both infarcted and control areas. From these fractions, we showed that MMP-9 and TIMP-2 were highly produced in brain microvessels while MMP-10 was notably increased in neurons of the ischemic brain but not in healthy areas. These findings demonstrate a selective cell-dependent MMP secretion, opening the possibility of selectively targeting specific MMPs for neuroprotection or vasculoprotection following stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloy Cuadrado
- Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Neurovascular Unit, Department of Neurology, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, Institut de Recerca, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
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20
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Lu DY, Yu WH, Yeh WL, Tang CH, Leung YM, Wong KL, Chen YF, Lai CH, Fu WM. Hypoxia-induced matrix metalloproteinase-13 expression in astrocytes enhances permeability of brain endothelial cells. J Cell Physiol 2009; 220:163-73. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.21746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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21
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The expression of matrix metalloproteinase-13 is increased in vessels with blood–brain barrier impairment in a stroke-prone hypertensive model. Hypertens Res 2009; 32:332-8. [DOI: 10.1038/hr.2009.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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22
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Transactivation by Runt related factor-2 of matrix metalloproteinase-13 in astrocytes. Neurosci Lett 2009; 451:99-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2008] [Revised: 12/16/2008] [Accepted: 12/18/2008] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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23
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Cuadrado E, Rosell A, Borrell-Pagès M, García-Bonilla L, Hernández-Guillamon M, Ortega-Aznar A, Montaner J. Matrix metalloproteinase-13 is activated and is found in the nucleus of neural cells after cerebral ischemia. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2009; 29:398-410. [PMID: 18985055 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated in the pathophysiology of ischemic stroke. In this study, we investigated the time course of gelatinolytic activation in a rat model of permanent ischemia. We observed an activation of MMPs as early as 30 mins after the ischemic insult, mainly in the nuclei of brain cells. Besides, we explored MMP-13 expression in brain samples of the animal model and stroke deceased patients. We observed an upregulation of active MMP-13 in rat brains (P<0.05) after 90 mins of cerebral ischemia. Human infarct/periinfarct samples also showed higher levels of active MMP-13 (P<0.05) compared with contralateral ones. Interestingly, we found that MMP-13 colocalized with 46-diamidino-2-phenyl indole signal by immunohistochemistry in both humans and rats, suggesting an intranuclear localization for MMP-13. Immunohistochemistry also revealed that MMP-13 was mainly produced by neurons, in both species, but also by oligodendrocytes in rats, and by astrocytes in humans. Finally we subjected a rat primary neuronal culture to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) and we reproduced the nuclear translocation of MMP-13 in vitro. Nuclear extracts from cells confirmed upregulation of active MMP-13 after OGD (P<0.05). These results suggest that MMP-13 activation and its nuclear translocation is an early consequence of an ischemic stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eloy Cuadrado
- Department of Neurology, Institut de Recerca, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Mukhopadhyay S, Tulis DA. Endocannabinoid regulation of matrix metalloproteinases: implications in ischemic stroke. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem 2007; 5:311-8. [PMID: 17979695 PMCID: PMC3638791 DOI: 10.2174/187152507782109917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a major cause of morbidity and mortality and follows heart disease and cancer as the third leading cause of death in Western societies [1]. Despite many advances in stroke research and pharmacotherapy, clinical treatment of this debilitating disorder is still inadequate. Recent findings from several laboratories have identified the endocannabinoid signaling pathway, comprised of the endocannabinoid agonist anandamide and its pharmacological targets, CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors and associated anandamide receptors, as a physiological system with capacity to mitigate cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disorders through neuronal and endothelial actions. Variability in experimental stroke models and modes of outcome evaluation, however, have provoked controversy regarding the precise roles of endocannabinoid signals in mediating neural and/or vascular protection versus neurovascular damage. Clinical trials of the CB1 antagonist rimonabant demonstrate that modulation of endocannabinoid signaling during metabolic regulation of vascular disorders can significantly impact clinical outcomes, thus providing strong argument for therapeutic utility of endocannabinoids and/or cannabinoid receptors as targets for therapeutic intervention in cases of stroke and associated vascular disorders. The purpose of this review is to provide updated information from basic science and clinical perspectives on endocannabinoid ligands and their effects in the pathophysiologic genesis of stroke. Particular emphasis will be placed on the endocannabinoids anandamide and 2-arachidonylglycerol and CB1 receptor-mediated mechanisms in the neurovascular unit during stroke pathogenesis. Deficiencies in our knowledge of endocannabinoids in the etiology and pathogenesis of stroke, caveats and limitations of existing studies, and future directions for investigation will be addressed.
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Galtrey CM, Fawcett JW. The role of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans in regeneration and plasticity in the central nervous system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 54:1-18. [PMID: 17222456 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 437] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2006] [Revised: 07/24/2006] [Accepted: 09/11/2006] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs) consist of a core protein and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains. There is enormous structural diversity among CSPGs due to variation in the core protein, the number of GAG chains and the extent and position of sulfation. Most CSPGs are secreted from cells and participate in the formation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). CSPGs are able to interact with various growth-active molecules and this may be important in their mechanism of action. In the normal central nervous system (CNS), CSPGs have a role in development and plasticity during postnatal development and in the adult. Plasticity is greatest in the young, especially during critical periods. CSPGs are crucial components of perineuronal nets (PNNs). PNNs have a role in closure of the critical period and digestion of PNNs allows their re-opening. In the adult, CSPGs play a part in learning and memory and the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system. CSPGs have an important role in CNS injuries and diseases. After CNS injury, CSPGs are the major inhibitory component of the glial scar. Removal of CSPGs improves axonal regeneration and functional recovery. CSPGs may also be involved in the pathological processes in diseases such as epilepsy, stroke and Alzheimer's disease. Several possible methods of manipulating CSPGs in the CNS have recently been identified. The development of methods to remove CSPGs has considerable therapeutic potential in a number of CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare M Galtrey
- Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair, Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Robinson Way, Cambridge, CB2 2PY, UK
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