Polysaccharides extracted from Phellinus linteus ameliorate high-fat high-fructose diet induced insulin resistance in mice

Polysaccharides from Phellinus linteus attenuate type 2 diabetes mellitus in rats via modulation of gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is the most prevalent metabolic disorder. Polysaccharides from Phellinus linteus (PLP) have been found to have anti-diabetes effects, but the mechanism has not been elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanism of PLP on T2DM through the gut microbiota and bile acids metabolism. The T2DM rat model was induced by a high-fat high-carbohydrate (HFHC) diet and streptozocin (30 mg/kg). We found that PLP ameliorated diabetes symptoms. Besides, PLP intervention increased the abundance of g_Bacteroides, g_Parabacteroides, and g_Alistioes, which are associated with the biosynthesis of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and bile acids (BAs) metabolism. Meanwhile, untargeted and targeted metabolomics indicated that PLP could regulate the composition of BAs and increase the levels of SCFAs. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were performed to analyze the expression levels of BAs metabolism enzymes in the liver. Finally, the results of correlation analysis and Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) showed that PLP stimulated the release of GLP-1 by regulating SCFAs and BAs. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that PLP can regulate gut microbiota and BAs metabolism to promote GLP-1 secretion, thereby increasing insulin release, decreasing blood glucose and attenuating T2DM.

Phellinus linteus polysaccharides: A review on their preparation, structure-activity relationships, and drug delivery systems

Phellinus linteus polysaccharides exhibit antitumor, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, mitigate insulin resistance, and enhance the diversity and abundance of gut microbiota. However, the bioactivities of P. linteus polysaccharides vary owing to the complex structure, thereby, limiting their application. Various processing strategies have been employed to modify them for improving the functional properties and yield. Herein, we compare the primary modes of extraction and purification employed to improve the yield and purity, review the structure-activity relationships, and discuss the application of P. linteus polysaccharides using nano-carriers for the encapsulation and delivery of various drugs to improve bioactivity. The limitations and future perspectives are also discussed. Exploring the bioactivity, structure-activity relationship, processing methods, and delivery routes of P. linteus polysaccharides will facilitate the development of functional foods and dietary supplements rich in P. linteus polysaccharides.

Antioxidant activity of Phellinus igniarius fermentation mycelia contributions of different solvent extractions and their inhibitory effect on α-amylase

Phellinus spp. have historically been used as traditional medicines to treat various diseases owing to their antioxidant, antitumor, and antidiabetic activities. Polysaccharides exhibit antidiabetic activity. In the present study, the polysaccharide contents of four Phellinus strains were compared. Phellinus igniarius QB72 possessed higher polysaccharide production, stronger 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, and α-amylase inhibitory activity. The three polysaccharides were sequentially extracted and partially purified from the fermentation mycelia using hot water, 1 % (NH4)2C2O4, and 1.25 M NaOH. Hot water extract polysaccharides exhibited higher DPPH radical scavenging and strong inhibitory activity against α-amylase with an IC50 value of 6.84 ± 0.37 mg/mL. The carbohydrate content of A1 (approximately 17457 Da) was approximately 88.28 %. The α-amylase inhibitory activity IC50 was decreased (3.178 ± 0.187 mg/mL) after DEAE water elution. P. igniarius QB72 hot-water extracts of partially purified polysaccharides have great potential as α-amylase inhibitors in food and medication-assisted additives.

Characterisation of indole alkaloids and phenolic acids from wild mushroom Tropicoporus linteus and its chemical profiles compared with other Sanghuang mushrooms

Two new indole alkaloids, 1-methylindole-7-methoxy-3-carboxaldehyde (2) and 7-methoxyindole-3-carboxaldehyde (4), together with 7-methoxyindole-3-carboxylic acid methyl ester (1) and 1-methylindole-3-carbaldehyde (3) were isolated from the fruiting bodies of wild Sanghuang mushroom Tropicoporus linteus (TL663). TLC, 1H-NMR and LC-MS chemical profiles of this mushroom compared with other three genera of wild Sanghuang mushroom extracts were investigated. The TLC, 1H-NMR and LC-MS profiles of TL663 and Sanghuangporus sanghuang (SS664) were similar and significantly different from other mushrooms. These two samples indicated the same TLC chromatograms by showing prominent bands of 1 - 4 when observed under UV 254 nm and having sharp aldehyde proton signals of 3-carboxaldehyde indole type in 1H-NMR spectra. From LC-MS analyses, peaks of isolated compounds 1 - 4 and indole-3-carboxaldehyde (5) in TL663 extract and peaks of protocatechuic acid (6), caffeic aldehyde (7), caffeic acid (8) and 3,4-dihydroxybenzalacetone (9) phenolic acids in TL663 fraction were identified.

Thyme (Thymus quinquecostatus Celak) Polyphenol-Rich Extract (TPE) Alleviates HFD-Induced Liver Injury in Mice by Inactivating the TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway through the Gut-Liver Axis

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) represents a significant and urgent global health concern. Thyme (Thymus quinquecostatus Celak) is a plant commonly used in cuisine and traditional medicine in Asian countries and possesses potential liver-protective properties. This study aimed to assess the hepatoprotective effects of thyme polyphenol-rich extract (TPE) on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced NAFLD and further explore possible mechanisms based on the gut-liver axis. HFD-induced liver injury in C57 mice is markedly ameliorated by TPE supplementation in a dose-dependent manner. TPE also regulates the expression of liver lipid metabolic genes (i.e., Hmgcr, Srebp-1, Fasn, and Cyp7a1), enhancing the production of SCFAs and regulating serum metabolites by modulating gut microbial dysbiosis. Furthermore, TPE enhances the intestinal barrier function and alleviates intestinal inflammation by upregulating tight junction protein expression (i.e., ZO-1 and occluding) and inactivating the intestinal TLR4/NF-κB pathway in HFD-fed mice. Consequently, gut-derived LPS translocation to the circulation was blocked, the liver TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway was repressed, and subsequent pro-inflammatory cytokine production was restrained. Conclusively, TPE might exert anti-NAFLD effects through the gut-liver axis and has the potential to be used as a dietary supplement for the management of NAFLD.

The potential role of alfalfa polysaccharides and their sulphated derivatives in the alleviation of obesity

Sulfated alfalfa polysaccharides (SAPs) as derivatives of alfalfa polysaccharides (APs) showed better in vitro antioxidant activity and potential obesity inhibition. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect and mechanisms of APs and SAPs on obesity alleviation. Different concentrations of APs and SAPs were tested for effects on body conditions, gut flora, antioxidant capacity, and immunological factors. The results showed that APs and SAPs improved the physical conditions of obese mice, including organ weight, body weight, intraperitoneal fat ratio, and lipid levels. APs and SAPs increased the antioxidant capacity of the obese mice, enhanced the activity of SOD and CAT, and decreased the activity of MDA in the serum, liver, and colon. APs and SAPs upregulated the mRNA expression of IL-4 and IL-10 and downregulated the mRNA expression of NF-κB, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and IL-6 in the liver and colon. Meanwhile, APs and SAPs improved lipid absorption in the jejunum, upregulated LXR and GLP-2, and down-regulated the mRNA expression of NPC1L1. APs and SAPs also contributed to restoring short-chain fatty acid levels in the colon. APs and SAPs improved the structure of the intestinal flora, promoted the proliferation of bacteria associated with short-chain fatty acid metabolism, and inhibited the proliferation of pathogenic bacteria. At the same concentration, the effect of SAPs on the antioxidant capacity was stronger than that of APs. In the AP group, high concentrations of APs showed the best anti-inflammatory effect, while in the SAP group, medium concentrations of SAPs showed the best inhibition of inflammation. Our results suggest that APs and SAPs alleviate obesity symptoms by relieving inflammation, improving the antioxidant capacity, and regulating intestinal flora and therefore could be used as potential probiotic products to alleviate obesity.

The benefits of edible mushroom polysaccharides for health and their influence on gut microbiota: a review

The gut microbiome is a complex biological community that deeply affects various aspects of human health, including dietary intake, disease progression, drug metabolism, and immune system regulation. Edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) are bioactive fibers derived from mushrooms that possess a range of beneficial properties, including anti-tumor, antioxidant, antiviral, hypoglycemic, and immunomodulatory effects. Studies have demonstrated that EMPs are resistant to human digestive enzymes and serve as a crucial source of energy for the gut microbiome, promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria. EMPs also positively impact human health by modulating the composition of the gut microbiome. This review discusses the extraction and purification processes of EMPs, their potential to improve health conditions by regulating the composition of the gut microbiome, and their application prospects. Furthermore, this paper provides valuable guidance and recommendations for future studies on EMPs consumption in disease management.

Sanghuangporus vaninii ethanol extract alleviates hyperuricemic renal injury by regulating the uric acid transporters and inhibiting HK-2 apoptosis

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the acute toxicity of Sanghuangporus ethanol extract (SHEE) on ICR mice and the underlying mechanism of anti-hyperuricemic renal injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ICR mice were given a single gavage of 1250, 2500, and 5000 mg/kg SHEE, and the general behavior, mortality, body weight, dietary, and water intake were evaluated within 14 days to determine the acute toxicity level. The hyperuricemic kidney injury model in ICR mice was induced with potassium oxonate (PO) and adenine, and the mice were subsequently treated with SHEE (125, 250, 500 mg/kg). HE and hexamine silver staining (PASM) were used to observe the pathology of the kidney. Biochemical markers were tested by uric acid (UA), creatinine (Cr), blood urea nitrogen (BUN), xanthine oxidase (XOD), alanine transferase (ALT), and aspartate transaminase (AST) kits. An MTT assay was used to measure the effects of SHEE on the proliferation of HK-2 damaged by UA. Western blotting and RT-PCR were used to determine the expression of Bcl-2 family-related proteins and major UA transporters, including URAT1, GLUT9, OAT1, OAT3, and ABCG2, respectively.

RESULTS

Firstly, the acute toxicity study data showed that the median lethal dose (LD₅₀) of SHEE was above 5000 mg/kg, and its oral administration was nontoxic at 2500 mg/kg and below. In addition, SHEE alleviated HUA and its renal injury in ICR mice. SHEE reduced the contents of UA, Cr, BUN and XOD in blood and the contents of ALT and AST in the liver. Furthermore, SHEE inhibited the expression of URAT1 and GLUT9 and promoted the expression of OAT1, OAT3, and ABCG2. More importantly, SHEE could downregulate the apoptosis level and caspase-3 activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, an oral dose of SHEE below 2500 mg/kg is safe. SHEE inhibits HUA-induced kidney injury by regulating the UA transporters URAT1, GLUT9, OAT1, OAT3 and ABCG2 and inhibiting HK-2 apoptosis.

Supplement of Caulerpa lentillifera polysaccharide by pre-prandial gavage and free feeding demonstrates differences to prevent obesity and gut microbiota disturbance in mice

BACKGROUND

Caulerpa lentillifera has received extensive attention regarding expansion of its farming and increasing consumption. In our previous study, the structure of C. lentillifera polysaccharide (CLP) was elucidated. However, little information is available about its health effects. In this study, the anti-obesity effect of CLP was investigated by using a high-fat diet-induced obese mice model with two different supplementation methods.

RESULTS

In vitro simulated digestion results showed that CLP significantly decreased the lipid digestibility and induced the lipid droplets aggregation in the intestinal stage to inhibit the absorption of lipids. As revealed by 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing and non-targeted metabolomics, supplement of CLP by both pre-prandial gavage and free feeding patterns effectively prevented mice obesity via ameliorating intestinal flora disturbance and regulating bile acids circulation metabolism. Of note was that CLP administration had no effect on short-chain fatty acids production, suggesting the anti-obesity effect was uncorrelated with their production. Moreover, pre-prandial administration of CLP had a better anti-obesity effect in lowering body weight and serum lipid levels, but the free feeding resulted in a higher α-diversity of gut microbiota.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study indicate that CLP could be a potential anti-obesity nutraceutical and that pre-prandial supplement of CLP may be a better intake method to exhibit its hypolipidemic effect. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Salicylic acid promotes terpenoid synthesis in the fungi Sanghuangporus baumii

Sanghuangporus baumii is a medicinal fungi with anti-inflammatory, liver protection and antitumour effects. Terpenoids are one of the main medicinal ingredients of S. baumii. However, terpenoid production by wild-type S. baumii cannot meet the market demand, which affects its application in medical care. Therefore, exploring how to increase terpenoid content in S. baumii is a promising path in this research field. Salicylic acid (SA) is a secondary metabolite. In this study, a concentration of 350 μmol/L SA was added into fungal cultivations for 2 and 4 days, and then the transcriptome and metabolome of untreated mycelia and treated with SA were analysed. The expression of some genes in the terpenoids biosynthesis pathway increased in SA-induced cultivations, and the content of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and geranylgeranyl-PP (GGPP) increased significantly as well as the contents of triterpenoids, diterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids and carotenoids. The gene FPS was considered to be a key gene regulating terpenoid biosynthesis. Therefore, FPS was overexpressed in S. baumii by Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation. The gene FPS and its downstream gene (LS) expression levels were confirmed to be increased in the FPS overexpressing transformant, and terpenoid content was 36.98% higher than that of the wild-type strain in the evaluated cultivation conditions.

Aqueous extract of Sanghuangporus baumii induces autophagy to inhibit cervical carcinoma growth

Sanghuangporus baumii, an edible fungus rich in heteropolysaccharides, has been found to have some anti-cervical cancer effects. In the current study, the effects of an aqueous extract of S. baumii on cervical cancer were investigated in a U14 cervical carcinoma cell implanted female Kunming mouse model. An aqueous extract of S. baumii (SHWE) was administered to tumor-bearing mice by gavage for 21 days. SHWE treatment significantly inhibited tumor growth by 67.4% at a dose of 400 mg per kg bodyweight. Transcriptomic results showed that the expression of key genes GABARAP, VMP1, VAMP8 and STX17 which are involved in the autophagy pathway was regulated after SHWE treatment, suggesting that SHWE may induce autophagy in tumors. The results were further confirmed by measuring the LC3II/LC3I ratio using western blotting. Moreover, some differentially expressed genes were involved in the insulin signaling pathway, implying that SHWE induced autophagy by disturbing glucose uptake and utilization in tumors. The analysis of the gut microbiota indicated that SHWE treatment stimulated the proliferation of Akkermansia, a well-known probiotic that presented benefits in metabolic regulation and cancer therapy. In conclusion, SHWE administration modified the gut microbiota, disturbed the glucose metabolism and induced autophagy in tumors, and then inhibited the development of cervical carcinoma in vivo.

Polysaccharides from Phellinus linteus: A systematic review of their extractions, purifications, structures and functions

Phellinus linteus (P. linteus) is a famous Chinese medicine and has a long history in China. In recent years, P. linteus polysaccharides (PLPs) have attracted extensive attention because of their biological activities such as anti-bacteria, anti-aging, anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-tumor, hepatoprotective effect and hypoglycemic effect. In this review, we systemically summarized the advances in extractions, purifications and structural characterizations of PLPs, and also analyzed their biological functions and molecular mechanisms. Meanwhile, the structure-activity relationships of PLPs are closely related to their anti-oxidation and anti-tumor activities. So far, the applications of PLPs are still very limited, further exploring structure-activity relationships, biological functions and their mechanisms of PLPs will promote to develop functional foods.

The Interaction between Mushroom Polysaccharides and Gut Microbiota and Their Effect on Human Health: A Review

Mushroom polysaccharides are a kind of biological macromolecule extracted from the fruiting body, mycelium or fermentation liquid of edible fungi. In recent years, the research on mushroom polysaccharides for alleviating metabolic diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, cancers and other symptoms by changing the intestinal microenvironment has been increasing. Mushroom polysaccharides could promote human health by regulating gut microbiota, increasing the production of short-chain fatty acids, improving intestinal mucosal barrier, regulating lipid metabolism and activating specific signaling pathways. Notably, these biological activities are closely related to the molecular weight, monosaccharide composition and type of the glycosidic bond of mushroom polysaccharide. This review aims to summarize the latest studies: (1) Regulatory effects of mushroom polysaccharides on gut microbiota; (2) The effect of mushroom polysaccharide structure on gut microbiota; (3) Metabolism of mushroom polysaccharides by gut microbiota; and (4) Effects of mushroom polysaccharides on gut microbe-mediated diseases. It provides a theoretical basis for further exploring the mechanism of mushroom polysaccharides for regulating gut microbiota and gives a reference for developing and utilizing mushroom polysaccharides as promising prebiotics in the future.

Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Mushrooms

Research progress of active compounds and biological activities of medicinal mushroom-Ganoderma spp., Hericium spp., Phellinus spp., and Cordyceps spp. were summarized systematically. The main active compounds of medicinal mushrooms included are polysaccharides, proteins, triterpenes, meroterpenoids, polyphenols and nitrogen-containing compounds. The biological activities of the compounds cover immunomodulatory activity, antitumor activity, hypoglycemic activity, hepatoprotective activity, and activity of regulation of intellectual flora.

Phellinus baumii Polyphenol: A Potential Therapeutic Candidate against Lung Cancer Cells

Phellinus baumii, a fungus that grows on mulberry trees and is used in traditional Chinese medicine, exerts therapeutic effects against various diseases, including cancer. Polyphenols, generally considered to be antioxidants, have antitumor and proapoptotic effects. In this study, we identified the composition of Phellinus baumii polyphenol (PBP) and characterized its 17 chemical components by UPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS. Furthermore, to clarify the potential mechanism of PBP against Lung Cancer Cells, network pharmacology and experimental verification were combined. Molecular docking elucidated the binding conformation and mechanism of the primary active components (Osmundacetone and hispidin) to the core targets CASP3, PARP1 and TP53. In addition, potential molecular mechanisms of PBP predicted by network pharmacology analysis were validated in vitro. PBP significantly inhibited the human lung cancer A549 cells and showed typical apoptotic characteristics, without significant cytotoxicity to normal human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. Analysis using flow cytometry and western blot indicated that PBP caused apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation, and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) depression in A549 cells to exercise its antitumor effects. These results reveal that PBP has great potential for use as an active ingredient for antitumor therapy.

Sanghuangporus vaninii fruit body polysaccharide alleviates hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia via modulating intestinal microflora in type 2 diabetic mice

The disease of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is principally induced by insufficient insulin secretion and insulin resistance. In the current study, Sanghuangporus vaninii fruit body polysaccharide (SVP) was prepared and structurally characterized. It was shown that the yield of SVP was 1.91%, and SVP mainly contains small molecular weight polysaccharides. Afterward, the hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects and the potential mechanism of SVP in T2DM mice were investigated. The results exhibited oral SVP could reverse the body weight loss, high levels of blood glucose, insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, and inflammation in T2DM mice. Oral SVP increased fecal short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) concentrations of T2DM mice. Additionally, 16S rRNA sequencing analysis illustrated that SVP can modulate the structure and function of intestinal microflora in T2DM mice, indicating as decreasing the levels of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes, Flavonifractor, Odoribacter, and increasing the levels of Weissella, Alloprevotella, and Dubosiella. Additionally, the levels of predicted metabolic functions of Citrate cycle, GABAergic synapse, Insulin signaling pathway were increased, and those of Purine metabolism, Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, and Starch and sucrose metabolism were decreased in intestinal microflora after SVP treatment. These findings demonstrate that SVP could potentially play hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects by regulating gut microflora and be a promising nutraceutical for ameliorating T2DM.

The important role of glycerophospholipid metabolism in the protective effects of polyphenol-enriched Tartary buckwheat extract against alcoholic liver disease

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a mounting public health problem with significant medical, economic and social burdens. Tartary buckwheat (F. tataricum (L.) Gaertn, bitter buckwheat) is a kind of healthy and nutritious food, which has been demonstrated to protect against ALD, but the underlying mechanism has not been fully studied. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the beneficial effects of Tartary buckwheat extract (mainly composed of polyphenols including rutin, quercetin, kaempferol and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside) in terms of lipid metabolism with the aid of lipidomic analysis. In our study, we employed C57BL/6J mice and a Lieber-DeCarli alcohol liquid diet to construct an ALD model and found that Tartary buckwheat extract was able to prevent ALD-induced histopathological lesions, liver injury and abnormal plasma lipid levels. These beneficial effects might be attributed to the regulation of energy metabolism-related genes (SIRT1, LKB1 and AMPK), lipid synthesis-related genes (ACC, SREBP1c and HMGR) and lipid oxidation-related genes (PPARα, CPT1 and CPT2). In addition, lipidomic profiling and KEGG pathway analysis showed that glycerophospholipid metabolism contributed the most to elucidating the regulatory mechanism of Tartary buckwheat extract. In specific, chronic ethanol intake reduced the level of phosphatidylcholines (PC) and increased the level of phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) in the liver, resulting in a decrease in the PC/PE ratio, which could be all significantly restored by Tartary buckwheat extract intervention, indicating that the Tartary buckwheat extract might regulate PC/PE homeostasis to exert its lipid-lowering effect. Overall, we demonstrated that Tartary buckwheat extract could prevent ALD by modulating hepatic glycerophospholipid metabolism, providing the theoretical basis for its further exploitation as a medical plant or nutritional food.

Antioxidant properties of fortified yogurt with medicinal mushrooms from Phellinus species

In light of the powerful therapeutic features of Phellinus species and due to the absence of toxic compounds, our investigations were aimed at screening of the antioxidant profile of fortified yogurts with hot water extracts from Phellinus torulosus and Phellinus igniarius leveled to 10%, 5%, and 1% final fortification concentrations after acknowledging their superior bioactive content and radical scavenging capacities (59.77% and 56.73% of DPPH inhibition, respectively) versus cold water extracts (29.87% and 33.18% inhibition rates). Fortified samples signified dose-dependent increases in their inhibition rates during the storage period, with significant differences between 10% fortifications on the 7 day of storage in favor of the samples fortified with P. torulosus. Explicitly, P. torulosus showed 16% higher DPPH and 62.5% higher LPO neutralizing activity than yogurt enriched with P. igniarius. However, prolonged refrigeration tended to equalize antioxidant profiles in both fortified yogurts. Total titratable acidity and pH levels of the fortified yogurts as most important parameters for consumer acceptance were unaltered during storage. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: It is a common scientific perception that bioactive compounds present in wild medicinal fungi are the main contributors for their in vitro antioxidant efficiency. On account of these attributes, Phellinus species have been exploited in Far East Asia as safe remedies for many disorders thus making them attractive fortifying ingredients; however, according to our knowledge these mushrooms have never been used as natural additives in beverages. Given the current popularity of yogurt consumption as seen from the global market profits, as well as experimental evidences of enhanced potency of extract in comparison with powder due to maximal bioavailability of antioxidants, it is our belief that this study will increase the interest in the manufacture of functional foods with extracts from wild mushrooms.

Current advances and potential trends of the polysaccharides derived from medicinal mushrooms sanghuang

For thousands of years, sanghuang is distinctive as a general designation for a group of precious and rare Chinese medicinal mushrooms. Numerous investigations have revealed that polysaccharide is one of the important biological active ingredients of sanghuang with various excellent biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-aging, anti-tumor, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, and anti-microbial functionalities. For the past two decades, preparation, structural characterization, and reliable bioactivities of the polysaccharides from fruiting bodies, cultured mycelia, and fermentation broth of sanghuang have been arousing extensive interest, and particularly, different strains, sources, and isolation protocols might result in obvious discrepancies in structural features and bioactivities. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent reports on preparation strategies, structural features, bioactivities, and structure-activity relationships of sanghuang polysaccharides, which will enrich the knowledge on the values of natural sanghuang polysaccharides and support their further development and utilization as therapeutic agents, vaccines, and functional foods in tonic and clinical treatment.

Structural diversity and bioactivity of polysaccharides from medicinal mushroom Phellinus spp.: A review

Phellinus spp., an important medicinal fungus mushroom extensively cultivated and consumed in East Asia for over 2000 years, is traditionally considered a precious food supplement and medicinal ingredient. Published studies showed that the polysaccharides are major bioactive macromolecules from Phellinus spp. (PPs) with multiple health-promoting effects, including immunomodulatory, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antioxidant, and other bioactivities. Although the polysaccharides extracted from the fruiting body, mycelium, and fermentation broth of Phellinus spp. have been extensively studied for the extraction and purification methods, structural characteristics, and pharmacological activities, the knowledge for their structures and bioactivity relationship, toxicologic effects, and pharmacokinetic profile is limited. This review systematically summarizes the recent progress in the isolation and purification, chemical structures, bioactivities, and the underlying mechanisms of PPs. Information from this review provides insights into the further development of polysaccharides from PPs as therapeutic agents and functional foods.

Malus toringoides (Rehd.) Hughes improves glucose and lipid metabolism and liver injury in high fructose-induced mice

Malus toringoides (Rehd.) Hughes, as a traditional medicinal and edible plant used in Tibet, China, is used to treat hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and liver diseases. In recent decades, excessive fructose intake with diet has greatly increased the occurrence of a series of metabolic diseases including obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of an ethanol extract of M. toringoides (EMT) on glucose and lipid metabolism and liver injury in high fructose-induced mice. The C57BL/6J male mice were orally administrated with 30% fructose solution for 8 weeks, and EMT was given orally for another 8 weeks. The level of liver lipids related parameters, hepatic oxidative stress, and inflammatory mediators was detected by the kits. The improving effects of EMT on liver injury and lipid accumulation of mice were observed by hematoxylin and eosin staining and Oil Red O staining. In vitro, the hypolipidemic effect of EMT on palmitic acid-induced HepG2 cells was detected by the kits and Oil Red O staining. Our results showed that EMT has the hypolipidemic effect in vivo and in vitro, and can improve liver injury caused by fructose intake though ameliorating oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Thus, we suggested that EMT may be a candidate therapeutic agent to improve a series of metabolic diseases including obesity, insulin resistance, and hyperlipidemia. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Our study was aimed to find a novel candidate drug for liver diseases using natural products. We assessed the protective effects of Malus toringoides (Rehd.) Hughes in the pathogenesis of glucose and lipid metabolism. In vivo, the plant significantly improved the disorder of blood lipid and blood glucose, and liver injury in mice induced by fructose, and in vitro, this plant significantly improved the lipid accumulation of HepG2 cells induced by palmitic acid. To sum up, our studies suggested that the plant may be beneficial in the prevention and management of diet-induced abnormal glucose and lipid metabolism and liver diseases. Therefore, it will be a candidate therapeutic agent to improve liver diseases.

Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of polysaccharide isolated from Sphacelotheca sorghi in diet-streptozotocin-induced T2D mice

Edible fungus has attracted great interest with many health benefits, and polysaccharides from them have shown great potentials. In this study, polysaccharides were extracted from Sphacelotheca sorghi (Link) Clint. Monosaccharide composition of S. sorghi polysaccharides (SSP) was detected by high-performance anion exchange chromatography (HPAEC) and mainly consists of glucose (70.5%), galactose (15.6%), mannose (7.2%), arabinose (5.8%), and rhamnose (0.9%). Type 2 diabetes (T2D) was induced by a high-fat, high-sugar diet-fed (HFSD) diet with streptozotocin (STZ) injection in mice, and hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic regulations of SSP were evaluated. After oral treatment of high dose of SSP (200 mg/kg/day), the fasting blood glucose (FBG) was reduced by 39.3%, the insulin resistance of T2D mice was relieved, the lipids metabolism disorder caused by diabetes was improved, and the levels of liver glycogen was increased by 34.1%, compared with the model control. Histopathological examination showed that SSP relieved liver damage. Furthermore, SSP regulated glucose and lipid metabolism by activating phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt signaling pathway. Overall, SPP is promising to be used as a functional food for the improvement of metabolic disorders. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: For enhancing the utilization rate and economic value of an edible fungi Sphacelotheca sorghi (Link) Clint., the total polysaccharides were isolated and used to investigate the effect of fungi in terms of balancing the levels of blood glucose and lipids. The S. sorghi polysaccharide treatment resolved the symptoms and insulin resistance in mice with diabetes, signifying its potential application in producing different functional foods for preventing or controlling diabetes.

Modulatory effects of polysaccharides from plants, marine algae and edible mushrooms on gut microbiota and related health benefits: A review

Naturally occurring carbohydrate polymers containing non-starch polysaccharides (NPs) are a class of biomacromolecules isolated from plants, marine algae, and edible mushrooms, and their biological activities has shown potential uses in the prevention and treatment of human diseases. Importantly, NPs serve as prebiotics to provide health benefits to the host through stimulating the proliferation of beneficial gut microbiota (GM) and enhancing the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The composition and diversity of GM play a critical role in regulating host health and have been extensively studied in recent years. In this review, the extraction, isolation, purification, and structural characterization of NPs derived from plants, marine algae, and edible mushrooms are outlined. Importantly, the degradation and metabolism of these NPs in the intestinal tract, the effects of NPs on the microbial community and SCFAs generation, and the beneficial effects of NPs on host health by modulating GM are systematically highlighted. Overall, we hope that this review can provide some theoretical references and a new perspective for applications of NPs as prebiotics in functional food and drug development.

The metabolic regulation of Fuzhuan brick tea in high-fat diet-induced obese mice and the potential contribution of gut microbiota

This study investigated the metabolic effects of Fuzhuan brick tea (FBT) in high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice and the potential contribution of gut microbiota. The results showed that FBT ameliorated the HFD-induced glycerophospholipid metabolic aberrance, specifically increased the serum levels of phosphatidylcholines (PCs), lysophosphatidylcholines (LysoPCs), and the ratio of PC to phosphatidylethanolamines (PE). Besides, FBT increased the serum level of gut microbiota-derived aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) ligand, 3-indole propionic acid, as well as the relative abundance of intestinal AhR-ligand producing bacteria such as Clostridiaceae, Bacteroidales_S24-7_group, and Lactobacillaceae. However, the metabolic benefits of FBT were weakened when the gut microbiota were depleted by antibiotic treatment, thereby suggesting that gut microbiota was required for FBT to regulate glycerophospholipid metabolism. Indeed, the metabolites regulated by FBT were significantly correlated with the AhR-ligand producing bacteria. The KEGG pathway enrichment analysis and expressions of AhR target genes indicated that FBT would improve the glycerophospholipid metabolism via the AhR-Pemt signal axis, in which the gut microbiota and their metabolites played pivotal mediators. Overall, FBT could be a functional beverage to improve HFD-induced metabolic disorders in a gut microbiota dependent manner.

Sanghuangporus vaninii mixture ameliorated type 2 diabetes mellitus and altered intestinal microbiota in mice

Sanghuangporus vaninii mixture ameliorated type 2 diabetes mellitus through improving body weight, fasting blood glucose, insulin-related indicators, lipid indexes, inflammatory factors, histological pathology, and intestinal microbiota.

Differences of gut microbiota composition in mice supplied with polysaccharides from γ-irradiated and non-irradiated Schizophyllum commune

In this study, polysaccharides from normal (N-SFP) and γ-irradiated (I-SFP) Schizophyllum commune were supplied to Kunming mice for 30 days. The results showed that N-SFP and I-SFP supplementation prevent body weight gain, enhance kidney uric acid metabolism and increase the concentration of SCFAs to a certain extent. Moreover, N-SFP and I-SFP promote the growth of beneficial gut microbiota and inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria. Compared to N-SFP, I-SFP decreased the relative abundance of Muribaculaceae and Lactobacillaceae, and increased the beneficial gut microbiota, especially the family of Akkermansiaceae, Lachnospiraceae and Bacteroidaceae. In total, I-SFP showed better effects than N-SFP in preventing weight gain, and modulating the mice gut microbiota, which suggests that I-SFP could act as a potential health supplement in the prevention of obesity.

Saroglitazar and Hepano treatment offers protection against high fat high fructose diet induced obesity, insulin resistance and steatosis by modulating various class of hepatic and circulating lipids

Higher global prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with obesity, steatosis, and insulin resistance (IR), and often progresses to steatohepatitis (NASH). Even after more than twenty years of research, there is still no FDA approved therapy for the treatment of fatty liver disease/NASH though, Saroglitazar - a dual PPAR α/γ agonist has been recently approved as a therapeutic option for the fatty liver disease in India. Hepatoprotective Ayurvedic formulations are widely used and are considered safe. In the present study, C57BL/6 male mice on HFHF diet for four weeks were treated with vehicle, Saroglitazar (3 mg/kg/po), and Hepano - a formulation of five herbs (200 mg/kg/po), at the human equivalent therapeutic doses for additional eight weeks. These animals were evaluated after 12 weeks for obesity, body mass index (BMI), systemic insulin resistance, hyperglycaemia, dyslipidaemia, and hepatic lipid accumulation. Differential liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) based lipidomics analysis demonstrated significant changes in the different class of lipids [phospholipids, sphingolipids, diglycerides and triglycerides (TG)] in HFHF fed group. The protective effects of both Saroglitazar and Hepano were evident against IR, obesity and in the modulation of different class of lipids in the circulation and hepatic tissue. Saroglitazar reduced TG as well as modulated phospholipids levels, while Hepano modulated only phospholipids, ceramides, oxidised lipids, and had no effect on hepatic or circulating TG levels in HFHF fed mice. In addition, in vitro studies using HepG2, THP1 and LX2 cells demonstrated safety of both the test substances where Hepano possess better anti-inflammatory as well as anti-fibrotic potential. Overall, Saroglitazar seems to be more efficacious than Hepano in the regimen used against HFHF induced IR, obesity, and dyslipidaemia.

Colon-targeted drug delivery of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for synergistic treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: A review

Drugs such as immunosuppressants and glucocorticoids used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) have certain troubling side effects. Polysaccharide-based nanocarriers with high safety and bioavailability are often used in the construction of colon-targeted drug nanodelivery systems (DNSs). It can help the drug resist the harsh environment of gastrointestinal tract, improve stability and concentrate on the intestinal inflammation regions as much as possible, which effectively reduces drug side effects and enhances its bioavailability. Certain polysaccharides, as prebiotics, can not only endow DNSs with the ability to target the colon based on enzyme responsive properties, but also cooperate with drugs to alleviate IBD due to its good anti-inflammatory activity and intestinal microecological regulation. The changes in the gastrointestinal environment of patients with IBD, the colon-targeted drug delivery process of polysaccharide-based nanocarriers and its synergistic treatment mechanism for IBD were reviewed. Polysaccharides used in polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for IBD were summarized.

Dietary fiber-derived short-chain fatty acids: A potential therapeutic target to alleviate obesity-related nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Over the past several decades, increasing global prevalence of obesity-related nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has been one of main challenges to human health. Recently, increasing evidence has validated connections among short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a physiologically relevant concentration, the intestinal microbiota, and host metabolism. In this review, we summarized crosstalk between SCFAs and host metabolism in relation to NAFLD pathophysiology, focusing on recent advances. Firstly, how SCFAs are generated and absorbed under different nutritional conditions in the gut. Secondly, how SCFAs maintain gut barrier and alleviate hepatic inflammatory responses. Thirdly, how SCFAs maintain hepatic energy balance through controlling appetite and mediating the glucose homeostasis at the systemic level. Fourthly, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPRs) are widely involved in the above metabolic processes regulated by SCFAs. Overall, this review aimed to provide new insights into the prospects of SCFAs as a potential therapeutic target in management of liver diseases.

Polysaccharides from Volvariella volvacea inhibit fat accumulation in C. elegans dependent on the aak-2/nhr-49-mediated pathway

Volvariella volvacea has bioactivities in improving immunity, anti-oxidation, and alleviating obesity, which is an excellent functional food. Polysaccharide from Volvariella volvacea (VPS), one of the main bioactive components, exerts a potential fat-lowering effect, but its exact mechanism remains unclear. In this study, the effects and molecular pathways of VPS regulate the fat deposition of Caenorhabditis elegans. Results showed that VPS at low (250 μg/ml), medium (500 μg/ml) and high (750 μg/ml) concentrations all reduced the overall fat, without inhibitory effects on the growth and movement abilities of nematode. VPS at 500 μg/ml could dramatically decrease the triglyceride (TG) level of wild-type nematode, while no significant changes in TG content were observed in mutants deficient in aak-2 (energy receptor), nhr-49 (nuclear transcription factor), fat-5, and fat-7 genes. VPS declines fat storage of C. elegans, largely through the aak-2/nhr-49-mediated fatty acid synthesis pathway, and partially the acs-2-mediated fatty acid oxidation pathway. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: A model illustrates the mechanism of polysaccharide from Volvariella volvacea (VPS) inhibiting fat accumulation in Caenorhabditis elegans. VPS may directly or indirectly activate the energy sensor aak-2, which governs lipid metabolism. Results demonstrate that VPS regulates fat metabolism including fatty acid oxidation (FAO) and fatty acid synthesis (FAS), rather than lipolysis. In the FAO, VPS promotes FAO by up-regulating the mRNA and protein levels of acs-2. In FAS, VPS significantly down-regulated the transcriptional regulator nhr-49 and the downstream targets fat-5, fat-6, and fat-7, thereby declining the overall fat deposition. In conclusion, VPS inhibits the fat accumulation of C. elegans largely dependent on an aak-2/nhr-49-mediated FAS pathway.

A rapid analysis of antioxidants in Sanghuangporus baumii by online extraction-HPLC-ABTS

In the present study, a simple and efficient approach based on the online extraction-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with ABTS antioxidant assay (OLE-HPLC-ABTS) was established to quickly and directly analyze the antioxidants in S. baumii. Through this system, the HPLC mobile phase via a guard column packed with a S. baumii sample was used for online extraction (OLE). The separation was performed on an Agilent Poroshell EC-C18 column with a gradient elution using 0.1% formic acid (A) and 0.1% formic acid-acetonitrile (B) as mobile phase systems and detected at a wavelength of 254 nm. Then, the separated compounds were reacted with the antioxidant solution (ABTS), and the response was recorded at a wavelength of 400 nm. The developed analytical method was successfully applied to S. baumii samples, and eight antioxidants were identified. The established system integrated the online extraction, separation and online antioxidant detection, which is rapid, efficient, and suitable for the rapid screening of antioxidant compounds from solid sample mixtures.

Laminaria japonica polysaccharide prevents high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance in mice via regulating gut microbiota

Insulin resistance has become a worldwide nutrition and metabolic health problem due to the lack of effective protective agents. Laminaria japonica is a well-known marine vegetable. Purified Laminaria japonica polysaccharide (LJP61A) can inhibit atherosclerosis in high-fat-diet (HFD)-fed mice via ameliorating insulin resistance. In this study, we aimed to clarify the mechanism by which LJP61A ameliorates HFD-induced insulin resistance. The results indicated that HFD-induced insulin resistance, obesity, systematic inflammation, metabolic endotoxemia, and gut permeability in mice could be reduced by LJP61A. Gut microbiota analysis showed that the gut microbiota dysbiosis of HFD-fed mice, especially the reduction in mucin-degrading Akkermansia, could be reversed by LJP61A. Additionally, the reduction in mucin-producing goblet cells in HFD-fed mice could also be reversed by LJP61A. Moreover, insulin resistance, obesity, systematic inflammation, metabolic endotoxemia, and gut microbiota dysbiosis in HFD-fed mice could also be alleviated by faecal transplant from LJP61A-treated mice. Overall, LJP61A might be used as a prebiotic to ameliorate HFD-induced insulin resistance and associated metabolic disorders via regulating gut microbiota, especially Akkermansia.

Artificial Cultivation Characteristics and Bioactive Effects of Novel Tropicoporus linteus (Syn. Phellinus linteus) Strains HN00K9 and HN6036 in Korea

Phellinus strains were collected from different areas in Korea. Of them, the fast mycelial growing strains were artificially cultivated on the oak logs to produce fruiting body. The varieties, Phellinus linteus ASI26099 (Korea Sanghwang) and P. baumii PBJS (Jangsoo Sanghwang) were grown under the same conditions as controls. Their cultivating characteristics including mycelial colonization, pinhead formation, and fruiting body formation rate were investigated on the logs. Basidiocarps of Phellinus strains HN00K9, HN6036, and ASI26099 were concentrically zonate and shallowly sulcate, and dark chestnut showing typical characteristics of Tropicoporus linteus (synonyum: P. linteus, Inonotus linteus, polyporus linteus), which is distinguishably different to PBJS. HN00K9 showed the highest yield of fruiting body among the mushroom strains. The β-glucan content in fruiting bodies of HN00K9 was 20% higher than those of other strains. Bioactive effects of polysaccharide samples from fruiting bodies of Phellinus strains, HN00K9, HN6036, ASI26099, and PBJS were assessed on cell viability and cytokine (IL-6 and TNF-α) inhibition and finally on anticancer to different human cancer cells.

Health benefits of edible mushroom polysaccharides and associated gut microbiota regulation

Edible mushrooms have been an important part of the human diet for thousands of years, and over 100 varieties have been cultivated for their potential human health benefits. In recent years, edible mushroom polysaccharides (EMPs) have been studied for their activities against obesity, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and cancer. Particularly, accumulating evidence on the exact causality between these health risks and specific gut microbiota species has been revealed and characterized, and most of the beneficial health effects of EMPs have been associated with its reversal impacts on gut microbiota dysbiosis. This demonstrates the key role of EMPs in decreasing health risks through gut microbiota modulation effects. This review article compiles and summarizes the latest studies that focus on the health benefits and underlying functional mechanisms of gut microbiota regulation via EMPs. We conclude that EMPs can be considered a dietary source for the improvement and prevention of several health risks, and this review provides the theoretical basis and technical guidance for the development of novel functional foods with the utilization of edible mushrooms.

Ziyuglycoside II alleviates cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenia in mice via regulation of HSPC proliferation and differentiation

Ziyuglycoside II (ZGS II) is a major bioactive ingredient of Sanguisorbae officinalis L., which has been widely used for managing myelosuppression or leukopenia induced by chemotherapy or radiotherapy. In the current study, we investigated the pro-hematopoietic effects and underlying mechanisms of ZGS II in cyclophosphamide-induced leukopenia in mice. The results showed that ZGS II significantly increased the number of total white blood cells and neutrophils in the peripheral blood. Flow cytometry analysis also showed a significant increase in the number of nucleated cells and hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) including ST-HSCs, MPPs, and GMPs, and enhanced HSPC proliferation in ZGS II treated mice. The RNA-sequencing analysis demonstrated that ZGS II effectively regulated cell differentiation, immune system processes, and hematopoietic system-related pathways related to extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, focal adhesion, hematopoietic cell lineage, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, and the osteoclast differentiation pathway. Moreover, ZGS II treatment altered the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) with known functions in HSPC differentiation and mobilization (Cxcl12, Col1a2, and Sparc) and the surface markers of neutrophilic precursors or neutrophils (Ngp and CD177). Collectively, these data suggest that ZGS II protected against chemotherapy-induced leukopenia by regulating HSPC proliferation and differentiation.

Phellinus linteus polysaccharide extract improves insulin resistance by regulating gut microbiota composition

The hypoglycemic effect of Phellinus linteus polysaccharide extract (PLPE) has been documented in several previous studies, but the functional interactions among PLPE, gut microbiota, and the hypoglycemic effect remain unclear. We examined the regulatory effect of PLPE on gut microbiota, and the molecular mechanism underlying improvement of insulin resistance, using a type 2 diabetic rat model. Here, 24 male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups that were subjected to intervention of saline (normal and model control group), metformin (120 mg/kg.bw), and PLPE (600 mg/kg.bw) by oral administration. After 8 weeks of treatment, PLPE increased levels of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) by enhancing abundance of SCFA-producing bacteria. SCFAs maintained intestinal barrier function and reduced lipopolysaccharides content in blood, thereby helping to reduce systemic inflammation and reverse insulin resistance. Our findings suggest that PLPE (in which polysaccharides are the major component) has potential application as a prebiotic for regulating gut microbiota composition in diabetic patients.

Gut microbiota modulation with traditional Chinese medicine: A system biology-driven approach

With the development of system biology, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is drawing more and more attention nowadays. However, there are still many enigmas behind this ancient medical system because of the arcane theory and complex mechanism of actions. In recent decades, advancements in genome sequencing technologies, bioinformatics and culturomics have led to the groundbreaking characterization of the gut microbiota, a 'forgotten organ', and its role in host health and disease. Notably, gut microbiota has been emerging as a new avenue to understanding TCM. In this review, we will focus on the structure, composition, functionality and metabolites of gut microbiota affected by TCM so as to conversely understand its theory and mechanisms. We will also discuss the potential areas of gut microbiota for exploring Chinese material medica waste, Chinese marine material medica, add-on therapy and personalized precise medication of TCM. The review will conclude with future perspectives and challenges of gut microbiota in TCM intervention.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors impair the host immune response against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACi), a novel class of anti-cancer drug, have been recently reported to suppress host immunity and increase susceptibility to infection. Tuberculosis, a leading infectious disease killer caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), is basically the product of the interaction between bacterial virulence and host resistance. However, the effects of HDACi in host immunity against M.tb is largely unknown. In this study, we found that HDACi including Trichostatin A (TSA) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) significantly impaired phagocytosis and killing activity of macrophage. In line with these findings, we noted that M.tb induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and autophagy are significantly suppressed by TSA. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the suppression of autophagy by TSA might due to its inhibiting autophagy-regulating genes such as CACNA2D3, which regulates intracellular Ca²⁺ levels. Finally, we confirmed that HDACi including TSA and SAHA significantly exacerbated the histopathological damage and M.tb load in the lung of M.tb infected mice. Taken together, our results indicated that HDACi at least TSA and SAHA significantly impaired macrophage immunity against M.tb and therefore increase susceptibility to TB, our findings raised the concern that the potential side effects of HDACi on latent TB reactivation should be considered in clinic.

A Review: The Bioactivities and Pharmacological Applications of Phellinus linteus

Phellinus linteus is a popular medicinal mushroom that is widely used in China, Korea, Japan, and other Asian countries. P. linteus comprises various bioactive components, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, phenylpropanoids, and furans, and has proven to be an effective therapeutic agent in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and the prevention of various diseases. A number of studies have reported that P. linteus possesses many biological activities useful for pharmacological applications, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidative, and antifungal activities, as well as antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. This review article briefly presents the recent progress made in understanding the bioactive components, biological activities, pharmacological applications, safety, and prospects of P. linteus, and provides helpful references and promising directions for further studies of P. linteus.

Hypoglycemic and Hypolipidemic Effects of Phellinus Linteus Mycelial Extract from Solid-State Culture in A Rat Model of Type 2 Diabetes

Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects of P. linteus have been observed in numerous studies, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we prepared P. linteus extract (PLE) from mycelia of solid-state culture, and evaluated its hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects in rat models of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced and low-dose streptozotocin (STZ)-induced type 2 diabetes. PLE treatment effectively reduced blood glucose levels, and improved insulin resistance and lipid and lipoprotein profiles. The hypoglycemic effect of PLE was based on inhibition of key hepatic gluconeogenesis enzymes (FBPase, G6Pase) expression and hepatic glycogen degradation, and consequent reduction of hepatic glucose production. PLE also: (i) enhanced expression of CPT1A and ACOX1 (key proteins involved in fatty acid β-oxidation) and low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) in liver, thus promoting clearance of triglycerides and LDL-C; (ii) inhibited expression of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) in liver, thus reducing cholesterol production; (iii) displayed strong hepatoprotective and renal protective effects. Our findings indicate that PLE has strong potential functional food application in adjuvant treatment of type 2 diabetes with dyslipidemia.