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Langergaard MJ, Ernst A, Bech BH, Tøttenborg SS, Brix N, Toft G, Gaml-Sørensen A, Hougaard KS, Arendt LH, Bonde JPE, Ramlau-Hansen CH. Maternal coffee consumption and biomarkers of reproductive health in young, adult sons: a cohort study. Reprod Toxicol 2024:108689. [PMID: 39159852 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2024.108689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 08/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024]
Abstract
It has been proposed that poor semen quality may have its origins from fetal programming due to environmental factors. We investigated whether maternal coffee consumption during early pregnancy was associated with biomarkers of reproductive health in adult sons in the Fetal Programming of Semen Quality (FEPOS) cohort. In 2017-2019, 1,058 young men provided a semen and blood sample and self-measured their testis volume. Daily maternal coffee consumption was reported by the mothers around gestational week 17. We estimated relative percentage differences with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for semen quality measures, testis volume, and reproductive hormone levels according to maternal coffee consumption during pregnancy. Maternal coffee consumption (yes/no (reference)) was associated with lower semen volume (-7.0% (95% CI:-12.9;-0.7)), lower proportion of morphologically normal spermatozoa (-8.3% (95% CI:-16.5;0.8)), higher proportion of non-progressive and immotile spermatozoa (4.3% (95% CI:-1.5;10.3)), and lower testis volume (-4.8% (95% CI:-9.0;-0.4)). No indication of a dose-response association or threshold effects was observed in the categorized and continuous analyses. No associations with reproductive hormone levels were observed in any of the analyses. Overall, the study does not provide obvious indications that maternal coffee consumption in early pregnancy deteriorates male offspring fecundity. While some minor changes were observed, most estimates were small with confidence intervals overlapping the null. Future studies, preferably with greater exposure contrast, are warranted before a conclusion can be drawn as to whether maternal coffee consumption during pregnancy constitutes a risk for reproductive health in adult sons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Jørgensen Langergaard
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Andreas Ernst
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Urology, Aarhus University Hospital, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Bodil Hammer Bech
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Sandra Søgaard Tøttenborg
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400 Copenhagen NV, Denmark; Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Nis Brix
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Clinical Genetics, Vejle Regional Hospital, Beriderbakken 4, 7100 Vejle, Denmark
| | - Gunnar Toft
- Steno Diabetes Center Aarhus, Aarhus University Hospital, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 11, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Anne Gaml-Sørensen
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Karin Sørig Hougaard
- Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark; National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, 2100 Copenhagen East, Denmark
| | - Linn Håkonsen Arendt
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Aarhus University Hospital, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200 Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Jens Peter Ellekilde Bonde
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital - Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Bispebjerg Bakke 23, 2400 Copenhagen NV, Denmark; Department of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1353 Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Cecilia Høst Ramlau-Hansen
- Department of Public Health, Research Unit for Epidemiology, Aarhus University, Bartholins Allé 2, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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Rohweder R, de Oliveira Schmalfuss T, Dos Santos Borniger D, Ferreira CZ, Zanardini MK, Lopes GPTF, Barbosa CP, Moreira TD, Schuler-Faccini L, Sanseverino MTV, da Silva AA, Abeche AM, Vianna FSL, Fraga LR. Caffeine intake during pregnancy and adverse outcomes: An integrative review. Reprod Toxicol 2024; 123:108518. [PMID: 38042437 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2023.108518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
Caffeine intake during pregnancy is common. Caffeine crosses the placenta, raising concerns about its possible deleterious effects on the developing embryo/fetus. Studies on this subject show conflicting results, and still there is no consensus on the recommended dose of caffeine during pregnancy. We performed an integrative review with studies from six databases, using broad MESH terms to allow the identification of publications that addressed the outcomes of caffeine use during pregnancy, with no date limit for publications, in English and Portuguese language. The research returned 16,192 articles. After removing duplicates, screening by title, abstract and full-text, we evaluated 257 and included 59 articles. We found association between caffeine intake and pregnancy loss, low birth weight, cardiac and genital anomalies, higher body mass, and neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral outcomes. The effects were often dose dependent. No association with prematurity has been demonstrated, but one study showed a small reduction in gestational age with increasing doses of caffeine intake. Defining a safe dose for caffeine intake during pregnancy is a challenging task due to the heterogeneity in study designs and results, as well as the difficulty of reliably assessing the amount of caffeine consumed. In some studies, exposures below the recommended level of caffeine intake during pregnancy (200 mg/day), as suggested by the guidelines, were associated with pregnancy loss, low birth weight, cardiac and genital anomalies, higher body mass, and neurodevelopmental and neurobehavioral outcomes. Well-designed studies with reliable quantification of caffeine intake are needed to assess the safety of low doses during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Rohweder
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Thanyse de Oliveira Schmalfuss
- Programa de Monitoramento de Defeitos Congênitos do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (PMDC-HCPA), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Diessy Dos Santos Borniger
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Carolina Zanfir Ferreira
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Marcos Kobren Zanardini
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Paulon Torrano Ferreira Lopes
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Camila Pocharski Barbosa
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Taiane Dornelles Moreira
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Lavinia Schuler-Faccini
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Maria Teresa Vieira Sanseverino
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Monitoramento de Defeitos Congênitos do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (PMDC-HCPA), Porto Alegre, Brazil; Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - André Anjos da Silva
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Médicas - Universidade do Vale do Taquari - UNIVATES, Lajeado, Brazil; Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos - UNISINOS, São Leopoldo, Brazil
| | - Alberto Mantovani Abeche
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Sales Luiz Vianna
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Lucas Rosa Fraga
- Sistema Nacional de Informação sobre Agentes Teratogênicos (SIAT), Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Departamento de Ciências Morfológicas, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Programa de Pós-Graduação em Medicina - Ciências Médicas, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil.
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Mérida-Ortega Á, Pérez-Saldivar ML, Espinoza-Hernández LE, Dorantes-Acosta EM, Torres-Nava JR, Solís-Labastida KA, Paredes-Aguilera R, Velázquez-Aviña MM, Espinosa-Elizondo RM, Miranda-Madrazo MR, González-Ávila AI, Rodríguez-Villalobos LR, Dosta-Herrera JJ, Mondragón-García JA, Castañeda-Echevarría A, López-Caballero MG, Martínez-Silva SI, Rivera-González J, Hernández-Pineda NA, Flores-Botello J, Pérez-Gómez JA, Rodríguez-Vázquez MA, Torres-Valle D, Olvera-Durán JÁ, Martínez-Ríos A, García‐Cortés LR, Almeida-Hernández C, Flores-Lujano J, Núñez-Enríquez JC, Mata-Rocha M, Rosas-Vargas H, Duarte-Rodríguez DA, Jiménez-Morales S, Mejía-Arangure JM, López-Carrillo L. A protective maternal nutrient concomitant intake associated with acute leukemia might be modified by sex, in children under 2 years. Front Oncol 2023; 13:1239147. [PMID: 37746300 PMCID: PMC10514356 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2023.1239147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Maternal dietary consumption during pregnancy has been inconclusively associated with acute leukemia (AL) in infants, probably because epidemiological evidence has emerged mainly from the analysis of one-by-one nutrient, which is not a real-life scenario. Our objective was to evaluate the association between AL in Mexican children under 2 years of age and their mothers' nutrients concomitant intake during pregnancy, as well as to explore whether there are differences between girls and boys. Methods We conducted a study of 110 cases of AL and 252 hospital-based controls in the Mexico City Metropolitan area from 2010 to 2019. We obtained information on maternal intake of 32 nutrients by a food frequency questionnaire and used weighted quantile sum regression to identify nutrient concomitant intakes. Results We found a concomitant intake of nutrients negatively associated with AL (OR 0.17; CI95% 0.03,0.88) only among girls; and we did not find a nutrient concomitant intake positively associated with AL. Discussion This is the first study that suggests nutrients that have been individually associated with AL are not necessarily the same in the presence of other nutrients (concomitant intake); as well as that maternal diet might reduce AL risk only in girls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ángel Mérida-Ortega
- Center of Population Health Research, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - María Luisa Pérez-Saldivar
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Epidemiología Clínica, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional (CMN) Siglo-XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), México City, Mexico
| | - Laura E. Espinoza-Hernández
- Servicio de Hematología Pediátrica, Hospital General “Gaudencio González Garza”, CMN “La Raza”, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Elisa M. Dorantes-Acosta
- Departamento de Hemato-Oncología, Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Secretaria de Salud (SSA), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - José Refugio Torres-Nava
- Servicio de Oncología, Hospital Pediátrico Moctezuma, Secretaría de Salud de la Ciudad de México (SSCDMX), Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | - M. Raquel Miranda-Madrazo
- Servicio de Hematología Pediátrica, CMN”20 de Noviembre”, Instituto de Seguridad Social al Servicio de los Trabajadores del Estado (ISSSTE), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ana Itamar González-Ávila
- Servicio de Hematología Pediátrica, HGR No. 1 “Dr. Carlos Mac Gregor Sánchez Navarro” IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Juan José Dosta-Herrera
- Servicio de Cirugía Pediátrica, Hospital General “Gaudencio González Garza”, CMN “La Raza”, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Javier A. Mondragón-García
- Servicio de Cirugía Pediátrica, Hospital General Regional (HGR) No. 1 “Dr. Carlos Mac Gregor Sánchez Navarro” IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | | | - Juan Rivera-González
- Hospital General Dr. “Gustavo Baz Prada”, Instituto de Salud del Estado de México (ISEM), State of Mexico, Mexico
| | | | - Jesús Flores-Botello
- Coordinación Clínica y Pediatría, Hospital General “La Perla” ISEM, Nezahualcóyotl, State of Mexico, Mexico
| | - Jessica Arleet Pérez-Gómez
- Coordinación Clínica y Pediatría, HGR No. 72 “Dr. Vicente Santos Guajardo”, IMSS, Tlalnepantla de Baz, State of Mexico, Mexico
| | | | - Delfino Torres-Valle
- Coordinación Clínica y Pediatría del Hospital General de Zona 71, IMSS, Chalco de Díaz Covarrubias, State of Mexico, Mexico
| | | | | | - Luis R. García‐Cortés
- Delegación Regional Estado de México Oriente, IMSS, Naucalpan de Juárez, State of Mexico, Mexico
| | | | - Janet Flores-Lujano
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Epidemiología Clínica, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional (CMN) Siglo-XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), México City, Mexico
| | - Juan Carlos Núñez-Enríquez
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Epidemiología Clínica, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional (CMN) Siglo-XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), México City, Mexico
| | - Minerva Mata-Rocha
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de las Leucemias, Unidad de Investigación en Genética Humana, UMAE, Hospital de Pediatría, CMN “Siglo XXI”, IMSS, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Haydeé Rosas-Vargas
- Laboratorio de Genética, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional (CMN) Siglo-XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), Mexico City, Mexico
| | - David Aldebarán Duarte-Rodríguez
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Epidemiología Clínica, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional (CMN) Siglo-XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS), México City, Mexico
| | - Silvia Jiménez-Morales
- Laboratorio de Innovación y Medicina de Precisión, Núcleo A, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica (INMEGEN), México City, Mexico
| | - Juan Manuel Mejía-Arangure
- Laboratorio de Genómica del Cáncer, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Genómica (INMEGEN), México City, Mexico
- Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), México City, Mexico
| | - Lizbeth López-Carrillo
- Center of Population Health Research, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública (INSP), Cuernavaca, Mexico
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Blanco-Lopez J, Iguacel I, Pisanu S, Almeida CCB, Steliarova-Foucher E, Sierens C, Gunter MJ, Ladas EJ, Barr RD, Van Herck K, Huybrechts I. Role of Maternal Diet in the Risk of Childhood Acute Leukemia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:5428. [PMID: 37048042 PMCID: PMC10093835 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20075428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Many studies have investigated the etiology of acute leukemia, one of the most common types of cancer in children; however, there is a lack of clarity regarding preventable risk factors. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to summarize the current evidence regarding the role of maternal dietary factors in the development of childhood leukemia. All epidemiological studies published until July 2022 that evaluated maternal dietary risk factors for childhood acute leukemia were identified in two electronic databases (PubMed and Web of Science) without limits of publication year or language. A total of 38 studies (1 prospective cohort study, 34 case-control studies and 3 studies with pooled analysis) were included. The published risk estimates were combined into a meta-analysis, using the Generic Inverse Variance method. The maternal consumption of fruits (two or more daily servings vs. less) was inversely associated with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (odds ratio = 0.71; 95% CI, 0.59-0.86), whereas maternal coffee intake (higher than two cups per day vs. no consumption) was associated with an increased risk of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (odds ratio = 1.45; 95% CI, 1.12-1.89). Despite these findings, more high-quality research from cohort studies and the identification of causal factors are needed to develop evidence-based and cost-effective prevention strategies applicable at the population level. Review Registration: PROSPERO registration no. CRD42019128937.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isabel Iguacel
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Silvia Pisanu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Section of Microbiology and Virology, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy
| | | | | | - Ciska Sierens
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marc J. Gunter
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Elena J. Ladas
- Division of Hematology, Oncology, and Stem Cell Transplantation, Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Ronald D. Barr
- Departments of Pediatrics, Pathology and Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Koen Van Herck
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Inge Huybrechts
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, 69007 Lyon, France
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Health Benefits of Coffee Consumption for Cancer and Other Diseases and Mechanisms of Action. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032706. [PMID: 36769029 PMCID: PMC9916720 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide, and epidemiology studies associate higher coffee consumption with decreased rates of mortality and decreased rates of neurological and metabolic diseases, including Parkinson's disease and type 2 diabetes. In addition, there is also evidence that higher coffee consumption is associated with lower rates of colon and rectal cancer, as well as breast, endometrial, and other cancers, although for some of these cancers, the results are conflicting. These studies reflect the chemopreventive effects of coffee; there is also evidence that coffee consumption may be therapeutic for some forms of breast and colon cancer, and this needs to be further investigated. The mechanisms associated with the chemopreventive or chemotherapeutic effects of over 1000 individual compounds in roasted coffee are complex and may vary with different diseases. Some of these mechanisms may be related to nuclear factor erythroid 2 (Nrf2)-regulated pathways that target oxidative stress or pathways that induce reactive oxygen species to kill diseased cells (primarily therapeutic). There is evidence for the involvement of receptors which include the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and orphan nuclear receptor 4A1 (NR4A1), as well as contributions from epigenetic pathways and the gut microbiome. Further elucidation of the mechanisms will facilitate the potential future clinical applications of coffee extracts for treating cancer and other inflammatory diseases.
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Abstract
Numerous studies have examined the association between maternal caffeine consumption and infant and childhood health outcomes and the results have been inconsistent. The study of maternal caffeine intake and infant and childhood health outcomes is prone to methodologic challenges. In this review, we examine the existing evidence juxtaposed with the epidemiologic design challenges that color the interpretation of the study results presented. In light of methodologic/interpretation challenges, it seems reasonable to infer that exposure to low levels of caffeine is probably not associated with substantial infant and childhood adversities. However, more research is needed using well designed studies that address methodologic challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan Leviton
- Boston Children's Hospital & Harvard Medical School, Brookline, MA, USA
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