Multi-functionalized chitosan nanoparticles for enhanced chemotherapy in lung cancer

The menace of severe adverse events and deaths associated with viral gene therapy and its potential solution

Over the past decade, in vivo gene replacement therapy has significantly advanced, resulting in market approval of numerous therapeutics predominantly relying on adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV). While viral vectors have undeniably addressed several critical healthcare challenges, their clinical application has unveiled a range of limitations and safety concerns. This review highlights the emerging challenges in the field of gene therapy. At first, we discuss both the role of biological barriers in viral gene therapy with a focus on AAVs, and review current landscape of in vivo human gene therapy. We delineate advantages and disadvantages of AAVs as gene delivery vehicles, mostly from the safety perspective (hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, inflammatory responses etc.), and outline the mechanisms of adverse events in response to AAV. Contribution of every aspect of AAV vectors (genomic structure, capsid proteins) and host responses to injected AAV is considered and substantiated by basic, translational and clinical studies. The updated evaluation of recent AAV clinical trials and current medical experience clearly shows the risks of AAVs that sometimes overshadow the hopes for curing a hereditary disease. At last, a set of established and new molecular and nanotechnology tools and approaches are provided as potential solutions for mitigating or eliminating side effects. The increasing number of severe adverse reactions and, sadly deaths, demands decisive actions to resolve the issue of immune responses and extremely high doses of viral vectors used for gene therapy. In response to these challenges, various strategies are under development, including approaches aimed at augmenting characteristics of viral vectors and others focused on creating secure and efficacious non-viral vectors. This comprehensive review offers an overarching perspective on the present state of gene therapy utilizing both viral and non-viral vectors.

Biopolymer-Based Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy: Opportunities and Challenges

Cancer, as the foremost challenge among human diseases, has plagued medical professionals for many years. While there have been numerous treatment approaches in clinical practice, they often cause additional harm to patients. The emergence of nanotechnology has brought new directions for cancer treatment, which can deliver anticancer drugs specifically to tumor areas. This article first introduces the application scenarios of nanotherapies and treatment strategies of nanomedicine. Then, the noteworthy characteristics exhibited by biopolymer materials were described, which make biopolymers stand out in polymeric nanomedicine delivery. Next, we focus on summarizing the state-of-art studies of five categories of proteins (Albumin, Gelatin, Silk fibroin, Zein, Ferritin), nine varieties of polysaccharides (Chitosan, Starch, Hyaluronic acid, Dextran, cellulose, Fucoidan, Carrageenan, Lignin, Pectin) and liposomes in the field of anticancer drug delivery. Finally, we also provide a summary of the advantages and limitations of these biopolymers, discuss the prevailing impediments to their application, and discuss in detail the prospective research directions. This review not only helps readers understand the current development status of nano anticancer drug delivery systems based on biopolymers, but also is helpful for readers to understand the properties of various biopolymers and find suitable solutions in this field through comparative reading.

Weaponizing chitosan and its derivatives in the battle against lung cancer

Lung cancer (LC) is a crisis of catastrophic proportions. It is a global problem and urgently requires a solution. The classic chemo drugs are lagging behind as they lack selectivity, where their side effects are spilled all over the body, and these adverse effects would be terribly tragic for LC patients. Therefore, they could make a bad situation worse, inflict damage on normal cells, and inflict pain on patients. Since our confidence in classic drugs is eroding, chitosan can offer a major leap forward in LC therapy. It can provide the backbone and the vehicle that enable chemo drugs to penetrate the hard shell of LC. It could be functionalized in a variety of ways to deliver a deadly payload of toxins to kill the bad guys. It is implemented in formulation of polymeric NPs, lipidic NPs, nanocomposites, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, and phototherapeutic agents. This review is a pretty clear proof of chitosan's utility as a weapon in battling LC. Chitosan-based formulations could work effectively to kill LC cells. If a researcher is looking for a vehicle for medication for LC therapy, chitosan can be an appropriate choice.

Aptamers as an approach to targeted cancer therapy

Conventional cancer treatments can cause serious side effects because they are not specific to cancer cells and can damage healthy cells. Aptamers often are single-stranded oligonucleotides arranged in a unique architecture, allowing them to bind specifically to target sites. This feature makes them an ideal choice for targeted therapeutics. They are typically produced through the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) and undergo extensive pharmacological revision to modify their affinity, specificity, and therapeutic half-life. Aptamers can act as drugs themselves, directly inhibiting tumor cells. Alternatively, they can be used in targeted drug delivery systems to transport drugs directly to tumor cells, minimizing toxicity to healthy cells. In this review, we will discuss the latest and most advanced approaches to using aptamers for cancer treatment, particularly targeted therapy overcoming resistance to conventional therapies.

Functionalized chitosan for cancer nano drug delivery

Chitosan is a biotechnological derivative of chitin receiving a widespread pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. It can be used to encapsulate and deliver cancer therapeutics with inherent pH-dependent solubility to confer drug targeting at tumour microenvironment and anti-cancer activity synergizing cancer cytotoxic drug actions. To further reduce the off-target and by-stander adverse effects of drugs, a high targeted drug delivery efficiency at the lowest possible drug doses is clinically required. The chitosan has been functionalized with covalent conjugates or complexes and processed into nanoparticles to encapsulate and control drug release, to avoid premature drug clearance, to deliver drugs passively and actively to cancer site at tissue, cell or subcellular levels, and to promote cancer cell uptake of nanoparticles through membrane permeabilization at higher specificity and scale. Nanomedicine developed using functionalized chitosan translates to significant preclinical improvements. Future challenges related to nanotoxicity, manufacturability, selection precision of conjugates and complexes as a function of cancer omics and their biological responses from administration site to cancer target need critical assessments.

Dual targeting pH responsive chitosan nanoparticles for enhanced active cellular internalization of gemcitabine in non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer (LC), related with the enhanced expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and sialic acid binding receptors (glycan) brought about the development of EGFR and glycan receptor specific anticancer therapeutics. The current study assessed the formulation, physiochemical characterization, in vitro and in vivo effects of sialic acid (SA) and cetuximab (Cxmab) decorated chitosan nanoparticles (CSN-NPs) loaded with gemcitabine (GMC) targeted to glycan and EGFR over-expressing non-small-cell lung-cancer (NSCLC) A-549 cells. Chitosan (CSN) was conjugated with sialic acid via EDC/NHS chemistry followed by gemcitabine loaded sialic acid conjugated chitosan nanoparticles (GMC-CSN-SA-NPs) were prepared by ionic gelation method decorated with Cxmab by electrostatic interaction. In vitro cytotoxicity of NPs quantified using cell based MTT, DAPI and Annexing-V/PI apoptosis assays showed superior antiproliferative activity of targeted nanoformulations (GMC-CSN-SA-Cxmab-NPs ≫ GMC-CSN-SA-NPs, GMC-CSN-Cxmab-NPs) over non-targeted nanoformulation (GMC-CSN-NPs) against A-549 cells. In vivopharmacokinetic study showed superior bioavailability and in vivo therapeutic efficacy investigation exhibited strongest anticancer activity of glycan and EGFR targeted NPs (GMC-CSN-SA-Cxmab-NPs). GMC-CSN-SA-Cxmab-NPs demonstrated enhanced cellular internalization and better therapeutic potential, by specifically targeting glycan and EGFR on NSCLC A-549 cells and B[a]P induced lung cancer mice model, hence it might be a good substitute for non-targeted, conventional chemotherapy.

Multi-functional chitosan-based nanoparticles for drug delivery: Recent advanced insight into cancer therapy

Cancer therapy continues to be a major global concern, with conventional treatments suffering from low efficacy, untargeted drug delivery, and severe side effects. Recent research in nanomedicine suggests that nanoparticles' unique physicochemical properties can be leveraged to surmount the limitations of conventional cancer treatment. Chitosan-based nanoparticles have gained significant attention due to their high drug-carrying capacity, non-toxicity, biocompatibility, and long circulation time. Chitosan is utilized in cancer therapies as a carrier to accurately deliver active ingredients to tumor sites. This review focuses on clinical studies and current market offerings of anticancer drugs. The unique nature of tumor microenvironments presents new opportunities for the development of smart drug delivery systems, and this review explores the design and preparation of chitosan-based smart nanoparticles. Further, we discuss the therapeutic efficacies of these nanoparticles based on various in vitro and in vivo findings. Finally, we present a forward-looking perspective on the challenges and prospects of chitosan-based nanoparticles in cancer therapy, intending to provide fresh ideas for advancing cancer treatment strategies.

Advanced cancer targeting using aptamer functionalized nanocarriers for site-specific cargo delivery

The non-specificity of standard anticancer therapies has profound detrimental consequences in clinical treatment. Therapeutic specificity can be precisely achieved using cutting-edge ligands. Small synthetic oligonucleotide-ligands chosen through Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) would be an unceasing innovation in using nucleic acids as aptamers, frequently referred to as "chemical antibodies." Aptamers act as externally controlled switching materials that can attach to various substrates, for example, membrane proteins or nucleic acid structures. Aptamers pose excellent specificity and affinity for target molecules and can be used as medicines to suppress tumor cell growth directly. The creation of aptamer-conjugated nanoconstructs has recently opened up innovative options in cancer therapy that are more effective and target tumor cells with minor toxicity to healthy tissues. This review focuses on a comprehensive description of the most capable classes of aptamer-tethered nanocarriers for precise recognition of cancer cells with significant development in proficiency, selectivity, and targetability for cancer therapy. Existing theranostic applications with the problems and future directions are also highlighted.

Advances in aptamer-mediated targeted delivery system for cancer treatment

Aptamers with high affinity and specificity for certain targets have rapidly become a novel class of targeted ligands applicated in drug delivery. Based on the excellent characteristics of aptamers, different aptamer-mediated drug delivery systems have been developed, including aptamer-drug conjugate (ApDC), aptamer-siRNA, and aptamer-functionalized nanoparticle systems for the effective treatment of cancer, which can reduce potential toxicity and improve therapeutic efficacy. In this review, we summarize the recent progress of aptamer-mediated delivery systems in cancer therapy, and discuss the application prospects and existing problems of innovative approaches based on aptamer therapy. Overall, this review aims to better understand the current aptamer-based targeted delivery applications through in-depth analysis to improve efficacy and develop new therapeutic methods which can ultimately improve treatment outcomes for cancer patients.

Biomedical applications of aptamer-modified chitosan nanomaterials: An updated review

Among polysaccharides of environmental and economic interest, chitosan (CS) is receiving much attention, particularly in the food and biotechnology industries to encapsulate active food ingredients and immobilize enzymes. CS nanoparticles (CS NPs) combine the intrinsic beneficial properties of both natural polymers and nanoscale particles such as quantum size effect, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and ease of modification, and have great potential for bioimaging, drug delivery, and biosensing applications. Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides that can fold into predetermined structures and bind to the corresponding biomolecules. They are mainly used as targeting ligands in biosensors, disease diagnostic kits and treatment strategies. They can deliver contrast agents and drugs into cancer cells and tissues, control microorganism growth and precisely target pathogens. Aptamer-conjugated CS NPs can significantly improve the efficacy of conventional therapies, minimize their side effects on normal tissues, and overcome the enhanced permeability retention (EPR) effect. Further, aptamer-conjugated carbohydrate-based nanobiopolymers have shown excellent antibacterial and antiviral properties and can be used to develop novel biosensors for the efficient detection of antibiotics, toxins, and other biomolecules. This updated review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the bioapplications of aptamer-conjugated CS NPs used as innovative diagnostic and therapeutic platforms, their limitations, and potential future directions.

Fabrication of a Dual-Drug-Loaded Smart Niosome-g-Chitosan Polymeric Platform for Lung Cancer Treatment

Changes in weather conditions and lifestyle lead to an annual increase in the amount of lung cancer, and therefore it is one of the three most common types of cancer, making it important to find an appropriate treatment method. This research aims to introduce a new smart nano-drug delivery system with antibacterial and anticancer capabilities that could be applied for the treatment of lung cancer. It is composed of a niosomal carrier containing curcumin as an anticancer drug and is coated with a chitosan polymeric shell, alongside Rose Bengal (RB) as a photosensitizer with an antibacterial feature. The characterization results confirmed the successful fabrication of lipid-polymeric carriers with a size of nearly 80 nm and encapsulation efficiency of about 97% and 98% for curcumin and RB, respectively. It had the Korsmeyer-Peppas release pattern model with pH and temperature responsivity so that nearly 60% and 35% of RB and curcumin were released at 37 °C and pH 5.5. Moreover, it showed nearly 50% toxicity against lung cancer cells over 72 h and antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli. Accordingly, this nanoformulation could be considered a candidate for the treatment of lung cancer; however, in vivo studies are needed for better confirmation.

Novel Chitosan Nanoparticles Loaded with Methotrexate for Topical Treatment of Psoriasis

AIMS

In this work, CS NPs were prepared by the ionic gelation method and encapsulated with MTX to treat psoriasis dermally.

BACKGROUND

A major drawback of using MTX to treat psoriasis is its limited diffusion through the skin, which may cause insufficient penetration of MTX into the basal layer of the epidermis, where psoriatic cells are generated.

OBJECTIVE

Nanoparticles have been used to enhance MTX diffusion through the skin. The system prepared in this work is expected to direct the drug to psoriasis cells by enhancing the drug diffusion through the skin, which will increase the amount of the drug reaching the epidermis. This is expected to enhance the effectiveness of the drug and to decrease its systemic side effects.

METHODS

Five formulations of Chitosan nanoparticles were prepared and loaded with Methotrexate using the ionic gelation technique. Particle size, dispersity, charge, loading capacity and encapsulation efficacy were measured. Characterization of prepared nanoparticles was conducted to confirm the formation of CS-NPs, successful encapsulation of MTX and its compatibility with other formulation components. In vitro drug release from CS-NPs, its permeation and accumulation in rats' skin were explored. Finally, the anti-psoriatic activity was assessed using the "mouse tail model."

RESULTS

The results showed that the sizes ranged from 132.13 ± 0.70 to 300.60 ± 4.81 nm, where SEM demonstrated the spherical and uniform distribution of the NPs. The surface charge of all NPs was highly positive and ranged from 20.22 ± 1.10 to 30.90 ± 0.70 mV. Further, the EE% and LC% of the nanoparticles were in the range of 77.72%-92.70% and 17.90%-21.81%, respectively. in vitro, the release of methotrexate from the nanoparticles was sustained. Additionally, both the permeation and retention of drugs within the skin were enhanced significantly using this system. Eventually, orthokeratosis% and drug activity% showed significant superiority of MTX-CS NPs over the free drug in treating psoriasis in model mice.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, MTX-CS NPs can be used to enhance the treatment of psoriasis topically.

Nanoparticles advanced from preclinical studies to clinical trials for lung cancer therapy

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer mortality. As a heterogeneous disease, it has different subtypes and various treatment modalities. In addition to conventional surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy have also been applied in the clinics. However, drug resistance and systemic toxicity still cannot be avoided. Based on the unique properties of nanoparticles, it provides a new idea for lung cancer therapy, especially for targeted immunotherapy. When nanoparticles are used as carriers of drugs with special physical properties, the nanodrug delivery system ensures the accuracy of targeting and the stability of drugs while increasing the permeability and the aggregation of drugs in tumor tissues, showing good anti-tumor effects. This review introduces the properties of various nanoparticles including polymer nanoparticles, liposome nanoparticles, quantum dots, dendrimers, and gold nanoparticles and their applications in tumor tissues. In addition, the specific application of nanoparticle-based drug delivery for lung cancer therapy in preclinical studies and clinical trials is discussed.

Microbial polysaccharides: An emerging family of natural biomaterials for cancer therapy and diagnostics

Microbial polysaccharides (MPs) offer immense diversity in structural and functional properties. They are extensively used in advance biomedical science owing to their superior biodegradability, hemocompatibility, and capability to imitate the natural extracellular matrix microenvironment. Ease in tailoring, inherent bio-activity, distinct mucoadhesiveness, ability to absorb hydrophobic drugs, and plentiful availability of MPs make them prolific green biomaterials to overcome the significant constraints of cancer chemotherapeutics. Many studies have demonstrated their application to obstruct tumor development and extend survival through immune activation, apoptosis induction, and cell cycle arrest by MPs. Synoptic investigations of MPs are compulsory to decode applied basics in recent inclinations towards cancer regimens. The current review focuses on the anticancer properties of commercially available and newly explored MPs, and outlines their direct and indirect mode of action. The review also highlights cutting-edge MPs-based drug delivery systems to augment the specificity and efficiency of available chemotherapeutics, as well as their emerging role in theranostics.

A comprehensive review on methotrexate containing nanoparticles; an appropriate tool for cancer treatment

For more than seven decades, methotrexate has been used all over the world for treatment of different diseases such as: cancer, autoimmune diseases, and rheumatoid arthritis. Several studies have addressed its formula, efficacy, and delivery methods in recent years. These studies have been focused on the effectiveness of different nanoparticles on drug delivery, delivery of the drug to the target cells, and attenuation of harm to the host cell. Whereas, the main usages of methotrexate are in cancer treatment field, this review provided a brief perspective into using different nanoparticles and their role in the treatment of different cancers.

The emergence of nanoporous materials in lung cancer therapy

Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers, affecting more than 2.1 million people across the globe every year. A very high occurrence and mortality rate of lung cancer have prompted active research in this area with both conventional and novel forms of therapies including the use of nanomaterials based drug delivery agents. Specifically, the unique physico-chemical and biological properties of porous nanomaterials have gained significant momentum as drug delivery agents for delivering a combination of drugs or merging diagnosis with targeted therapy for cancer treatment. This review focuses on the emergence of nano-porous materials for drug delivery in lung cancer. The review analyses the currently used nanoporous materials, including inorganic, organic and hybrid porous materials for delivering drugs for various types of therapies, including chemo, radio and phototherapy. It also analyses the selected research on stimuli-responsive nanoporous materials for drug delivery in lung cancer before summarizing the various findings and projecting the future of emerging trends. This review provides a strong foundation for the current status of the research on nanoporous materials, their limitations and the potential for improving their design to overcome the unique challenges of delivering drugs for the treatment of lung cancer.

The endocytosis of nano-Pt into non-small cell lung cancer H1299 cells and intravital therapeutic effect in vivo

Lung cancer remains the most common fatal malignant disease, and the 5-year survival rate of patients with metastasis is merely 6%. In this research, the platinum nanocluster (short for nano-Pt) was used for optical imaging without the help of other fluorescent probes and possess targeted antitumor activity as well as low systemic toxicity. The endocytic pathway and distribution of nano-Pt in non-small cell lung cancer NSCLC H1299 cells was explored by the means of quantitative and qualitative tests. Furthermore, the targeting capability and antitumor efficiency of nano-Pt was detected by intravital imaging experiment and antitumor experiment. The research implies that nano-Pt entered H1299 cells dominatingly through macropinocytosis and clathrin-dependent endocytosis pathway, and has significant antitumor efficiency, targeting properties and reliable safety for mouse tumor, indicating this nano-Pt has great potential for clinical diagnosis and therapy of NSCLC H1299 cells.

Platinum Nanoparticles: The Potential Antioxidant in the Human Lung Cancer Cells

Oxidative stress-related conditions associated with lung cells, specifically lung cancer, often lead to a poor prognosis. We hypothesized that platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) can play a role in reversing oxidative stress in human lung adenocarcinoma A549 epithelial lung cell lines. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) was used to induce oxidative stress in cells, and the ability of PtNPs to lower the oxidative stress in the H₂O₂ treated epithelial lung cell line was determined. The differential capacity of PtNPs to remove H₂O₂ was studied through cell viability, nanoparticle uptake, DNA damage, ROS production, and antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase). Results indicated that a higher concentration of PtNPs exhibited a higher antioxidant capacity and was able to reduce DNA damage and quench ROS production in the presence of 350 µM H₂O₂. All antioxidant enzymes’ activities also increased in the PtNPs treatment. Our data suggested that PtNPs could be a promising antioxidant in the treatment of lung cancer.

Targeted Cancer Therapy via pH-Functionalized Nanoparticles: A Scoping Review of Methods and Outcomes

(1) Background: In recent years, several studies have described various and heterogenous methods to sensitize nanoparticles (NPs) to pH changes; therefore, in this current scoping review, we aimed to map current protocols for pH functionalization of NPs and analyze the outcomes of drug-loaded pH-functionalized NPs (pH-NPs) when delivered in vivo in tumoral tissue. (2) Methods: A systematic search of the PubMed database was performed for all published studies relating to in vivo models of anti-tumor drug delivery via pH-responsive NPs. Data on the type of NPs, the pH sensitization method, the in vivo model, the tumor cell line, the type and name of drug for targeted therapy, the type of in vivo imaging, and the method of delivery and outcomes were extracted in a separate database. (3) Results: One hundred and twenty eligible manuscripts were included. Interestingly, 45.8% of studies (n = 55) used polymers to construct nanoparticles, while others used other types, i.e., mesoporous silica (n = 15), metal (n = 8), lipids (n = 12), etc. The mean acidic pH value used in the current literature is 5.7. When exposed to in vitro acidic environment, without exception, pH-NPs released drugs inversely proportional to the pH value. pH-NPs showed an increase in tumor regression compared to controls, suggesting better targeted drug release. (4) Conclusions: pH-NPs were shown to improve drug delivery and enhance antitumoral effects in various experimental malignant cell lines.

Marine Polysaccharides in Tailor- Made Drug Delivery

Abstract:

Marine sources have attracted much interest as an emerging source of biomaterials in drug delivery applications. Amongst all other marine biopolymers, polysaccharides have been the mostly investigated class of biomaterials. The low cytotoxic behavior, in combination with the newly explored health benefits of marine polysaccharides has made it one of the prime research areas in the pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. In this review, we focused on all available marine polysaccharides, including their classification based on biological sources. The applications of several marine polysaccharides in recent years for tissue-specific novel drug delivery including gastrointestinal, brain tissue, transdermal, ocular, liver, and lung have also been discussed here. The abundant availability in nature, cost-effective extraction, and purification process along with a favorable biodegradable profile will encourage researchers to continue investigating marine polysaccharides for exploring newer applications in targeting specific delivery of therapeutics.

Progress in cancer drug delivery based on AS1411 oriented nanomaterials

Targeted cancer therapy has become one of the most important medical methods because of the spreading and metastatic nature of cancer. Based on the introduction of AS1411 and its four-chain structure, this paper reviews the research progress in cancer detection and drug delivery systems by modifying AS1411 aptamers based on graphene, mesoporous silica, silver and gold. The application of AS1411 in cancer treatment and drug delivery and the use of AS1411 as a targeting agent for the detection of cancer markers such as nucleoli were summarized from three aspects of active targeting, passive targeting and targeted nucleic acid apharmers. Although AS1411 has been withdrawn from clinical trials, the research surrounding its structural optimization is still very popular. Further progress has been made in the modification of nanoparticles loaded with TCM extracts by AS1411.

Chitosan Nanoparticle-Based System: A New Insight into the Promising Controlled Release System for Lung Cancer Treatment

Lung cancer has been recognized as one of the most often diagnosed and perhaps most lethal cancer diseases worldwide. Conventional chemotherapy for lung cancer-related diseases has bumped into various limitations and challenges, including non-targeted drug delivery, short drug retention period, low therapeutic efficacy, and multidrug resistance (MDR). Chitosan (CS), a natural polymer derived from deacetylation of chitin, and comprised of arbitrarily distributed β-(1-4)-linked d-glucosamine (deacetylated unit) and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (acetylated unit) that exhibits magnificent characteristics, including being mucoadhesive, biodegradable, and biocompatible, has emerged as an essential element for the development of a nano-particulate delivery vehicle. Additionally, the flexibility of CS structure due to the free protonable amino groups in the CS backbone has made it easy for the modification and functionalization of CS to be developed into a nanoparticle system with high adaptability in lung cancer treatment. In this review, the current state of chitosan nanoparticle (CNP) systems, including the advantages, challenges, and opportunities, will be discussed, followed by drug release mechanisms and mathematical kinetic models. Subsequently, various modification routes of CNP for improved and enhanced therapeutic efficacy, as well as other restrictions of conventional drug administration for lung cancer treatment, are covered.

Anti-bacterial activity of gold nanocomposites as a new nanomaterial weapon to combat photogenic agents: recent advances and challenges

Gold nanocomposites are being widely used in numerous biomedical applications owing to their excellent stability and miniaturization. Gold nanocomposites are notable because of their flexibility of functionalization and synthesis, ease of detection, and low toxicity. Cost-effectiveness, long-term stability, non-cytotoxicity, and biocompatibility are the main aspects of ideal nanocomposites. Antibacterial nanocomposites are being developed extensively in the food industry, environmental applications, and biological and medical devices. This review focuses on the applications of metal-based nanoparticles, mainly gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), as antibacterial agents in medical approaches. Additionally, the antibacterial mechanisms of AuNPs and their roles in fighting antibiotic-resistant microorganisms are highlighted in the present review.

Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

Multi-Functionalized Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles for Diagnosis and Treatment of Retinoblastoma

Retinoblastoma is a rare type of cancer, and its treatment, as well as diagnosis, is challenging, owing to mutations in the tumor-suppressor genes and lack of targeted, efficient, cost-effective therapy, exhibiting a significant need for novel approaches to address these concerns. For this purpose, nanotechnology has revolutionized the field of medicine with versatile potential capabilities for both the diagnosis, as well as the treatment, of retinoblastoma via the targeted and controlled delivery of anticancer drugs via binding to the overexpressed retinoblastoma gene. Nanotechnology has also generated massive advancements in the treatment of retinoblastoma based on the use of surface-tailored multi-functionalized nanocarriers; overexpressed receptor-based nanocarriers ligands (folate, galactose, and hyaluronic acid); lipid-based nanocarriers; and metallic nanocarriers. These nanocarriers seem to benchmark in mitigating a plethora of malignant retinoblastoma via targeted delivery at a specified site, resulting in programmed apoptosis in cancer cells. The effectiveness of these nanoplatforms in diagnosing and treating intraocular cancers such as retinoblastoma has not been properly discussed, despite the increasing significance of nanomedicine in cancer management. This article reviewed the recent milestones and future development areas in the field of intraocular drug delivery and diagnostic platforms focused on nanotechnology.

Nanochitosan: Commemorating the Metamorphosis of an ExoSkeletal Waste to a Versatile Nutraceutical

Chitin (poly-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) is the second (after cellulose) most abundant organic polymer. In its deacetylated form-chitosan-becomes a very interesting material for medical use. The chitosan nano-structures whose preparation is described in this article shows unique biomedical value. The preparation of nanochitosan, as well as the most vital biomedical applications (antitumor, drug delivery and other medical uses), have been discussed in this review. The challenges confronting the progress of nanochitosan from benchtop to bedside clinical settings have been evaluated. The need for inclusion of nano aspects into chitosan research, with improvisation from nanotechnological inputs has been prescribed for breaking down the limitations. Future perspectives of nanochitosan and the challenges facing nanochitosan applications and the areas needing research focus have been highlighted.

Chitosan Nanomedicine in Cancer Therapy: Targeted Delivery and Cellular Uptake

Nanomedicine has gained much attention for the management and treatment of cancers due to the distinctive physicochemical properties of the drug-loaded particles. Chitosan's cationic nature is attractive for the development of such particles for drug delivery, transfection, and controlled release. The particle properties can be improved by modification of the polymer or the particle themselves. The physicochemical properties of chitosan particles are analyzed in 126 recent studies, which allows to highlight their impact on passive and active targeted drug delivery, cellular uptake, and tumor growth inhibition (TGI). From 2012 to 2019, out of 40 in vivo studies, only 4 studies are found reporting a reduction in tumor size by using chitosan particles while all other studies reported tumor growth inhibition relative to controls. A total of 23 studies are analyzed for cellular uptake including 12 studies reporting cellular uptake mechanisms. Understanding and exploiting the processes involved in targeted delivery, endocytosis, and exocytosis by controlling the physicochemical properties of chitosan particles are important for the development of safe and efficient nanomedicine. It is concluded based on the recent literature available on chitosan particles that combination therapies can play a pivotal role in transformation of chitosan nanomedicine from bench to bedside.

Aptamer-based ATP-responsive delivery systems for cancer diagnosis and treatment

In recent years, many stimuli-triggered drug delivery platforms have been designed to deliver drugs accurately to specific sites and reduce their side effects, improving "on-demand" therapeutic efficacy. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP)-responsive drug delivery methods are examples of these systems that use ATP molecules as a trigger for delivery of therapeutic agents. Since intra- and extra-cellular ATP concentrations are significantly different from each other (1-10 mM and <0.4 mM, respectively), the use of ATP can be a practical method for regulating drug release. Aptamers possess unique properties including, ligand-specific response, short sequence (~ 20-80 bases) and easy functionalization. Thus, their combination with ATP-responsive systems results in more accurate drug delivery systems and greater control of drug release. A wide range of nanoparticles, such as polymeric nanogels, liposomes, metallic nanoparticles, protein, or DNA nano-assemblies, have been employed in the fabrication of nanocarriers. In this review, we describe several ATP-responsive drug delivery systems based on the various carriers and discuss the challenges and strengths of each method.

A dual-functional nanovehicle with fluorescent tracking and its targeted killing effects on hepatocellular carcinoma cells

All-in-one drug delivery nanovehicles with low cytotoxicity, high clinical imaging tracking capability, and targeted- and controlled-releasing performances are regarded as promising nanoplatforms for tumor theranostics. Recently, the design of these novel nanovehicles by low molecular weight amphiphilic chitosan (CS) was proposed. Based on fluorescent gold nanoclusters (AuNCs), a tumor-targeting nanovehicle (i.e. AuNCs-CS–AS1411) was prepared via electrostatic attraction between AuNC-conjugated chitosan (i.e. AuNCs-CS) and the anti-nucleolin aptamer, AS1411. After that, the anticancer drug methotrexate (MTX) was encapsulated into the nanovehicles and then the dual-functional nano-drug (i.e. MTX@AuNCs-CS–AS1411) was comparatively supplied to the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 and the human normal liver cell line LO2, to exhibit its “all in one” behavior. Under the conditions of the same concentration of MTX, MTX@AuNCs-CS–AS1411 demonstrates more intensive cytotoxicity and apoptosis-inducing activity against HepG2 cells than those against normal LO2 cells, mainly due to the targeting effect of AS1411 on the nucleolins that were found at high levels on the surface of tumor cells, but are at low levels or absent on normal cells. On the other hand, the MTX release from the MTX@AuNCs-CS–AS1411 was much faster in mildly acidic solution than that in neutral pH. Thus, it may provide a possibility to more significantly release MTX in intracellular lysosome of tumor cells, rather than let loose MTX during transport of the drug from blood vessels to tumor tissue. In conclusion, our dual-functional nanovehicle possesses high fluorescence efficiency and photostability, low cytotoxicity, pH-dependent controlled release, high sensitivity and target-specificity to cancer cells which allowed concurrent targeted imaging and delivery in cancer chemotherapies.

Schematic illustration of the synthesis of the MTX@AuNCs-CS–AS1411, and its targeted delivery and imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma cells.

Carbon Nanohorns as Effective Nanotherapeutics in Cancer Therapy

Different carbon nanostructures have been explored as functional materials for the development of effective nanomaterials in cancer treatment applications. This review mainly aims to discuss the features, either strength or weakness, of carbon nanohorn (CNH), carbon conical horn-shaped nanostructures of sp2 carbon atoms. The interest for these materials arises from their ability to couple the clinically relevant properties of carbon nanomaterials as drug carriers with the negligible toxicity described in vivo. Here, we offer a comprehensive overview of the recent advances in the use of CNH in cancer treatments, underlining the benefits of each functionalization route and approach, as well as the biological performances of either loaded and unloaded materials, while discussing the importance of delivery devices.

Gold nanomaterials in the management of lung cancer

Lung cancer (LC) is one of the most deadly cancers worldwide, with very low survival rates, mainly due to poor management, which has barely changed in recent years. Nanomedicines, especially gold nanomaterials, with their unique and size-dependent properties offer a potential solution to many challenges in the field. The versatility afforded by the shape, size, charge and surface chemistry of gold nanostructures allows them to be adapted for many applications in the diagnosis, treatment and imaging of LC. In this review, a survey of the most recent advances in the field is presented with an emphasis on the optical properties of gold nanoscale materials and their use in cancer management. Gold nanoparticle toxicology has also been a focus of interest for many years but the studies have also sometimes arrived at contradictory conclusions. To enable extrapolation and facilitate the development of medicines based on gold nanomaterials, it must be assumed that each design will have its own unique characteristics that require evaluation before translation to the clinic. Advances in the understanding and recognition of the molecular signatures of LC have aided the development of personalised medicines. Tailoring the treatment to each case should, ideally increase the survival outcomes as well as reduce medical costs. This review seeks to present the potential of gold nanomaterials in LC management and to provide a unified view, which will be of interest to those in the field as well as researchers considering entering this highly important area of research.

Marine-derived drugs: Recent advances in cancer therapy and immune signaling

The marine environment is an enormous source of marine-derived natural products (MNPs), and future investigation into anticancer drug discovery. Current progress in anticancer drugs offers a rise in isolation and clinical validation of numerous innovative developments and advances in anticancer therapy. However, only a limited number of FDA-approved marine-derived anticancer drugs are available due to several challenges and limitations highlighted here. The use of chitosan in developing marine-derived drugs is promising in the nanotech sector projected for a prolific anticancer drug delivery system (DDS). The cGAS-STING-mediated immune signaling pathway is crucial, which has not been significantly investigated in anticancer therapy and needs further attention. Additionally, a small range of anticancer mediators is currently involved in regulating various JAK/STAT signaling pathways, such as immunity, cell death, and tumor formation. This review addressed critical features associated with MNPs, origin, and development of anticancer drugs. Moreover, recent advances in the nanotech delivery of anticancer drugs and understanding into cancer immunity are detailed for improved human health.

Nucleic Acid-Based Approaches for Tumor Therapy

Within the last decade, the introduction of checkpoint inhibitors proposed to boost the patients' anti-tumor immune response has proven the efficacy of immunotherapeutic approaches for tumor therapy. Furthermore, especially in the context of the development of biocompatible, cell type targeting nano-carriers, nucleic acid-based drugs aimed to initiate and to enhance anti-tumor responses have come of age. This review intends to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of the therapeutic use of nucleic acids for cancer treatment on various levels, comprising (i) mRNA and DNA-based vaccines to be expressed by antigen presenting cells evoking sustained anti-tumor T cell responses, (ii) molecular adjuvants, (iii) strategies to inhibit/reprogram tumor-induced regulatory immune cells e.g., by RNA interference (RNAi), (iv) genetically tailored T cells and natural killer cells to directly recognize tumor antigens, and (v) killing of tumor cells, and reprograming of constituents of the tumor microenvironment by gene transfer and RNAi. Aside from further improvements of individual nucleic acid-based drugs, the major perspective for successful cancer therapy will be combination treatments employing conventional regimens as well as immunotherapeutics like checkpoint inhibitors and nucleic acid-based drugs, each acting on several levels to adequately counter-act tumor immune evasion.

Exosome-like Nanoparticles: A New Type of Nanocarrier

Nanoparticles are one of the most commonly used systems for imaging or therapeutic drug delivery. Exosomes are nanovesicular carriers that transport cargo for intercellular communication. These nanovesicles are linked to the pathology of some major diseases, in some cases with a central role in their progression. The use of these carriers to transport therapeutic drugs is a recent and promising approach to treat diseases such as cancer and Alzheimer disease. The physiological production of these structures is limited impairing its collection and subsequent purification. These drawbacks inspired the search for mimetic alternatives. The collection of exosome-like nanoparticles from plants can be a good alternative, since they are easier to extract and do not have the drawbacks of those produced in animal cells. Both natural and synthetic exosome-like nanoparticles, produced from serial extrusion of cells or by bottom up synthesis, are currently some of the most promising, biocompatible, high efficiency systems for drug delivery.

Mucoadhesive and pH responsive fucoidan-chitosan nanoparticles for the oral delivery of methotrexate

Considering the potential of mucoadhesive properties of nanoparticles in oral delivery, this work describes the preparation and characterization of fucoidan/chitosan nanoparticles loaded with methotrexate (MTX) intended to lung cancer therapy. The nanoparticles were produced and characterized in terms of size, surface charge, entrapment efficiency, and morphology. The size of the developed nanoparticles was around 300 nm, the zeta potential value was negative (ca. -30 mV), revealing a low tendency to aggregate. The self-assembled fucoidan/chitosan nanoparticles were stable at acidic pH (1.6-5.2), without disintegration under pH 6-7.4, revealing resistance through the gastrointestinal tract, and were found to be mucoadhesive suggesting ability to enhance drug oral bioavailability. Lung cancer cells quickly internalized the developed nanoparticles. Moreover, MTX-loaded fucoidan/chitosan nanoparticles up to 245 μg mL-1 in polymer equivalent to 23.5 μg mL-1 of MTX were safe towards fibroblasts but hampered lung cancer cell proliferation mediated by an apoptotic process. MTX-loaded nanoparticles were 7-fold more effective in inhibiting lung cancer cells proliferation than the free drug, showing the potential of fucoidan-chitosan nanoparticles to improve the cytotoxicity of free methotrexate on A549 lung cancer cells. These results also demonstrate that fucoidan/chitosan nanoparticles may provide a suitable platform for poor-water soluble compounds' oral delivery.

Nanoparticle Delivery Systems for DNA/RNA and their Potential Applications in Nanomedicine

The rapid development of nanotechnology has a great influence on the fields of biology, physiology, and medicine. Over recent years, nanoparticles have been widely presented as nanocarriers to help the delivery of gene, drugs, and other therapeutic agents with cellular targeting ability. Advances in the understanding of gene delivery and RNA interference (RNAi)-based therapy have brought increasing attention to understanding and tackling complex genetically related diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases, autoimmune diseases and infections. The combination of nanocarriers and DNA/RNA delivery may potentially improve their safety and therapeutic efficacy. However, there still exist many challenges before this approach can be practiced in the clinic. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary on the types of nanoparticle systems used as nanocarriers, highlight the current use of nanocarriers in recombinant DNA and RNAi molecules delivery, and the current landscape of gene-based nanomedicine-ranging from diagnosis to therapeutics. Finally, we briefly discuss the biosafety concerns and limitations in the preclinical and clinical development of nanoparticle gene systems.

A smart ATP-responsive chemotherapy drug-free delivery system using a DNA nanostructure for synergistic treatment of breast cancer in vitro and in vivo

This study demonstrated a chemotherapy drug-free delivery system for breast cancer treatment based on a simple DNA nanostructure composed of sequence 1 containing ATP and AS1411 aptamers and sequence 2 containing antimiR-21. The DNA nanostructure was used for co-delivery of KLA peptide and antimiR-21 as antiapoptotic agents. These therapeutic agents could not be internalised into eukaryotic cells freely which is one of the great features of this targeting platform. The presented delivery system was ATP-responsive, leading to disassembly of the DNA nanostructure in high ATP concentration of cancer cells and restoration of the function of antimiR-21 in these cells. The DNA nanostructure was associated with high cellular uptake by MCF-7 and 4T1 cells due to expression of nucleolin as target of AS1411 on their plasma membranes, while the developed targeting platform could not be internalised into CHO cells because of lack of the active targeting moiety on their surfaces. Furthermore, the results showed that co-delivery of antimiR-21 and KLA peptide using the DNA nanostructure could efficiently prohibit tumour growth in vitro and in vivo and induce a synergistic anticancer activity. Thus, this work provides a new ATP-responsive nanotargeting delivery system and synergistic chemotherapy drug-free regimen for cancer treatment.

Combining Carbon Nanotubes and Chitosan for the Vectorization of Methotrexate to Lung Cancer Cells

A hybrid system composed of multi-walled carbon nanotubes coated with chitosan was proposed as a pH-responsive carrier for the vectorization of methotrexate to lung cancer. The effective coating of the carbon nanostructure by chitosan, quantified (20% by weight) by thermogravimetric analysis, was assessed by combined scanning and transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (N1s signal), respectively. Furthermore, Raman spectroscopy was used to characterize the interaction between polysaccharide and carbon counterparts. Methotrexate was physically loaded onto the nanohybrid and the release profiles showed a pH-responsive behavior with higher and faster release in acidic (pH 5.0) vs. neutral (pH 7.4) environments. Empty nanoparticles were found to be highly biocompatible in either healthy (MRC-5) or cancerous (H1299) cells, with the nanocarrier being effective in reducing the drug toxicity on MRC-5 while enhancing the anticancer activity on H1299.

Intracellular Trafficking Network and Autophagy of PHBHHx Nanoparticles and their Implications for Drug Delivery

3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate (PHBHHx), which is naturally generated by biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates synthesized by bacteria, is an attractive material for drug delivery due to its controllable physical properties, non-toxicity, environmental friendliness, degradable properties and good biocompatibility. However, the intracellular trafficking network pathways, especially the autophagy mechanism of PHBHHx nanoparticles (NPs), have rarely been investigated. In this paper, we successfully prepared the NPs used solvent displacement method and investigated the autophagy pathways and other intracellular trafficking mechanisms based on NPs with the assistance of Rab proteins. We found that NPs were internalized in cells mainly via clathrin endocytosis and caveolin endocytosis. Beside the classical pathways, we discovered two new pathways: the micropinocytosis early endosome (EEs)-micropinocytosis-lysosome pathway and the EEs-liposome-lysosome pathway. NPs were delivered to cells through endocytosis recycling vesicles and GLUT4 exocytosis vesicles. Similar to other nanoparticles, NPs also induced intracellular autophagy and were then degraded via endolysosomal pathways. 3-MA and CQ were used as autophagy inhibitors to avoid the degradation of NPs through lysosomes by blocking endolysosomal pathways. Tumor volumes and weights were significantly decreased when autophagy inhibitors and chemical drugs packaged in NPs were cooperatively used.

Aptamers as the chaperones (Aptachaperones) of drugs-from siRNAs to DNA nanorobots

Aptamers, nucleic acid ligands that are specific against their corresponding targets are increasingly employed in a variety of applications including diagnostics and therapeutics. The specificity of the aptamers against their targets is also used as the basis for the formulation of the aptamer-based drug delivery system. In this review, we aim to provide an overview on the chaperoning roles of aptamers in acting as the cargo or load carriers, delivering contents to the targeted sites via cell surface receptors. Internalization of the aptamer-biomolecule conjugates via receptor-mediated endocytosis and the strategies to augment the rate of endocytosis are underscored. The cargos chaperoned by aptamers, ranging from siRNAs to DNA origami are illuminated. Possible impediments to the aptamer-based drug deliveries such as susceptibility to nuclease resistance, potentiality for immunogenicity activation, tumor heterogeneity are speculated and the corresponding amendment strategies to address these shortcomings are discussed. We prophesy that the future of the aptamer-based drug delivery will take a trajectory towards DNA nanorobot-based assay.

A translational approach to assess the metabolomic impact of stabilized gold nanoparticles by NMR spectroscopy

Gold nanoparticles have high potential in the biomedical area, especially in disease diagnosis and treatment. The application of these nanoparticles requires the presence of stabilizers to avoid their agglomeration. Nowadays, there is a lack of reliable methods for characterising the effect of stabilised nanoparticles on biological systems. To this end, in this study, we apply an experimental approach based on nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to study the effect of gold nanoparticles, stabilised with cerium oxide or chitosan, on a human cancer cell model. The results showed that both systems have a significant effect, even at non-toxic levels, on the cellular antioxidant system. However, although particles functionalised with chitosan exerted a strong effect on the aerobic respiration, nanoparticles stabilised with cerium oxide had a higher impact on the mechanisms associated with anaerobic energy production. Therefore, even though both systems contained similar gold nanoparticles, the presence of different stabilizers strongly influenced their mode of action and potential applications in biomedicine.

Molecular Engineering of Functional Nucleic Acid Nanomaterials toward In Vivo Applications

Recent advances in nanotechnology and engineering have generated many nanomaterials with unique physical and chemical properties. Over the past decade, numerous nanomaterials are introduced into many research areas, such as sensors for environmental monitoring, food safety, point-of-care diagnostics, and as transducers for solar energy transfer. Meanwhile, functional nucleic acids (FNAs), including nucleic acid enzymes, aptamers, and aptazymes, have attracted major attention from the biomedical community due to their unique target recognition and catalytic properties. Benefiting from the recent progress of molecular engineering strategies, the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials are endowed by the target recognition and catalytic activity of FNAs in the presence of a target analyte, resulting in numerous smart nanoprobes for diverse applications including intracellular imaging, drug delivery, in vivo imaging, and tumor therapy. This progress report focuses on the recent advances in designing and engineering FNA-based nanomaterials, highlighting the functional outcomes toward in vivo applications. The challenges and opportunities for the future translation of FNA-based nanomaterials into clinical applications are also discussed.