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Rothermund K, Englert C, Gerstorf D. Explaining Variation in Individual Aging, Its Sources, and Consequences: A Comprehensive Conceptual Model of Human Aging. Gerontology 2023; 69:1437-1447. [PMID: 37769642 PMCID: PMC10711769 DOI: 10.1159/000534324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We define aging as a characteristic deterioration in one (or more) observable attributes of an organism that typically occurs during later life. With this narrow functional definition, we gain the freedom to separate aging from other processes of age-related change (e.g., maturation, growth, illness, terminal decline). We introduce a structural model that distinguishes between (1) the phenomenon of aging, (2) the subjective experience of aging, (3) sources of aging, and (4) consequences of aging. A core focus of the model is on the role of buffering mechanisms of biological repair and personal adaptation that regulate the relations between sources of aging, aging proper, and its consequences. The quality and level of functioning of these buffering mechanisms also varies across the life span, which directly affects the sources of aging, resulting in either resilience against or accelerated aging, and thus can be considered to be a major source of the variation in aging processes among different individuals. External factors comprising attributes of the physical environment and sociocultural characteristics are considered as contexts in which aging occurs. These contextual factors are assumed to feed into the various components of the model. Our model provides an interdisciplinary account of human aging, its sources and consequences, and also its subjective experience, by integrating biological, psychological, lifestyle, and sociocultural factors, and by specifying their interrelations and interactions. The model provides a comprehensive understanding of individual human aging, its underlying processes, and modulating factors. It allows for the derivation of empirically testable hypotheses, and it helps practitioners to identify elements that lend themselves to targeted intervention efforts aimed at increasing the resilience of individuals against aging and buffering its negative consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Rothermund
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Zentrum für Alternsforschung Jena (ZAJ), Jena, Germany
| | - Christoph Englert
- Zentrum für Alternsforschung Jena (ZAJ), Jena, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Leibniz Institute on Aging – Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
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Da Rocha RVO, Martins MIM, Antunes FTT, Martins MG, Klein AB, Corrêa DS, de Souza AH. Behavioral, Oxidative, and Biochemical Effects of Omega-3 on an Ovariectomized Rat Model of Menopause. J Menopausal Med 2022; 27:132-140. [PMID: 34989186 PMCID: PMC8738853 DOI: 10.6118/jmm.21016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Menopause induces changes in neuronal transmission, leading to anxiety and depression. Changes in the brain's glutamate levels cause psychological behavior in postmenopausal women. Omega-3 has been studied to improve some of these behaviors. METHODS Twenty-four female Wistar rats were divided into four groups: sham-operated treated with water (SO-W), sham-operated treated with omega-3 (SO-O), ovariectomized (OVX) treated with water (OVX-W), and bilateral OVX treated with omega-3 (OVX-O). These treatments were performed for 20 days via gavage, before and after surgery, totaling 40 days. RESULTS In the forced swimming, elevated plus-maze, and open field tests to assess behaviors, such as depression and anxiety, omega-3 improved these behaviors in both treated groups. The levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the brain were not different between the groups; however, there was a significant decrease in the catalase activity in the SO-O group compared with the SO-W group (P < 0.05). The glutamate level in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was elevated in the SO-O group (P < 0.001) but not in the OVX-W or OVX-O groups. CONCLUSIONS These results bring novel data when related to the glutamatergic system in the SO-O group. This has suggested that the action mechanism of omega-3 was not dependent on glutamate levels in the CSF of the OVX group, but it played a regulatory role in the sham-operated animals. To confirm this, more studies are needed to explore this field when relating to the estrogen and glutamate receptor changes in specific brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Marcia Gerhardt Martins
- Graduate Program in Genetic and Applied Toxicology, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Canoas, Brazil
| | - Adriane Belló Klein
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Physiology and Reactive Oxygen Species, Physiology Department, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Dione Silva Corrêa
- Graduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Canoas, Brazil
| | - Alessandra Hubner de Souza
- Graduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Lutheran University of Brazil (ULBRA), Canoas, Brazil.
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Liu YR, Yang NJ, Zhao ML, Tang ZS, Duan JA, Zhou R, Chen L, Sun J, Song ZX, Hu JH, Shi XB. Hypericum perforatum L. Regulates Glutathione Redox Stress and Normalizes Ggt1/Anpep Signaling to Alleviate OVX-Induced Kidney Dysfunction. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:628651. [PMID: 33981220 PMCID: PMC8109178 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.628651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Menopause and associated renal complications are linked to systemic redox stress, and the causal factors remain unclear. As the role of Hypericum perforatum L. (HPL) in menopause-induced kidney disease therapy is still ambiguous, we aim to explore the effects of HPL on systemic redox stress under ovariectomy (OVX)-induced kidney dysfunction conditions. Here, using combined proteomic and metabolomic approaches, we constructed a multi-scaled “HPL-disease-gene-metabolite” network to generate a therapeutic “big picture” that indicated an important link between glutathione redox stress and kidney impairment. HPL exhibited the potential to maintain cellular redox homeostasis by inhibiting gamma-glutamyltransferase 1 (Ggt1) overexpression, along with promoting the efflux of accumulated toxic amino acids and their metabolites. Moreover, HPL restored alanyl-aminopeptidase (Anpep) expression and metabolite shifts, promoting antioxidative metabolite processing, and recovery. These findings provide a comprehensive description of OVX-induced glutathione redox stress at multiple levels and support HPL therapy as an effective modulator in renal tissues to locally influence the glutathione metabolism pathway and subsequent redox homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Ru Liu
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Ning-Juan Yang
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Meng-Li Zhao
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Zhi-Shu Tang
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Jin-Ao Duan
- Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae and Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Rui Zhou
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Jing Sun
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Zhong-Xing Song
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Jin-Hang Hu
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
| | - Xin-Bo Shi
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of New Drugs and Chinese Medicine Foundation Research, Shaanxi Collaborative Innovation Center Medicinal Resources Industrialization, Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Xianyang, China
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Miller CK, Krentzel AA, Patisaul HB, Meitzen J. Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGlu 5) is necessary for estradiol mitigation of light-induced anxiety behavior in female rats. Physiol Behav 2019; 214:112770. [PMID: 31830486 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Anxiety-related behaviors are influenced by steroid hormones such as 17β-estradiol and environmental stimuli such as acute stressors. For example, rats exhibit increased anxiety-related behaviors in the presence, but not the absence, of light. In females, estradiol potentially mitigates these effects. Experiments across behavioral paradigms and brain regions indicate that estradiol action can be mediated via activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors, including Group I subtype five (mGlu5). mGlu5 has been implicated in mediating estradiol's effects upon psychostimulant-induced behaviors, dopamine release and neuron phenotype in striatal regions. Whether estradiol activation of mGlu5 modulates anxiety or locomotor behavior in the absence of psychostimulants is unknown. Here we test if mGlu5 is necessary for estradiol mitigation of light-induced acute anxiety and locomotor behaviors. Ovariectomized adult female rats were pre-treated with either the mGlu5 antagonist MPEP or saline before estradiol or oil treatment. Anxiety and locomotor behaviors were assessed in the presence or absence of white light to induce high and low acute anxiety behavior phenotypes, respectively. In the presence of white light, estradiol treatment mitigated light-induced anxiety-related behaviors but not overall locomotor activity. MPEP treatment blocked estradiol effects upon light-induced anxiety-related behaviors but did not affect overall locomotor activity. In the absence of white light, estradiol or MPEP treatment did not influence anxiety-related behaviors or locomotor activity, consistent with a low anxiety phenotype. These novel findings indicate that mGlu5 activation is necessary for estradiol mitigation of anxiety-related behaviors induced by an acute stressor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiana K Miller
- Graduate Program in Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; W.M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
| | - Amanda A Krentzel
- W.M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Heather B Patisaul
- W.M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - John Meitzen
- W.M. Keck Center for Behavioral Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
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Koebele SV, Bimonte-Nelson HA. Trajectories and phenotypes with estrogen exposures across the lifespan: What does Goldilocks have to do with it? Horm Behav 2015; 74:86-104. [PMID: 26122297 PMCID: PMC4829405 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
This article is part of a Special Issue "Estradiol and cognition". Estrogens impact the organization and activation of the mammalian brain in both sexes, with sex-specific critical windows. Throughout the female lifespan estrogens activate brain substrates previously organized by estrogens, and estrogens can induce non-transient brain and behavior changes into adulthood. Therefore, from early life through the transition to reproductive senescence and beyond, estrogens are potent modulators of the brain and behavior. Organizational, reorganizational, and activational hormone events likely impact the trajectory of brain profiles during aging. A "brain profile," or quantitative brain measurement for research purposes, is typically a snapshot in time, but in life a brain profile is anything but static--it is in flux, variable, and dynamic. Akin to this, the only thing continuous and consistent about hormone exposures across a female's lifespan is that they are noncontinuous and inconsistent, building and rebuilding on past exposures to create a present brain and behavioral landscape. Thus, hormone variation is especially rich in females, and is likely the destiny for maximal responsiveness in the female brain. The magnitude and direction of estrogenic effects on the brain and its functions depend on a myriad of factors; a "Goldilocks" phenomenon exists for estrogens, whereby if the timing, dose, and regimen for an individual are just right, markedly efficacious effects present. Data indicate that exogenously-administered estrogens can bestow beneficial cognitive effects in some circumstances, especially when initiated in a window of opportunity such as the menopause transition. Could it be that the age-related reduction in efficacy of estrogens reflects the closure of a late-in-life critical window occurring around the menopause transition? Information from classic and contemporary works studying organizational/activational estrogen actions, in combination with acknowledging the tendency for maximal responsiveness to cyclicity, will elucidate ways to extend sensitivity and efficacy into post-menopause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie V Koebele
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Arizona Alzheimer's Consortium, Phoenix, AZ 85006, USA
| | - Heather A Bimonte-Nelson
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA; Arizona Alzheimer's Consortium, Phoenix, AZ 85006, USA.
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Abstract
There is growing recognition: (1) that sex (male and female) and sex hormones (androgens and estrogens) are important for physiologic functions outside those pertaining expressly to reproduction, and (2) that both classes of sex hormones are active in both sexes, and moreover are produced locally in non-gonadal tissues throughout the body. The visual system, in addition to being of tremendous inherent importance, is unique in a very distinctive way; it possesses an organ - the eye - having a window allowing its interior to be examined with exquisite precision and control in both laboratory and clinical settings. Plus, many diseases manifest in the eye or are exclusive to the eye. This special issue of Current Eye Research contains 12 review articles, each addressing a different topical area important for Sex, Eyes, and Vision: Male/Female Distinctions in Ophthalmic Disorders. Of course, the distinctions between topical areas are blurred, and the overlap between the various lines of knowledge and investigation likewise is substantial. Eye diseases can be both neurodegenerative and involve altered blood flow, for instance. In fact, the thematic overlap is greater yet, in that the articles for this special issue address matters of interest to clinicians and scientists who may identify more with women's health or sex & gender fields than with eye & vision fields. Nevertheless, because this special issue needs a home, the following 12 topical areas each have here their own dedicated review: age-related maculopathy, central nervous system function and cognition & perception, diabetic retinopathy, dry eye, glaucoma, inherited diseases, lens and cataract, neuro-ophthalmology, ocular blood flow, ocular inflammatory disorders, optical coherence tomography, and sex/gender eye care disparities. This overview article itself raises additional points expressly concerning: (1) the estrogen therapy timing hypothesis, and (2) breast cancer treatment with aromatase inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvin Eisner
- Current Eye Research Editorial Board , Portland, Oregon , USA
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Liu YR, Huang RQ, Xiao BK, Yang JY, Dong JX. (1)H NMR metabolic profiling analysis offers evaluation of Nilestriol treatment in ovariectomised rats. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 387:19-34. [PMID: 24565896 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Nilestriol (NIL) has been applied to treat menopausal dysfunctions, yet its mechanism has remained unknown. To understand the relationship between the changes in homeostatic metabolites and ovarian oestrogen deficiency syndromes after NIL treatment, proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ((1)H NMR)-based metabonomic technologies were used to analyse a rat model of oestrogen deficiency. An orthogonal partial least-squares regression (OPLS) differentiation model was used on 12-week metabolic analyses of ovariectomised (OVX) rats treated or mock treated with NIL. Furthermore, data analysis using Chenomx software quantified results to identify the most significantly altered metabolite concentrations, allowing for metabolic explanations of the effects of NIL therapies. In this study, PLS results revealed that there are considerably distinct differences between treatment groups. Additionally, a total of 45 metabolites shown to have a high variation between groups were selected for target quantification. Using a one-way LSD ANOVA analysis, 32 metabolite concentrations were significantly altered in the OVX group. A total of 21 metabolites were altered significantly in the NIL-treatment group but later returned to normal. According to the OPLS VIP calculation, the metabolites most affected by NIL treatment were mostly involved in insulin resistance. In addition, abnormal concentration changes in lactate in the NIL-treatment group and 3-indoxylsulfate in the OVX group were observed. To our knowledge, this study is the first to address the molecular mechanism of NIL from a metabonomic perspective, and, more specifically, to establish a catalogue of endo-molecular changes effected by NIL in the regulation of oestrogen deficiency disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Ru Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Rd, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, PR China; Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, No. 27, Taiping Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100850, PR China
| | - Rong-Qing Huang
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, No. 27, Taiping Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100850, PR China.
| | - Bing-Kun Xiao
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, No. 27, Taiping Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100850, PR China
| | - Jian-Yun Yang
- Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, No. 27, Taiping Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100850, PR China
| | - Jun-Xing Dong
- School of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Rd, Shenhe District, Shenyang 110016, PR China; Beijing Institute of Radiation Medicine, No. 27, Taiping Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100850, PR China.
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Meitzen J, Perry AN, Westenbroek C, Hedges VL, Becker JB, Mermelstein PG. Enhanced striatal β1-adrenergic receptor expression following hormone loss in adulthood is programmed by both early sexual differentiation and puberty: a study of humans and rats. Endocrinology 2013; 154:1820-31. [PMID: 23533220 PMCID: PMC3628022 DOI: 10.1210/en.2012-2131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
After reproductive senescence or gonadectomy, changes occur in neural gene expression, ultimately altering brain function. The endocrine mechanisms underlying these changes in gene expression beyond immediate hormone loss are poorly understood. To investigate this, we measured changes in gene expression the dorsal striatum, where 17β-estradiol modulates catecholamine signaling. In human caudate, quantitative PCR determined a significant elevation in β1-adrenergic receptor (β1AR) expression in menopausal females when compared with similarly aged males. No differences were detected in β2-adrenergic and D1- and D2-dopamine receptor expression. Consistent with humans, adult ovariectomized female rats exhibited a similar increase in β1AR expression when compared with gonadectomized males. No sex difference in β1AR expression was detected between intact adults, prepubertal juveniles, or adults gonadectomized before puberty, indicating the necessity of pubertal development and adult ovariectomy. Additionally, increased β1AR expression in adult ovariectomized females was not observed if animals were masculinized/defeminized with testosterone injections as neonates. To generate a model system for assessing functional impact, increased β1AR expression was induced in female-derived cultured striatal neurons via exposure to and then removal of hormone-containing serum. Increased β1AR action on cAMP formation, cAMP response element-binding protein phosphorylation and gene expression was observed. This up-regulation of β1AR action was eliminated with 17β-estradiol addition to the media, directly implicating this hormone as a regulator of β1AR expression. Beyond having implications for the known sex differences in striatal function and pathologies, these data collectively demonstrate that critical periods early in life and at puberty program adult gene responsiveness to hormone loss after gonadectomy and potentially reproductive senescence.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Meitzen
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.
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Holley HS, Behan M, Wenninger JM. Age and sex differences in the ventilatory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia in awake neonatal, pre-pubertal and young adult rats. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2011; 180:79-87. [PMID: 22067556 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2011.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Revised: 10/17/2011] [Accepted: 10/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
There is evidence for a "sensitive period" in respiratory development in rats around postnatal age (P) 12-13d. Little is known about sex differences during that time. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of sex on breathing development, specifically around the "sensitive period". We used whole-body plethysmography to study breathing in normoxic, hypoxic and hypercapnic gases in non-anesthetized male and female neonatal rats from P10 to P15, juvenile (P30) and young adult (P90) rats. Compared to other neonatal ages, P12-13 male rats had significantly lower ventilation during normoxia, hypoxia, and hypercapnia. Compared to age-matched females, P12-13 male rats had lower ventilation in normoxia and hypoxia and a lower O(2) saturation during hypoxia. Circulating estradiol was greater in P12-13 male vs. female rats. Estradiol and ventilatory responses to hypoxia and hypercapnia were negatively correlated in neonatal male, but not female rats. Our results suggest that P10-15 includes a critical developmental period in male but not female rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi S Holley
- University of Wisconsin - Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Comparative Biosciences, 2015 Linden Drive, Madison, WI 53706, United States
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