Effects of histone deacetylase inhibitor sodium butyrate on heroin seeking behavior in the nucleus accumbens in rats

The single-cell opioid responses in the context of HIV (SCORCH) consortium

Substance use disorders (SUD) and drug addiction are major threats to public health, impacting not only the millions of individuals struggling with SUD, but also surrounding families and communities. One of the seminal challenges in treating and studying addiction in human populations is the high prevalence of co-morbid conditions, including an increased risk of contracting a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Of the ~15 million people who inject drugs globally, 17% are persons with HIV. Conversely, HIV is a risk factor for SUD because chronic pain syndromes, often encountered in persons with HIV, can lead to an increased use of opioid pain medications that in turn can increase the risk for opioid addiction. We hypothesize that SUD and HIV exert shared effects on brain cell types, including adaptations related to neuroplasticity, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation. Basic research is needed to refine our understanding of these affected cell types and adaptations. Studying the effects of SUD in the context of HIV at the single-cell level represents a compelling strategy to understand the reciprocal interactions among both conditions, made feasible by the availability of large, extensively-phenotyped human brain tissue collections that have been amassed by the Neuro-HIV research community. In addition, sophisticated animal models that have been developed for both conditions provide a means to precisely evaluate specific exposures and stages of disease. We propose that single-cell genomics is a uniquely powerful technology to characterize the effects of SUD and HIV in the brain, integrating data from human cohorts and animal models. We have formed the Single-Cell Opioid Responses in the Context of HIV (SCORCH) consortium to carry out this strategy.

Oxycodone, an opioid like the others?

The over-prescription of opioid analgesics is a growing problem in the field of addiction, which has reached epidemic-like proportions in North America. Over the past decade, oxycodone has gained attention as the leading opioid responsible for the North America opioid crisis. Oxycodone is the most incriminated drug in the early years of the epidemic of opioid use disorder in USA (roughly 1999-2016). The number of preclinical articles on oxycodone is rapidly increasing. Several publications have already compared oxycodone with other opioids, focusing mainly on their analgesic properties. The aim of this review is to focus on the genomic and epigenetic regulatory features of oxycodone compared with other opioid agonists. Our aim is to initiate a discussion of perceptible differences in the pharmacological response observed with these various opioids, particularly after repeated administration in preclinical models commonly used to study drug dependence potential.

Addictive drugs modify neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity to impair memory formation through neurotransmitter imbalances and signaling dysfunction

Drug abuse changes neurophysiological functions at multiple cellular and molecular levels in the addicted brain. Well-supported scientific evidence suggests that drugs negatively affect memory formation, decision-making and inhibition, and emotional and cognitive behaviors. The mesocorticolimbic brain regions are involved in reward-related learning and habitual drug-seeking/taking behaviors to develop physiological and psychological dependence on the drugs. This review highlights the importance of specific drug-induced chemical imbalances resulting in memory impairment through various neurotransmitter receptor-mediated signaling pathways. The mesocorticolimbic modifications in the expression levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) impair reward-related memory formation following drug abuse. The contributions of protein kinases and microRNAs (miRNAs), along with the transcriptional and epigenetic regulation have also been considered in memory impairment underlying drug addiction. Overall, we integrate the research on various types of drug-induced memory impairment in distinguished brain regions and provide a comprehensive review with clinical implications addressing the upcoming studies.

Histone modifications in cocaine, methamphetamine and opioids

Cocaine, methamphetamine and opioids are leading causes of drug abuse-related deaths worldwide. In recent decades, several studies revealed the connection between and epigenetics. Neural cells acquire epigenetic alterations that drive the onset and progress of the SUD by modifying the histone residues in brain reward circuitry. Histone modifications, especially acetylation and methylation, participate in the regulation of gene expression. These alterations, as well as other host and microenvironment factors, are associated with a serious of negative neurocognitive disfunctions in various patient populations. In this review, we highlight the evidence that substantially increase the field's ability to understand the molecular actions underlying SUD and summarize the potential approaches for SUD pharmacotherapy.

Epidrugs in the Therapy of Central Nervous System Disorders: A Way to Drive on?

The polygenic nature of neurological and psychiatric syndromes and the significant impact of environmental factors on the underlying developmental, homeostatic, and neuroplastic mechanisms suggest that an efficient therapy for these disorders should be a complex one. Pharmacological interventions with drugs selectively influencing the epigenetic landscape (epidrugs) allow one to hit multiple targets, therefore, assumably addressing a wide spectrum of genetic and environmental mechanisms of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. The aim of this review is to understand what fundamental pathological mechanisms would be optimal to target with epidrugs in the treatment of neurological or psychiatric complications. To date, the use of histone deacetylases and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (HDACis and DNMTis) in the clinic is focused on the treatment of neoplasms (mainly of a glial origin) and is based on the cytostatic and cytotoxic actions of these compounds. Preclinical data show that besides this activity, inhibitors of histone deacetylases, DNA methyltransferases, bromodomains, and ten-eleven translocation (TET) proteins impact the expression of neuroimmune inflammation mediators (cytokines and pro-apoptotic factors), neurotrophins (brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF)), ion channels, ionotropic receptors, as well as pathoproteins (β-amyloid, tau protein, and α-synuclein). Based on this profile of activities, epidrugs may be favorable as a treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. For the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders, drug addiction, as well as anxiety disorders, depression, schizophrenia, and epilepsy, contemporary epidrugs still require further development concerning a tuning of pharmacological effects, reduction in toxicity, and development of efficient treatment protocols. A promising strategy to further clarify the potential targets of epidrugs as therapeutic means to cure neurological and psychiatric syndromes is the profiling of the epigenetic mechanisms, which have evolved upon actions of complex physiological lifestyle factors, such as diet and physical exercise, and which are effective in the management of neurodegenerative diseases and dementia.

Genetic and epigenetic studies of opioid abuse disorder - the potential for future diagnostics

INTRODUCTION

Opioid use disorder (OUD) is a global problem that often begins with prescribed medications. The available treatment and maintenance plans offer solutions for the consumption rate by individuals leaving the outstanding problem of relapse, which is a major factor hindering the long-term efficacy of treatments.

AREAS COVERED

Understanding the neurobiology of addiction and relapse would help identifying the core causes of relapse and distinguish vulnerable from resilient individuals, which would lead to more targeted and effective treatment and provide diagnostics to screen individuals who have a propensity to OUD. In this review, we cover the neurobiology of the reward system highlighting the role of multiple brain regions and opioid receptors in the development of the disorder. We also review the current knowledge of the epigenetics of addiction and the available screening tools for aberrant use of opioids.

EXPERT OPINION

Relapse remains an anticipated limitation in the way of recovery even after long period of abstinence. This highlights the need for diagnostic tools that identify vulnerable patients and prevent the cycle of addiction. Finally, we discuss the limitations of the available screening tools and propose possible solutions for the discovery of addiction diagnostics.

Normalization of the H3K9me2/H3K14ac-ΔFosB pathway in the nucleus accumbens underlying the reversal of morphine-induced behavioural and synaptic plasticity by Compound 511

BACKGROUND

Although opioid agonist-based treatments are considered the first-line treatment for opioid use disorders, nonopioid alternatives are urgently needed to combat the inevitable high relapse rates. Compound 511 is a formula derived from ancient traditional Chinese medical literature on opiate rehabilitation. Previously, we observed that Compound 511 could effectively prevent the acquisition of conditioned place preference (CPP) during early morphine exposure. However, its effects on drug-induced reinstatement remain unclear.

PURPOSE

This study aims to estimate the potential of Compound 511 for the therapeutic intervention of opioid relapse in rodent models and explore the potential mechanisms underlying the observed actions.

STUDY DESIGN/METHODS

The CPP and locomotor sensitization paradigm were established to evaluate the therapeutic effect of Compound 511 treatment on morphine-induced neuroadaptations, followed by immunofluorescence and western blot (WB) analysis of the synaptic markers PSD-95 and Syn-1. Furthermore, several addiction-associated transcription factors and epigenetic marks were examined by qPCR and WB, respectively. Furthermore, the key active ingredients and targets of Compound 511 were further excavated by network pharmacology approach and experimental validation.

RESULTS

The results proved that Compound 511 treatment during abstinence blunted both the reinstatement of morphine-evoked CPP and locomotor sensitization, accompanied by the normalization of morphine-induced postsynaptic plasticity in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Additionally, Compound 511 was shown to exert a selectively repressive influence on morphine-induced hyperacetylation at H3K14 and a reduction in H3K9 dimethylation as well as ΔFosB activation and accumulation in the NAc. Finally, two herbal ingredients of Compound 511 and six putative targets involved in the regulation of histone modification were identified.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that Compound 511 could block CPP reinstatement and locomotor sensitization predominantly via the reversal of morphine-induced postsynaptic plasticity through epigenetic mechanisms. Additionally, 1-methoxy-2,3-methylenedioxyxanthone and 1,7-dimethoxyxanthone may serve as key ingredients of Compound 511 by targeting specific epigenetic enzymes. This study provided an efficient nonopioid treatment against opioid addiction.

The translational genetics of ADHD and related phenotypes in model organisms

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a highly prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder resulting from the interaction between genetic and environmental risk factors. It is well known that ADHD co-occurs frequently with other psychiatric disorders due, in part, to shared genetics factors. Although many studies have contributed to delineate the genetic landscape of psychiatric disorders, their specific molecular underpinnings are still not fully understood. The use of animal models can help us to understand the role of specific genes and environmental stimuli-induced epigenetic modifications in the pathogenesis of ADHD and its comorbidities. The aim of this review is to provide an overview on the functional work performed in rodents, zebrafish and fruit fly and highlight the generated insights into the biology of ADHD, with a special focus on genetics and epigenetics. We also describe the behavioral tests that are available to study ADHD-relevant phenotypes and comorbid traits in these models. Furthermore, we have searched for new models to study ADHD and its comorbidities, which can be useful to test potential pharmacological treatments.

Depression Pathophysiology: Astrocyte Mitochondrial Melatonergic Pathway as Crucial Hub

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is widely accepted as having a heterogenous pathophysiology involving a complex mixture of systemic and CNS processes. A developmental etiology coupled to genetic and epigenetic risk factors as well as lifestyle and social process influences add further to the complexity. Consequently, antidepressant treatment is generally regarded as open to improvement, undoubtedly as a consequence of inappropriately targeted pathophysiological processes. This article reviews the diverse array of pathophysiological processes linked to MDD, and integrates these within a perspective that emphasizes alterations in mitochondrial function, both centrally and systemically. It is proposed that the long-standing association of MDD with suppressed serotonin availability is reflective of the role of serotonin as a precursor for the mitochondrial melatonergic pathway. Astrocytes, and the astrocyte mitochondrial melatonergic pathway, are highlighted as crucial hubs in the integration of the wide array of biological underpinnings of MDD, including gut dysbiosis and permeability, as well as developmental and social stressors, which can act to suppress the capacity of mitochondria to upregulate the melatonergic pathway, with consequences for oxidant-induced changes in patterned microRNAs and subsequent patterned gene responses. This is placed within a development context, including how social processes, such as discrimination, can physiologically regulate a susceptibility to MDD. Future research directions and treatment implications are derived from this.

Novelty-induced locomotor behavior predicts heroin addiction vulnerability in male, but not female, rats

RATIONALE

The ongoing rise in opioid use disorder (OUD) has made it imperative to better model the individual variation within the human population that contributes to OUD vulnerability. Using animal models that capture such variation can be a useful tool. Individual variation in novelty-induced locomotion is predictive of substance use disorder (SUD) propensity. In this model, rats are characterized as high-responders (HR) or low-responders (LR) using a median split based on distance travelled during a locomotor test, and HR rats are generally found to exhibit a more SUD vulnerable behavioral phenotype.

OBJECTIVES

The HR/LR model has commonly been used to assess behaviors in male rats using psychostimulants, with limited knowledge of the predictive efficacy of this model in females or the use of an opioid as the reward. In the current study, we assessed several behaviors across the different phases of drug addiction (heroin taking, refraining, and seeking) in over 500 male and female heterogeneous stock rats run at two geographically separate locations. Rats were characterized as HRs or LRs within each sex for analysis.

RESULTS

Overall, females exhibit a more OUD vulnerable phenotype relative to males. Additionally, the HR/LR model was predictive of OUD-like behaviors in male, but not female rats. Furthermore, phenotypes did not differ in anxiety-related behaviors, reacquisition of heroin-taking, or punished heroin-taking behavior in either sex.

CONCLUSIONS

These results emphasize the importance of assessing females in models of individual variation in SUD and highlight limitations in using the HR/LR model to assess OUD propensity.

Epigenetic Effects of Addictive Drugs in the Nucleus Accumbens

Substance use induces long-lasting behavioral changes and drug craving. Increasing evidence suggests that epigenetic gene regulation contributes to the development and expression of these long-lasting behavioral alterations. Here we systematically review extensive evidence from rodent models of drug-induced changes in epigenetic regulation and epigenetic regulator proteins. We focus on histone acetylation and histone methylation in a brain region important for drug-related behaviors: the nucleus accumbens. We also discuss how experimentally altering these epigenetic regulators via systemically administered compounds or nucleus accumbens-specific manipulations demonstrate the importance of these proteins in the behavioral effects of drugs and suggest potential therapeutic value to treat people with substance use disorder. Finally, we discuss limitations and future directions for the field of epigenetic studies in the behavioral effects of addictive drugs and suggest how to use these insights to develop efficacious treatments.

A systems omics-based approach to decode substance use disorders and neuroadaptations

Substance use disorders (SUDs) are a group of neuropsychiatric conditions manifesting due to excessive dependence on potential drugs of abuse such as psychostimulants, opioids including prescription opioids, alcohol, inhalants, etc. Experimental studies have generated enormous data in the area of SUDs, but outcomes from such data have remained largely fragmented. In this review, we attempt to coalesce these data points providing an important first step towards our understanding of the etiology of SUDs. We propose and describe a 'core addictome' pathway that behaves central to all SUDs. Besides, we also have made some notable observations paving way for several hypotheses; MECP2 behaves as a master switch during substance use; five distinct gene clusters were identified based on respective substance addiction; a central cluster of genes serves as a hub of the addiction pathway connecting all other substance addiction clusters. In addition to describing these findings, we have emphasized the importance of some candidate genes that are of substantial interest for further investigation and serve as high-value targets for translational efforts.

Epigenetic Alterations in Prescription Opioid Misuse: New Strategies for Precision Pain Management

Prescription opioids are used for some chronic pain conditions. However, generally, long-term therapy has unwanted side effects which may trigger addiction, overdose, and eventually cause deaths. Opioid addiction and chronic pain conditions have both been associated with evidence of genetic and epigenetic alterations. Despite intense research interest, many questions about the contribution of epigenetic changes to this typology of addiction vulnerability and development remain unanswered. The aim of this review was to summarize the epigenetic modifications detected in specific tissues or brain areas and associated with opioid prescription and misuse in patients who have initiated prescribed opioid management for chronic non-cancer pain. The review considers the effects of opioid exposure on the epigenome in central and peripheral tissues in animal models and human subjects and highlights the mechanisms in which opioid epigenetics may be involved. This will improve our current understanding, provide the basis for targeted, personalized pain management, and thus balance opioid risks and benefits in managing chronic pain.

Psychostimulants and opioids differentially influence the epigenetic modification of histone acetyltransferase and histone deacetylase in astrocytes

Illicit drugs are known to affect central nervous system (CNS). Majorly psychostimulants such as cocaine, methamphetamine (METH) and opioids such as morphine are known to induce epigenetic changes of histone modifications and chromatin remodeling which are mediated by histone acetyltransferase (HAT) and histone deacetylase (HDAC). Aberrant changes in histone acetylation-deacetylation process further exacerbate dysregulation of gene expression and protein modification which has been linked with neuronal impairments including memory formation and synaptic plasticity. In CNS, astrocytes play a pivotal role in cellular homeostasis. However, the impact of psychostimulants and opioid mediated epigenetic changes of HAT/HADCs in astrocytes has not yet been fully elucidated. Therefore, we have investigated the effects of the psychostimulants and opioid on the acetylation-regulating enzymes- HAT and HDACs role in astrocytes. In this study, Class I and II HDACs and HATs gene expression, protein changes and global level changes of acetylation of H3 histones at specific lysines were analyzed. In addition, we have explored the neuroprotective “nootropic” drug piracetam were exposed with or without psychostimulants and opioid in the human primary astrocytes. Results revealed that psychostimulants and opioid upregulated HDAC1, HDAC4 and p300 expression, while HDAC5 and GCN5 expression were downregulated. These effects were reversed by piracetam coexposure. Psychostimulants and opioid exposure upregulated global acetylation levels of all H3Ks, except H3K14. These results suggest that psychostimulants and opioids differentially influence HATs and HDACs.

Evidence for Modulation of Substance Use Disorders by the Gut Microbiome: Hidden in Plain Sight

The gut microbiome modulates neurochemical function and behavior and has been implicated in numerous central nervous system (CNS) diseases, including developmental, neurodegenerative, and psychiatric disorders. Substance use disorders (SUDs) remain a serious threat to the public well-being, yet gut microbiome involvement in drug abuse has received very little attention. Studies of the mechanisms underlying SUDs have naturally focused on CNS reward circuits. However, a significant body of research has accumulated over the past decade that has unwittingly provided strong support for gut microbiome participation in drug reward. β-Lactam antibiotics have been employed to increase glutamate transporter expression to reverse relapse-induced release of glutamate. Sodium butyrate has been used as a histone deacetylase inhibitor to prevent drug-induced epigenetic alterations. High-fat diets have been used to alter drug reward because of the extensive overlap of the circuitry mediating them. This review article casts these approaches in a different light and makes a compelling case for gut microbiome modulation of SUDs. Few factors alter the structure and composition of the gut microbiome more than antibiotics and a high-fat diet, and butyrate is an endogenous product of bacterial fermentation. Drugs such as cocaine, alcohol, opiates, and psychostimulants also modify the gut microbiome. Therefore, their effects must be viewed on a complex background of cotreatment-induced dysbiosis. Consideration of the gut microbiome in SUDs should have the beneficial effects of expanding the understanding of SUDs and aiding in the design of new therapies based on opposing the effects of abused drugs on the host's commensal bacterial community. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Proposed mechanisms underlying substance use disorders fail to acknowledge the impact of drugs of abuse on the gut microbiome. β-Lactam antibiotics, sodium butyrate, and high-fat diets are used to modify drug seeking and reward, overlooking the notable capacity of these treatments to alter the gut microbiome. This review aims to stimulate research on substance abuse-gut microbiome interactions by illustrating how drugs of abuse share with antibiotics, sodium butyrate, and fat-laden diets the ability to modify the host microbial community.

Epigenetic Mechanisms in Drug Relapse

A growing body of evidence from the past 15 years implicates epigenetic mechanisms in the behavioral effects of addictive drugs. The main focus of these studies has been epigenetic mechanisms of psychomotor sensitization and drug reinforcement, as assessed by the conditioned place preference and drug self-administration procedures. Some of these studies have documented long-lasting changes in the expression of epigenetic enzymes and molecules that persist for weeks after the last drug exposure. These observations have inspired more recent investigations on the epigenetic mechanisms of relapse to drug seeking after prolonged abstinence. Here, we review studies that have examined epigenetic mechanisms (e.g., histone modifications, chromatin remodeler-associated modifications, and DNA methylation) that contribute to relapse to cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, morphine, heroin, nicotine, or alcohol seeking, as assessed in rodent models. We first provide a brief overview of studies that have examined persistent epigenetic changes in the brain after prolonged abstinence from noncontingent drug exposure or drug self-administration. Next, we review studies on the effect of either systemic or brain site-specific epigenetic manipulations on the reinstatement of drug-conditioned place preference after extinction of the learned preference, the reinstatement of drug seeking after operant drug self-administration and extinction of the drug-reinforced responding, and the incubation of drug craving (the time-dependent increase in drug seeking after cessation of drug self-administration). We conclude by discussing the implications of these studies for understanding mechanisms contributing to persistent relapse vulnerability after prolonged abstinence. We also discuss the implications of these results for translational research on the potential use of systemically administered epigenetic enzyme inhibitors for relapse prevention in human drug users.

Epigenetic upregulation of hippocampal CXCL12 contributes to context spatial memory-associated morphine conditioning

Conditioned place preference (CPP) is a learned behavior, in which animals learn to associate environmental contexts with rewarding effects. The formation of CPP is an integrated outcome of multiple learning processes. Although multiple anatomical substrates underlying this contextual learning have been proposed, it remains unknown whether a specific molecular signaling pathway within CA1 mediates context learning associated with morphine conditioning. Here, we showed that repeated context learning associated with morphine conditioning significantly increased CXCL12 levels in hippocampal CA1 neurons, and the inhibition of CXCL12 expression ameliorated the CPP behavior following context exposure with morphine conditioning. Additionally, repeated context exposure with morphine conditioning increased the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the acetylation of histone H4 in CXCL12-expressing neurons in CA1. Immunoprecipitation and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that repeated context exposure with morphine conditioning increased the binding of STAT3 to the CXCL12 gene promoter and the interaction between STAT3 and p300, which contributed to the enhanced transcription of CXCL12 by increasing the acetylation of histone H4 in the CXCL12 gene promoter. The inhibition of STAT3 by intrathecal injection of S3I-201 suppressed the acetylation of histone H4. These data demonstrated the epigenetic upregulation of CXCL12 following repeated context exposure with morphine conditioning, which potentially contributed to the spatial memory consolidation associated with conditioned place preference induced by morphine conditioning.

Epigenetic Mechanisms of Opioid Addiction

Opioid use kills tens of thousands of Americans each year, devastates families and entire communities, and cripples the health care system. Exposure to opioids causes long-term changes to brain regions involved in reward processing and motivation, leading vulnerable individuals to engage in pathological drug seeking and drug taking that can remain a lifelong struggle. The persistence of these neuroadaptations is mediated in part by epigenetic remodeling of gene expression programs in discrete brain regions. Although the majority of work examining how epigenetic modifications contribute to addiction has focused on psychostimulants such as cocaine, research into opioid-induced changes to the epigenetic landscape is emerging. This review summarizes our knowledge of opioid-induced epigenetic modifications and their consequential changes to gene expression. Current evidence points toward opioids promoting higher levels of permissive histone acetylation and lower levels of repressive histone methylation as well as alterations to DNA methylation patterns and noncoding RNA expression throughout the brain's reward circuitry. Additionally, studies manipulating epigenetic enzymes in specific brain regions are beginning to build causal links between these epigenetic modifications and changes in addiction-related behavior. Moving forward, studies must leverage advanced chromatin analysis and next-generation sequencing approaches combined with bioinformatics pipelines to identify novel gene networks regulated by particular epigenetic modifications. Improved translational relevance also requires increased focus on volitional drug-intake models and standardization of opioid exposure paradigms. Such work will significantly advance our understanding of how opioids cause persistent changes to brain function and will provide a platform on which to develop interventions for treating opioid addiction.

Histone 3 lysine 9 acetylation of BRG1 in the medial prefrontal cortex is associated with heroin self‑administration in rats

Heroin addiction is a chronic relapsing brain disorder with negative social consequences. Histone acetylation serves a role in drug‑induced behavior and neuroplasticity impairment. Brahma/SWI2‑related gene‑1 (BRG1) participates in cerebellar development, embryogenesis and transcriptional regulation of neuronal genes concurrent with histone modifications. However, little is known about the relationship between histone H3 lysine 9 acetylation (H3K9ac) and BRG1 in response to heroin. The present study aimed to assess the contribution of histone 3 lysine 9 acetylation of BRG1 to heroin self‑administration. The present study established a Sprague‑Dawley rat model of heroin self‑administration under a fixed‑ratio‑1 paradigm. Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR (RT‑qPCR) was used to detect the accumulation of H3K9ac on BRG1 in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and nucleus accumbens (NAc) following heroin self‑administration. The relative expression levels of BRG1 were analyzed by RT‑qPCR. H3K9ac at the promoter region of BRG1 was significantly elevated (P=0.002), and the expression of BRG1 in the mPFC increased 1.47‑fold in the heroin self‑administration group compared with the control group. No significant difference in H3K9ac at the BRG1 locus was observed in the NAc (P=0.323), with the expression of BRG1 decreasing 1.38‑fold in the heroin self‑administering rats compared with the control group. H3K9ac is associated with transcriptional activation, and the increased BRG1 expression suggested an essential and novel role for BRG1 and its H3K9ac‑mediated regulation in the mPFC after heroin self‑administration; and this may function through epigenetically modulating the activation of neuroplasticity‑associated genes. This association may provide a novel therapeutic target for the treatment of heroin addiction.

Epigenetic pharmacotherapy for substance use disorder

Identifying novel therapeutics for the treatment of substance use disorder (SUD) is an area of intensive investigation. Prior strategies that have attempted to modify one or a few neurotransmitter receptors have had limited success, and currently there are no FDA-approved medications for the treatment of cocaine, methamphetamine, and marijuana use disorders. Because drugs of abuse are known to alter the expression of numerous genes in reward-related brain regions, epigenetic-based therapies have emerged as intriguing targets for therapeutic innovation. Here, I evaluate potential therapeutic approaches and challenges in targeting epigenetic factors for the treatment of SUD and highlight examples of promising strategies and future directions.

Role of Dorsal Striatum Histone Deacetylase 5 in Incubation of Methamphetamine Craving

BACKGROUND

Methamphetamine (meth) seeking progressively increases after withdrawal (incubation of meth craving). We previously demonstrated an association between histone deacetylase 5 (HDAC5) gene expression in the rat dorsal striatum and incubation of meth craving. Here we used viral constructs to study the causal role of dorsal striatum HDAC5 in this incubation.

METHODS

In experiment 1 (overexpression), we injected an adeno-associated virus bilaterally into dorsal striatum to express either green fluorescent protein (control) or a mutant form of HDAC5, which strongly localized to the nucleus. After training rats to self-administer meth (10 days, 9 hours/day), we tested the rats for relapse to meth seeking on withdrawal days 2 and 30. In experiment 2 (knockdown), we injected an adeno-associated virus bilaterally into the dorsal striatum to express a short hairpin RNA either against luciferase (control) or against HDAC5. After training rats to self-administer meth, we tested the rats for relapse on withdrawal days 2 and 30. We also measured gene expression of other HDACs and potential HDAC5 downstream targets.

RESULTS

We found that HDAC5 overexpression in dorsal striatum increased meth seeking on withdrawal day 30 but not day 2. In contrast, HDAC5 knockdown in the dorsal striatum decreased meth seeking on withdrawal day 30 but not on day 2; this manipulation also altered other HDACs (Hdac1 and Hdac4) and potential HDAC5 targets (Gnb4 and Suv39h1).

CONCLUSIONS

Results demonstrate a novel role of dorsal striatum HDAC5 in incubation of meth craving. These findings also set up future work to identify HDAC5 targets that mediate this incubation.

Epigenetic regulation of motivated behaviors by histone deacetylase inhibitors

Growing evidence has begun to elucidate the contribution of epigenetic mechanisms in the modulation and maintenance of gene expression and behavior. Histone acetylation is one such epigenetic mechanism, which has been shown to profoundly alter gene expression and behaviors. In this review, we begin with an overview of the major epigenetic mechanisms including histones acetylation. We next focus on recent evidence about the influence of environmental stimuli on various motivated behaviors through histone acetylation and highlight how histone deacetylase inhibitors can correct some of the pathologies linked to motivated behaviors including substance abuse, feeding and social attachments. Particularly, we emphasize that the effects of histone deacetylase inhibitors on motivated behaviors are time and context-dependent.

Persistent histone modifications at the BDNF and Cdk-5 promoters following extinction of nicotine-seeking in rats

Drugs of addiction lead to a wide range of epigenetic changes at the promoter regions of genes directly implicated in learning and memory processes. We have previously shown that the histone deactylase inhibitor, sodium butyrate (NaB), accelerates the extinction of nicotine-seeking and provides resistance to relapse. Here, we explore the potential molecular mechanisms underlying this effect. Rats received intravenous nicotine or saline self-administration, followed by 6 days of extinction training, with each extinction session followed immediately by treatment with NaB or vehicle. On the last day of extinction, rats were killed and the medial ventral prefrontal cortex retained for chromatin immunoprecipitation and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). A history of nicotine exposure significantly decreased H3K14 acetylation at the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) exon IV promoter, and this effect was abolished with NaB treatment. In contrast, nicotine self-administration alone, resulted in a significant decrease in histone methylation at the H3K27me3 and H3K9me2 marks in the promoter regions of BDNF exon IV and cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk-5). Quantitative PCR-identified changes in several genes associated with NaB treatment that were independent of nicotine exposure; however, an interaction of nicotine history and NaB treatment was detected only in the expression of BDNF IV and BDNF IX. Together these results suggest that nicotine self-administration leads to a number of epigenetic changes at both the BDNF and Cdk-5 promoters, and that these changes may contribute to the enhanced extinction of nicotine-seeking by NaB.