Immunoregulatory effects of a glucogalactan from the root of Panax quinquefolium L

Research progress and future development potential of Flammulina velutipes polysaccharides in the preparation process, structure analysis, biology, and pharmacology: A review

In recent years, Flammulina velutipes (F. velutipes) has attracted consequential attention in various research fields due to its rich composition of proteins, vitamins, amino acids, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. F. velutipes polysaccharides (FVPs) are considered as key bioactive components of F. velutipes, demonstrating multiple physiological activities, including immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antibacterial properties. Moreover, they offer health benefits such as antioxidant and anti-aging properties, which have exceptionally valuable clinical applications. Polysaccharides derived from different sources exhibit a wide range of biomedical functions and distinct biological activities. The varied biological functions of polysaccharides, coupled with their extensive application in functional foods and clinical applications, have prompted a heightened focus on polysaccharide research. Additionally, the extraction, deproteinization, and purification of FVPs are fundamental to investigate the structure and biological activities of polysaccharides. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive and systematic overview of the extraction, deproteinization, purification, characterization, and structural elucidation of FVPs. Furthermore, the biological activities and mechanisms of FVPs have been further explored through in vivo and in vitro experiments. This review aims to provide a theoretical foundation and guide future research and development of FVPs.

A systematic review of ginsenoside biosynthesis, spatiotemporal distribution, and response to biotic and abiotic factors in American ginseng

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) has gained recognition as a medicinal and functional food homologous product with several pharmaceutical, nutritional, and industrial applications. However, the key regulators involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis, the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of ginsenosides, and factors influencing ginsenosides are largely unknown, which make it challenging to enhance the quality and chemical extraction processes of the cultivated American ginseng. This review presents an overview of the pharmacological effects, biosynthesis and spatiotemporal distribution of ginsenosides, with emphasis on the impacts of biotic and abiotic factors on ginsenosides in American ginseng. Modern pharmacological studies have demonstrated that American ginseng has neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antitumor, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity effects. Additionally, most genes involved in the upregulation of ginsenoside biosynthesis have been identified, while downstream regulators (OSCs, CYP450, and UGTs) require further investigation. Futhermore, limited knowledge exists regarding the molecular mechanisms of the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on ginsenosides. Notably, the nonmedicinal parts of American ginseng, particularly its flowers, fibrous roots, and leaves, exhibit higher ginsenoside content than its main roots and account for a considerable amount of weight in the whole plant, representing promising resources for ginsenosides. Herein, the prospects of molecular breeding and metabolic engineering based on multi-omics to improve the unstable quality of cultivated American ginseng and the shortage of ginsenosides are proposed. This review highlights the gaps in the current research on American ginseng and proposes solutions to address these limitations, providing a guide for future investigations into American ginseng ginsenosides.

Spatial metabolomics method to reveal differential metabolomes in microregions of Panax quinquefolius roots by using ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole/time of flight-mass spectrometry and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging

Panax quinquefolius is a natural homology medicine and food that is rich in bioactive ingredients, such as ginsenosides and polysaccharides. The combination of ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole/time of flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) and desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) was used for the first time in a spatial metabolomics analysis to comprehensively evaluate the differential components in different microregions of P. quinquefolius. UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and DESI-MSI combined with principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares-discriminant analysis were used to screen differential metabolites. UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and DESI-MSI screened 27 and 23 differential metabolites, respectively, among which 15 differential metabolites were identified by both methods. It was found that some components, such as ginsenoside Rg1 and malonyl-ginsenoside Rc, were mainly distributed in P of the transverse slice of P. quinquefolius roots, while ginsenoside Ro and malonyl-ginsenoside Rd were mainly distributed in C. The methods and results of this study could be used to understand the precise localization, biosynthesis, and biological functions of special metabolites in P. quinquefolius.

Protective effect of total Saponins from American ginseng against cigarette smoke-induced COPD in mice based on integrated metabolomics and network pharmacology

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a prevalent respiratory disease. Aiming at assessing the effect of total saponins from American ginseng on COPD, both the chemical composition and anti-COPD activity of total saponins from wild-simulated American ginseng (TSW) and field-grown American ginseng (TSF) were investigated in this study. Firstly, a HPLC-ELSD chromatographic method was established to simultaneously determine the contents of 22 saponins in TSW and TSF. Secondly, CS-induced COPD mouse model was established to evaluate the activity of TSW and TSF. The results indicated that both TSW and TSF had the protective effect against COPD by alleviating oxidative stress and inflammatory response. TSW showed a stronger effect than TSF. Thirdly, an integrated approach involving metabolomics and network pharmacology was used to construct the "biomarker-reaction-enzyme-target" correlation network aiming at further exploring the observed effects. As the results, 15 biomarkers, 9 targets and 5 pathways were identified to play vital roles in the treatment of TSW and TSF on COPD. Fourthly, based on network pharmacology and the CS-stimulated A549 cell model, ginsenoside Rgl, Rc, oleanolic acid, notoginsenoside R1, Fe, silphioside B were certified to be the material basis for the stronger effect of TSW than TSF. Finally, the molecular docking were performed to visualize the binding modes. Our findings suggested that both TSW and TSF could effectively ameliorate the progression of COPD and might be used for the treatment of COPD.

Advances and challenges in ginseng research from 2011 to 2020: the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis

Covering: 2011 to the end of 2020Panax species (Araliaceae), particularly P. ginseng, P. quinquefolius, and P. notoginseng, have a long history of medicinal use because of their remarkable tonifying effects, and currently serve as crucial sources for various healthcare products, functional foods, and cosmetics, aside from their vast clinical preparations. The huge market demand on a global scale prompts the continuous prosperity in ginseng research concerning the discovery of new compounds, precise quality control, ADME (absorption/disposition/metabolism/excretion), and biosynthesis pathways. Benefitting from the ongoing rapid development of analytical technologies, e.g. multi-dimensional chromatography (MDC), personalized mass spectrometry (MS) scan strategies, and multi-omics, highly recognized progress has been made in driving ginseng analysis towards "systematicness, integrity, personalization, and intelligentization". Herein, we review the advances in the phytochemistry, quality control, metabolism, and biosynthesis pathway of ginseng over the past decade (2011-2020), with 410 citations. Emphasis is placed on the introduction of new compounds isolated (saponins and polysaccharides), and the emerging novel analytical technologies and analytical strategies that favor ginseng's authentic use and global consumption. Perspectives on the challenges and future trends in ginseng analysis are also presented.

A review of the immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides isolated from Panax species

Panax polysaccharides are biopolymers that are isolated and purified from the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits of Panax L. plants, which have attracted considerable attention because of their immunomodulatory activities. In this paper, the composition and structural characteristics of purified polysaccharides are reviewed. Moreover, the immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides are described both in vivo and in vitro. In vitro, Panax polysaccharides exert immunomodulatory functions mainly by activating macrophages, dendritic cells, and the complement system. In vivo, Panax polysaccharides can increase the immune organ indices and stimulate lymphocytes. In addition, this paper also discusses the membrane receptors and various signalling pathways of immune cells. Panax polysaccharides have many beneficial therapeutic effects, including enhancing or activating the immune response, and may be helpful in treating cancer, sepsis, osteoporosis, and other conditions. Panax polysaccharides have the potential for use in the development of novel therapeutic agents or adjuvants with beneficial immunomodulatory properties.

Comparisons of Isolation Methods, Structural Features, and Bioactivities of the Polysaccharides from Three Common Panax Species: A Review of Recent Progress

Panax spp. (Araliaceae family) are widely used medicinal plants and they mainly include Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Panax quinquefolium L. (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (notoginseng). Polysaccharides are the main active ingredients in these plants and have demonstrated diverse pharmacological functions, but comparisons of isolation methods, structural features, and bioactivities of these polysaccharides have not yet been reported. This review summarizes recent advances associated with 112 polysaccharides from ginseng, 25 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 36 polysaccharides from notoginseng and it compares the differences in extraction, purification, structural features, and bioactivities. Most studies focus on ginseng polysaccharides and comparisons are typically made with the polysaccharides from American ginseng and notoginseng. For the extraction, purification, and structural analysis, the processes are similar for the polysaccharides from the three Panax species. Previous studies determined that 55 polysaccharides from ginseng, 18 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 9 polysaccharides from notoginseng exhibited anti-tumor activity, immunoregulatory effects, anti-oxidant activity, and other pharmacological functions, which are mediated by multiple signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, or redox balance pathways. This review can provide new insights into the similarities and differences among the polysaccharides from the three Panax species, which can facilitate and guide further studies to explore the medicinal properties of the Araliaceae family used in traditional Chinese medicine.

Less polar ginsenosides have better protective effects on mice infected by Listeria monocytogenes

Listeria monocytogenes widely exists in the natural environment and does great harm, which can cause worldwide public safety problem. Infection with L. monocytogenes can cause rapid death of Kupffer cell (KCs) in liver tissue and liver damage. American ginseng saponins is a natural compound in plants, which has great potential in inhibiting L. monocytogenes infection. Therefore, American ginseng stem-leaf saponins (AGS) and American ginseng heat-transformed saponins (HTS) were used as raw materials to study their bacteriostatic experiments in vivo and in vitro. In this experiment, female Kunming mice were randomly divided into five groups: control group, negative group, AGS group, HTS group (10 mg/kg/day in an equal volume via gastric administration) and penicillin group, each group containing six mice. Profiles AGS and HTS components were evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis. The bacteriostatic effect of AGS and HTS on L. monocytogenes was evaluated by inhibition zone test, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The bacteriostatic effect of AGS and HTS pretreatment on mice infected with L. monocytogenes were studies by animal experimental. The results showed that the content of polar saponins in AGS was 0.81 ± 0.003 mg/mg, less polar saponins was 0.08 ± 0.02 mg/mg, the content of polar saponins in HTS was 0.10 ± 0.01 mg/mg, less polar saponins was 0.76 ± 0.02 mg/mg. The in vitro bacteriostatic diameter of HTS (16.6 ± 0.8 mm) is large than that of AGS (10.2 ± 1.2 mm). AGS and HTS pretreatment could reduce the colony numbers in the livers of mice infected with Listeria monocytogenes. The levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and IFN-γ in the livers of mice in the pretreatment group were significantly lower than those in the negative group. There were obvious leukoplakia, calcification and other liver damage on the liver surface in the negative control group, and obvious inflammatory cell infiltration in HE sections. AGS and HTS pretreatment can reduce liver injury caused by L. monocytogenes and protect the liver. Compared with AGS, HTS has higher content of less polar saponins and better bacteriostatic effect in vitro. The count of bacterial in liver tissue of HTS group was significantly lower, the survival rate was significantly higher than that of AGS group. Less polar saponins had better bacteriostatic effect. Collectively, less polar saponins pretreatment has a protective effect on mice infected with L. monocytogenes, to which alleviated liver damage, improved anti-inflammatory ability and immunity of the body, protected liver may contribute.

Comprehensive Quality Evaluation of American Ginseng for Different Parts and Abnormal Trait Based on the Major Ginsenoside Contents and Morphological Characteristics

The demand for American ginseng, a famous traditional medicine and high-grade healthy food, has increased dramatically over recent years. However, only the main root is popular among consumers, whereas other parts of American ginseng are rarely available in the market. In this study, the contents of 5 major ginsenosides (Re, Rc, Rg₁, Rd, and Rb₁) were determined through high-performance liquid chromatography. Our study showed that all these 5 major ginsenosides are found in different parts of American ginseng plants, and the total content in different parts varied significantly in the following order: fibrous root > flower > branch root > main root > leaf > stem. Interestingly, the total content in the fibrous root was approximately 2.24 times higher than that in the main root. Further research indicated that the ginsenoside content in American ginseng with abnormal characteristics (physical deformity caused by disease and discolouration) is similar to that in the normal plant. Interestingly, a positive correlation was observed between the main root diameter and total ginsenoside content, whereas a negative correlation was observed between the main root length and total ginsenoside content. Our comprehensive study revealed that all parts of American ginseng, including the main root with abnormal characteristics, possess medicinal or economic value. Therefore, our results provide feasible evidence to further explore the potential application of American ginseng.

Panax quinquefolius (North American Ginseng) Polysaccharides as Immunomodulators: Current Research Status and Future Directions

Panax quinquefolius (North American ginseng, NAG) is a popular medicinal plant used widely in traditional medicine. NAG products are currently available in various forms such as roots, extracts, nutraceuticals, dietary supplements, energy drinks, etc. NAG polysaccharides are recognized as one of the major bioactive ingredients. However, most NAG reviews are focused on ginsenosides with little information on polysaccharides. NAG polysaccharides have demonstrated a therapeutic activity in numerous studies, in which many of the bioactivities involve regulation of the immune response. The purpose of this review is to summarize the structural features and the immunomodulatory properties of crude, partially purified, and pure polysaccharides isolated from NAG. Receptors of the innate immune system that potentially bind to NAG polysaccharides and the respective signal transduction pathways initiated by these compounds are discussed. Major challenges, recent innovations, and future directions in NAG polysaccharide research are also summarized.

Traditional uses, chemical diversity and biological activities of Panax L. (Araliaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax L. (Araliaceae) is globally-recognized plant resource suitable for the globalization of traditional Chinese medicines. It has traditionally been used as tonic agents in various ethnomedicinal systems of East Asia, especially in China. It is often used to regulate bodily functions and considered as adjuvant therapy for tumor, resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock, etc. AIM OF THIS REVIEW: This review systematically summarized the information on distributions, botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical components and biological activities of the genus Panax, in order to explore and exploit the therapeutic potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about genus Panax was collected via the online search on Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Springer search. The keywords used include Panax, saponin, secondary metabolites, chemical components, biological activity, pharmacology, traditional medicinal uses, safety and other related words. The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) and Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist (www.catalogueoflife.org/col/) databases were used to provide the scientific names, subspecies classification and distribution information of Panax.

RESULTS

Panax is widely assessed concerning its phytochemistry and biological activities. To date, at least 748 chemical compounds from genus Panax were isolated, including saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and phenols. Among them, triterpenoid saponins and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of Panax plants, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies showed that these compounds exhibited a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepatorenal protective, neuroprotective, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective and antidiabetic activities. Many studies also confirmed that the mechanisms of organ-protective were closely related to molecular signaling pathways, the expression of related proteins and antioxidant reactions. To sum up, genus Panax has high medicinal and social value, deserving further investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The genus Panax is very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on ethnomedicinal uses of Panax plants. In addition, further studies of single chemical component should be performed based on the diversity of chemical structure, significant biological activities and clinical application. If the bioactive molecules and multicomponent interactions are discovered, it will be of great significance to the clinical application of Panax plants. It is an urgent requirement to carry out detailed phytochemical, pharmacology and clinical research on Panax classical prescriptions for the establishment of modern medication guidelines. Exploring the molecular basis of herbal synergistic actions may provide a new understanding of the complex disease mechanisms and accelerate the process of pharmaceutical development.

Quinetides: diverse posttranslational modified peptides of ribonuclease-like storage protein from Panax quinquefolius as markers for differentiating ginseng species

Background

Peptides have diverse and important physiological roles in plants and are ideal markers for species identification. It is unclear whether there are specific peptides in Panax quinquefolius L. (PQ). The aims of this study were to identify Quinetides, a series of diverse posttranslational modified native peptides of the ribonuclease-like storage protein (ginseng major protein), from PQ to explore novel peptide markers and develop a new method to distinguish PQ from Panax ginseng.

Methods

We used different fragmentation modes in the LTQ Orbitrap analysis to identify the enriched Quinetide targets of PQ, and we discovered Quinetide markers of PQ and P. ginseng using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis. These "peptide markers" were validated by simultaneously monitoring Rf and F11 as standard ginsenosides.

Results

We discovered 100 Quinetides of PQ with various post-translational modifications (PTMs), including a series of glycopeptides, all of which originated from the protein ginseng major protein. We effectively distinguished PQ from P. ginseng using new "peptide markers." Four unique peptides (Quinetides TP6 and TP7 as markers of PQ and Quinetides TP8 and TP9 as markers of P. ginseng) and their associated glycosylation products were discovered in PQ and P. ginseng.

Conclusion

We provide specific information on PQ peptides and propose the clinical application of peptide markers to distinguish PQ from P. ginseng.

An acidic polysaccharide (AGC3) isolated from North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) suspension culture as a potential immunomodulatory nutraceutical

Polysaccharides isolated from Panax quinquefolius roots are widely used as nutraceuticals due to their immunomodulatory properties. Despite their popularity, several challenges exist in isolating ginseng root polysaccharides such as batch-to-batch structural inconsistencies and bacterial endotoxin contamination. A plant tissue culture-based platform offers a potential solution to isolate natural polysaccharide fractions with consistent chemical characteristics and reduced endotoxin content. In this study, an acidic polysaccharide fraction (AGC3) with immunomodulatory properties was isolated from Panax quinquefolius suspension cultures. The heterogeneous fraction (molecular weight: 4.81 and 32.14 kDa), purified by anion exchange chromatography, was predominantly composed of galactose (>60%) along with the presence of rhamnose, arabinose, glucose, glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid. The major glycosidic linkages were found to be t-Galp (47.7%), 4-Galp (15.6%), 2,4-Rhap (8.1%), 6-Galp (8.1%) and 4-GalAp (6.8%). Structural analyses indicated the presence of a pectic rhamnogalacturonan I polysaccharide in AGC3. AGC3 significantly (p < 0.05) stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells and primary murine splenocytes by enhancing the production of several immunomodulatory mediators such as IL-6, TNF-α, GM-CSF and MCP-1. The results also indicated the putative roles of NF-κB (p65/RelA) and MAPK (p38) signaling pathways in the immunostimulatory response. Additionally, AGC3 induced murine splenocyte proliferation, another major indicator of immunostimulation. Overall, AGC3 has the potential to be used as an immunostimulatory nutraceutical.

•

American ginseng suspension culture as source of natural bioactive polysaccharides.

•

Acidic polysaccharide, AGC3 displayed potent immunostimulatory properties.

•

Putative mechanism of action includes NF-κB (p65/RelA) and MAPK (p38) pathways.

•

AGC3 predominantly composed of RGI-type pectins.

•

Potential nutraceutical that can be used as an exogenous immunomodulator.

Panax quinquefolius (North American ginseng) cell suspension culture as a source of bioactive polysaccharides: Immunostimulatory activity and characterization of a neutral polysaccharide AGC1

In this study, we propose the use of a plant tissue culture-based system for the production of polysaccharides with consistent chemical characteristics and reduced endotoxin content. Polysaccharides were isolated from suspension cultures of Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), a widely used medicinal herb. A neutral fraction, AGC1, purified by anion exchange and size exclusion chromatography, displayed immunostimulatory activity in vitro and ex vivo. AGC1 (average molecular weight: 5.2kDa) was predominantly composed of galactose (>60%) along with the presence of several other neutral sugars such as arabinose, xylose, glucose, mannose and rhamnose in minor amounts. The major glycosidic linkages were found to be 3-Galp (48.5%), 3,6-Galp (10.2%), t-Galp (5.2%), 6-Galp (4.4%), 4-Glcp (5.7%), 4-Arap/5-Araf (4.0%) and t-Araf (4.5%). AGC1 significantly (p<0.05) stimulated the expression of a range of proinflammatory mediators in RAW 264.7 murine macrophages such as IL-6, TNF-α, MCP-1 and GM-CSF. Additionally, AGC1 treatment of RAW 264.7 cells stimulated NOS2 gene expression, leading to increased levels of iNOS and downstream NO. Consistent with this, AGC1 was able to act as an immunostimulant in primary murine splenocytes, enhancing cell proliferation, as well as NO and TNF-α production. Our results also indicate the partial role of NF-κB pathway in the immunostimulatory response.

Comprehensive Investigation on Metabolites of Wild-Simulated American Ginseng Root Based on Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

Aiming to evaluate the similarities and differences of the phytochemicals in different morphological regions of wild-simulated American ginseng (WsAG) root, the comprehensive metabolite profiling of main root (MR), branch root (BR), rhizome (RH), adventitious root (AR), and fibrous root (FR) was performed on the basis of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the first time. First, in the screening analysis, a total of 128 shared compounds were identified or tentatively characterized. The results showed that these five parts were all rich in phytochemicals and contained similar structure types. Second, in the untargeted metabolomic study, it was found that there indeed existed differences between the MR&BR group, RH&AR group, and FR part when considering the contents of every ingredient. A total of 31 (12, 7, and 12 for MR&BR, RH&AR, and FR, respectively) potential chemical markers enabling the differentiation were discovered. This comprehensive phytochemical profile study revealed the structural diversity of secondary metabolites and the similar/different patterns in five morphological regions of WsAG root. It could provide chemical evidence for the rational application of different parts of WsAG root.

Non-Targeted Metabolomic Analysis of Methanolic Extracts of Wild-Simulated and Field-Grown American Ginseng

Aiming at revealing the structural diversity of secondary metabolites and the different patterns in wild-simulated American ginseng (WsAG) and field-grown American ginseng (FgAG), a comprehensive and unique phytochemical profile study was carried out. In the screening analysis, a total of 121 shared compounds were characterized in FgAG and WsAG, respectively. The results showed that both of these two kinds of American ginseng were rich in natural components, and were similar in terms of the kinds of compound they contained. Furthermore, in non-targeted metabolomic analysis, when taking the contents of the constituents into account, it was found that there indeed existed quite a difference between FgAG and WsAG, and 22 robust known biomarkers enabling the differentiation were discovered. For WsAG, there were 12 potential biomarkers including two ocotillol-type saponins, two steroids, six damarane-type saponins, one oleanane-type saponins and one other compound. On the other hand, for FgAG, there were 10 potential biomarkers including two organic acids, six damarane-type saponins, one oleanane-type saponin, and one ursane. In a word, this study illustrated the similarities and differences between FgAG and WsAG, and provides a basis for explaining the effect of different growth environments on secondary metabolites.

Characterization and immunostimulating effects on murine peritoneal macrophages of a novel protein isolated from Panax quinquefolius L

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax quinquefolius L. has been used as a proverbial tonic in oriental countries for hundreds of years. It is used as a traditional medicinal herb to nourish vitality.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of our study was to inquiry the activation effects on murine peritoneal macrophages of a novel protein separated from the roots of Panax quinquefolius L.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In our work, a novel protein of the roots of American ginseng (AGNP) was separated and purified from the roots of Panax quinquefolius L. The characteristic was investigated with SDS-PAGE, high pressure gel filtration chromatography (HPGFC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization/time-of-flight mass (MALDI-TOF-MS) spectrometry method. The method of neutral red was carried out to investigate the phagocytosis of peritoneal macrophages. And Griess method and colorimetry were executed to detect the level of nitric oxide and iNOS activity respectively. Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 were analyzed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that the subunit molecular weight of AGNP determined by SDS-PAGE was 15kD and the content of proteins determined by Bradford assay was 2.31mg/mL. The molecular weight of the AGNP was15, 114Da both of electrophoresis and MS purity. And the result of HPGFC showed that the molecular weight of AGNP was 31,086Da, Immunological studied indicated that AGNP could conspicuously increase phagocytosis of macrophages, facilitate the nitric oxide production, Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 production. What is more, AGNP dose-dependently stimulated NO formation through the up-regulation of iNOS activity.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, AGNP had good immunoregulatory effects supporting the traditional claims and may provide a valuable therapeutic strategy to promoting immune function and metabolism.

Prognostic significance of sphingosine kinase 2 expression in non-small cell lung cancer

Sphingosine kinase 2 (SphK2) as a conserved lipid kinase has not been thoroughly elucidated in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the expression of SphK2 in NSCLC tissues and to determine its correlation with clinicopathologic characteristics and its impact on patient prognosis. We assessed the expression of SphK2 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) (as a proliferative index) by immunohistochemistry in 180 NSCLC patient's formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue blocks. Relationship between the expression of SphK2 and PCNA and various clinicopathological features in these patients was evaluated. We detected that expression of SphK2 was gradually upregulated from normal, metaplasia/dysplasia tissues to NSCLC tissues. At the same time, PCNA expression followed a similar pattern. Statistical analysis showed that expression of SphK2 in NSCLC tissues was strongly associated with PCNA expression, histology grade, live vaccine strain invasion, lymph node status, clinical stage, tumors size, and histology type. Patients with SphK2 overexpression in their tissues had lower overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) rates than those with low SphK2 expression. Using uni- and multivariate analysis, we found that SphK2 overexpression was an independent prognostic factor for both OS and DFS. The expression of SphK2 parallels the progression of NSCLC, and SphK2 overexpression may represent a novel and potentially independent biomarker for the prognosis of patients with NSCLC.