GMP prevents excitotoxicity mediated by NMDA receptor activation but not by reversal activity of glutamate transporters in rat hippocampal slices

A summary of calixarene-based fluorescent sensors developed during the past five years

Calixarenes are "chalice like" phenol-based macrocycles that are one of the most fascinating studied scaffolds in supramolecular chemistry. Their preorganized nonpolar cavities and ion binding sites, and their well-defined conformations all lay important foundations for forming host-guest complexes. Conjugation of calixarene scaffolds with various fluorophores at either upper or lower rims has led to the development of smart fluorescent probes for inorganic molecules or ions, aliphatic or aromatic compounds, biomolecules, temperature and hypoxia, even multi-component traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Moreover, significant advancements have been made for biological applications. This review critically summarizes the recent advances made in these areas.

Guanosine Prevents Spatial Memory Impairment and Hippocampal Damage Following Amyloid-β1-42 Administration in Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative illness responsible for cognitive impairment and dementia. Accumulation of amyloid-beta (Aβ) peptides in neurons and synapses causes cell metabolism to unbalance, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to neuronal death and cognitive damage. Guanosine is an endogenous nucleoside recognized as a neuroprotective agent since it prevents glutamate-induced neurotoxicity by a mechanism not yet completely elucidated. In this study, we evaluated behavioral and biochemical effects in the hippocampus caused by the intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusion of Aβ_1-42 peptide (400 pmol/site) in mice, and the neuroprotective effect of guanosine (8 mg/kg, i.p.). An initial evaluation on the eighth day after Aβ_1-42 infusion showed no changes in the tail suspension test, although ex vivo analyses in hippocampal slices showed increased ROS production. In the second protocol, on the tenth day following Aβ_1-42 infusion, no effect was observed in the sucrose splash test, but a reduction in the recognition index in the object location test showed impaired spatial memory. Analysis of hippocampal slices showed no ROS production and mitochondrial membrane potential alteration, but a tendency to increase glutamate release and a significant lactate release, pointing to a metabolic alteration. Those effects were accompanied by decreased cell viability and increased membrane damage. Guanosine treatment prevented behavioral and biochemical alterations evoked by Aβ_1-42, suggesting a potential role against behavioral and biochemical damage evoked by Aβ in the hippocampus.

Functional interplay between adenosine A2A receptor and NMDA preconditioning in fear memory and glutamate uptake in the mice hippocampus

N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) administered at subtoxic dose plays a protective role against neuronal excitotoxicity, a mechanism described as preconditioning. Since the activation of adenosinergic receptors influences the achievement of NMDA preconditioning in the hippocampus, we evaluated the potential functional interplay between adenosine A₁ and A_2A receptors (A₁R and A_2AR) activities and NMDA preconditioning. Adult male Swiss mice received saline (NaCl 0.9 g%, i.p.) or a nonconvulsant dose of NMDA (75 mg/kg, i.p.) and 24 h later they were treated with the one of the ligands: A₁R agonist (CCPA, 0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) or antagonist (DPCPX, 3 mg/kg, i.p.), A_2AR agonist (CGS21680, 0.05 mg/kg, i.p.) or antagonist (ZM241385, 0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) and subjected to contextual fear conditioning task. Binding properties and content of A_2AR and glutamate uptake were assessed in the hippocampus of mice subjected to NMDA preconditioning. Treatment with CGS21680 increased the time of freezing during the exposure of animals to the new environment. NMDA preconditioning did not affect the freezing time of mice per se, but it prevented the response observed after the activation of A_2AR. Furthermore, the activation of A_2AR by CGS21680 after the preconditioning blocked the increase of glutamate uptake induced by NMDA preconditioning. The immunodetection of A_2AR in total hippocampal homogenates showed no significant differences evoked by NMDA preconditioning and did not alter A_2AR maximum binding for the selective ligand [³H]CGS21680. These results demonstrate changes in A_2AR functionality in mice following NMDA preconditioning.

Synthesis of new p-tert-butylcalix[4]arene-based polyammonium triazolyl amphiphiles and their binding with nucleoside phosphates

The synthesis of new calix[4]arenes adopting a cone stereoisomeric form bearing two or four azide fragments on the upper rim and water-soluble triazolyl amphiphilic receptors with two or four polyammonium headgroups via copper-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition reaction has been performed for the first time. It was found that the synthesized macrocycles form stable aggregates with hydrodynamic diameters between 150–200 nm and electrokinetic potentials about +40 to +60 mV in water solutions. Critical aggregation concentration (CAC) values were measured using a micelle method with pyrene and eosin Y as dye probes. The CAC values of tetraalkyl-substituted macrocycles 12a,b (5 µM for both) are significantly lower than those for dialkyl-substituted macrocycles 10a,b (790 and 160 µM, respectively). Premicellar aggregates of macrocycles 10a,b and 12a,b with the dye eosin Y were used for nucleotides sensing through a dye replacement procedure. It is unusual that disubstituted macrocycles 10a,b bind more effectively a less charged adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP) than adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP). A simple colorimetric method based on polydiacetylene vesicles decorated with 10b was elaborated for the naked-eye detection of ADP with a detection limit of 0.5 mM.

Melatonin protects against oxygen and glucose deprivation by decreasing extracellular glutamate and Nox-derived ROS in rat hippocampal slices

Therapeutic interventions on pathological processes involved in the ischemic cascade, such as oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, excitotoxicity and/or apoptosis, are of urgent need for stroke treatment. Melatonin regulates a large number of physiological actions and its beneficial properties have been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate whether melatonin mediates neuroprotection in rat hippocampal slices subjected to oxygen-glucose-deprivation (OGD) and glutamate excitotoxicity. Thus, we describe here that melatonin significantly reduced the amount of lactate dehydrogenase released in the OGD-treated slices, reverted neuronal injury caused by OGD-reoxygenation in CA1 and CA3 hippocampal regions, restored the reduction of GSH content of the hippocampal slices induced by OGD, and diminished the oxidative stress produced in the reoxygenation period. Furthermore, melatonin afforded maximum protection against glutamate-induced toxicity and reversed the glutamate released almost basal levels, at 10 and 30μM concentration, respectively. Consequently, we propose that melatonin might strongly and positively influence the outcome of brain ischemia/reperfusion.

The Guanine-Based Purinergic System: The Tale of An Orphan Neuromodulation

Guanine-based purines (GBPs) have been recently proposed to be not only metabolic agents but also extracellular signaling molecules that regulate important functions in the central nervous system. In such way, GBPs-mediated neuroprotection, behavioral responses and neuronal plasticity have been broadly described in the literature. However, while a number of these functions (i.e., GBPs neurothophic effects) have been well-established, the molecular mechanisms behind these GBPs-dependent effects are still unknown. Furthermore, no plasma membrane receptors for GBPs have been described so far, thus GBPs are still considered orphan neuromodulators. Interestingly, an intricate and controversial functional interplay between GBPs effects and adenosine receptors activity has been recently described, thus triggering the hypothesis that GBPs mechanism of action might somehow involve adenosine receptors. Here, we review recent data describing the GBPs role in the brain. We focus on the involvement of GBPs regulating neuronal plasticity, and on the new hypothesis based on putative GBPs receptors. Overall, we expect to shed some light on the GBPs world since although these molecules might represent excellent candidates for certain neurological diseases management, the lack of putative GBPs receptors precludes any high throughput screening intent for the search of effective GBPs-based drugs.

Passiflora actinia hydroalcoholic extract and its major constituent, isovitexin, are neuroprotective against glutamate-induced cell damage in mice hippocampal slices

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether Passiflora actinia hydroalcoholic extract and its major constituent, isovitexin, protect mice hippocampal brain slices from glutamate-induced neurotoxicity.

METHODS

Neuroprotective effect of the extract against glutamate-induced excitotoxicity (10 mm) was evaluated through cell viability of hippocampal slices. The extract or its flavonoids were directly applied to hippocampal slices and then subjected to glutamate-induced toxicity. Alternatively, hippocampal slices from extract-treated mice were also subjected to the same toxicity protocol.

KEY FINDINGS

Mice supplementation with the extract protected hippocampal slices from in-vitro neurotoxicity. When directly applied to hippocampal slices, the extract showed a higher neuroprotective potential than a commercial dry extract of Passiflora incarnata, which was related to P. actinia extract which had higher isovitexin and total flavonoid content expressed as isovitexin. Isovitexin, but not apigenin, induced a similar neuroprotective response when applied alone, at a concentration equivalent to that found in the extract.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights new neuropharmacological activity of the Passiflora genus, suggesting that it can act as modulator of the glutamatergic system. The search for improved pharmacotherapies with novel mechanisms of action has been shown of great importance for the treatment of resistant neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Cooperation of non-effective concentration of glutamatergic system modulators and antioxidant against oxidative stress induced by quinolinic acid

Excessive formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disruption of glutamate uptake have been hypothesized as key mechanisms contributing to quinolinic acid (QA)-induced toxicity. Thus, here we investigate if the use of diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)(2), guanosine (GUO) and MK-801, alone or in combination, could protect rat brain slices from QA-induced toxicity. QA (1 mM) increased ROS formation, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and decreased cell viability after 2 h of exposure. (PhSe)(2) (1 μM) protected against this ROS formation in the cortex and the striatum and also prevented decreases in cell viability induced by QA. (PhSe)(2) (5 μM) prevented ROS formation in the hippocampus. GUO (10 and 100 μM) blocked the increase in ROS formation caused by QA and MK-801 (20 and 100 μM) abolished the pro-oxidant effect of QA. When the noneffective concentrations were used in combination produced a decrease in ROS formation, mainly (PhSe)(2) + GUO and (PhSe)(2) + GUO + MK-801. These results demonstrate that this combination could be effective to avoid toxic effects caused by high concentrations of QA. Furthermore, the data obtained in the ROS formation and cellular viability assays suggest different pathways in amelioration of QA toxicity present in the neurodegenerative process.

Prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke causes persistent changes in the oxidative balance and in DNA structural integrity in rats submitted to the animal model of schizophrenia

Epidemiological studies have indicated that prenatal exposure to environmental insults can bring an increased risk of schizophrenia. The objective of our study was to determine biochemical parameters in rats exposed to cigarette smoke (CS) in the prenatal period, evaluated in adult offspring submitted to animal model of schizophrenia induced by acute subanaesthetic doses of ketamine (5 mg/kg, 15 mg/kg and 25 mg/kg). Pregnant female Wistar rats were exposed to 12 commercially filtered cigarettes per day, daily for a period of 28 days. We evaluated the oxidative damage in lipid and protein in the rat brain, and DNA damage in the peripheral blood of male adult offspring rats. To determine oxidative damage in the lipids, we measured the formation of thiobarbituric acid reactive species (TBARS) and the oxidative damage to the proteins was assessed by the determination of carbonyl groups content. We also evaluated DNA damage using single-cell gel electrophoresis (comet assay). Our results showed that rats exposed to CS in the prenatal period presented a significant increase of the lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation and DNA damage in adult age. We can observe that the animals submitted at acute doses of ketamine also presented an increase of the lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation at different doses and structures. Finally, we suggest that exposure to CS during the prenatal period affects two essential cerebral processes during development: redox regulation and DNA integrity, evaluated in adult offspring. These effects can leads to several neurochemical changes similar to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.

Carbohydrate-conjugate heterobimetallic complexes: synthesis, DNA binding studies, artificial nuclease activity and in vitro cytotoxicity

New carbohydrate-conjugated heterobimetallic complexes [C(32)H(62)N(10)O(8)NiSn(2)Cl(4)]Cl(2)(1) and [C(32)H(62)N(10)O(8)CuSn(2)Cl(4)]Cl(2) (2) were synthesized and characterized by spectroscopic (IR, (1)H, (13)C, and (119)Sn NMR, EPR, UV-vis, ESI-MS) and analytical methods. The interaction studies of 2 with CT DNA were studied by using various biophysical techniques, which showed high binding affinity of 2 toward CT DNA. The extent of interaction was further confirmed by the interaction of 2 with the nucleotides viz.; 5'-AMP, 5'-CMP, 5'-GMP, and 5'-TMP, by absorption titration. (1)H, (31)P, (119)Sn NMR spectroscopy further validated the interaction mode of 2 with 5'-GMP. The electrophoresis pattern observed for 2 with supercoiled pBR322 DNA, exhibited significantly good nuclease activity following oxidative pathway. The preferential selectivity of 2 toward the major groove was observed on interaction of 2 with pBR322 DNA, in the presence of standard groove binders viz.; DAPI and methyl green. Additionally, in vitro antitumor activity of 2 was evaluated on a panel of human cancer cell lines, exhibiting remarkable cytotoxicity activity against Colo205 (colon) and MCF7 (breast) cell lines with GI(50) values <10 μg/mL.

Neuroprotective effect of guanosine against glutamate-induced cell death in rat hippocampal slices is mediated by the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt/ glycogen synthase kinase 3β pathway activation and inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibition

Excitotoxicity and cell death induced by glutamate are involved in many neurodegenerative disorders. We have previously demonstrated that excitotoxicity induced by millimolar concentrations of glutamate in hippocampal slices involves apoptotic features and glutamate-induced glutamate release. Guanosine, an endogenous guanine nucleoside, prevents excitotoxicity by its ability to modulate glutamate transport. In this study, we have evaluated the neuroprotective effect of guanosine against glutamate-induced toxicity in hippocampal slices and the mechanism involved in such an effect. We have found that guanosine (100 μM) was neuroprotective against 1 mM glutamate-induced cell death through the inhibition of glutamate release induced by glutamate. Guanosine also induced the phosphorylation and, thus, activation of protein kinase B (PKB/Akt), a downstream target of phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K), as well as phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β, which has been reported to be inactivated by Akt after phosphorylation at Ser9. Glutamate treated hippocampal slices showed increased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression that was prevented by guanosine. Slices preincubated with SNAP (an NO donor), inhibited the protective effect of guanosine. LY294002 (30 μM), a PI3K inhibitor, attenuated guanosine-induced neuroprotection, guanosine prevention of glutamate release, and guanosine-induced GSK3β(Ser9) phosphorylation but not guanosine reduction of glutamate-induced iNOS expression. Taken together, the results of this study show that guanosine protects hippocampal slices by a mechanism that involves the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β(Ser9) pathway and prevention of glutamate-induced glutamate release. Furthermore, guanosine also reduces glutamate-induced iNOS by a PI3K/Akt-independent mechanism.

Guanosine is neuroprotective against oxygen/glucose deprivation in hippocampal slices via large conductance Ca²+-activated K+ channels, phosphatidilinositol-3 kinase/protein kinase B pathway activation and glutamate uptake

Guanine derivatives (GD) have been implicated in many relevant brain extracellular roles, such as modulation of glutamate transmission and neuronal protection against excitotoxic damage. GD are spontaneously released to the extracellular space from cultured astrocytes and during oxygen/glucose deprivation (OGD). The aim of this study has been to evaluate the potassium channels and phosphatidilinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) pathway involvement in the mechanisms related to the neuroprotective role of guanosine in rat hippocampal slices subjected to OGD. The addition of guanosine (100 μM) to hippocampal slices subjected to 15 min of OGD and followed by 2 h of re-oxygenation is neuroprotective. The presence of K+ channel blockers, glibenclamide (20 μM) or apamin (300 nM), revealed that neuroprotective effect of guanosine was not dependent on ATP-sensitive K+ channels or small conductance Ca²+-activated K+ channels. The presence of charybdotoxin (100 nM), a large conductance Ca²+-activated K+ channel (BK) blocker, inhibited the neuroprotective effect of guanosine. Hippocampal slices subjected to OGD and re-oxygenation showed a significant reduction of glutamate uptake. Addition of guanosine in the re-oxygenation period has blocked the reduction of glutamate uptake. This guanosine effect was inhibited when hippocampal slices were pre-incubated with charybdotoxin or wortmanin (a PI3K inhibitor, 1 μM) in the re-oxygenation period. Guanosine promoted an increase in Akt protein phosphorylation. However, the presence of charybdotoxin blocked such effect. In conclusion, the neuroprotective effect of guanosine involves augmentation of glutamate uptake, which is modulated by BK channels and the activation of PI3K pathway. Moreover, neuroprotection caused by guanosine depends on the increased expression of phospho-Akt protein.

Fluorescent and colorimetric chemosensors for detection of nucleotides, FAD and NADH: highlighted research during 2004-2010

Due to the biological importance of nucleotides and related species, such as XNP (where X = adenosine (A), uridine (U), cytidine (C), guanosine (G), and N = mono, di, tri), FAD and NADH, the development of optical probes for these molecules has recently been an active area of research. This tutorial review focuses on the contributions between 2004-2010 concerning the fluorescent or colorimetric sensors for these biomolecules, and is organized according to their target molecule's structural classification.

Guanosine-5'-monophosphate induces cell death in rat hippocampal slices via ionotropic glutamate receptors activation and glutamate uptake inhibition

Guanine derivatives modulate the glutamatergic system through displacement of binding of glutamate to its receptors acting as antagonist of glutamate receptors in moderate to high micromolar concentrations. Guanosine-5'-monophosphate (GMP) is shown to be neuroprotective against glutamate- or oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced neurotoxicity and also against NMDA-induced apoptosis in hippocampal slices. However, in this study we are showing that high extracellular GMP concentrations (5mM) reduced cell viability in hippocampal brain slices. The toxic effect of GMP was not blocked by dipyridamole, a nucleoside transport inhibitor, nor mimicked by guanosine, suggesting an extracellular mode of action to GMP which does not involve its hydrolysis to guanosine. GMP-dependent cell damage was not blocked by P1 purinergic receptor antagonists, neither altered by adenosine A(1) or A(2A) receptor agonists. The blockage of the ionotropic glutamate receptors AMPA or NMDA, but not KA or metabotropic glutamate receptors, reversed the toxicity induced by GMP. GMP (5mM) induced a decrease in glutamate uptake into hippocampal slices, which was reversed by dl-TBOA. Therefore, GMP-induced hippocampal cell damage involves activation of ionotropic glutamate receptors and inhibition of glutamate transporters activity.