1
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Zhao S, Zhang T, Kan Y, Li H, Li JP. Overview of the current procedures in synthesis of heparin saccharides. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 339:122220. [PMID: 38823902 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 04/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/03/2024]
Abstract
Natural heparin, a glycosaminoglycan consisting of repeating hexuronic acid and glucosamine linked by 1 → 4 glycosidic bonds, is the most widely used anticoagulant. To subvert the dependence on animal sourced heparin, alternative methods to produce heparin saccharides, i.e., either heterogenous sugar chains similar to natural heparin, or structurally defined oligosaccharides, are becoming hot subjects. Although the success by chemical synthesis of the pentasaccharide, fondaparinux, encourages to proceed through a chemical approach generating homogenous product, synthesizing larger oligos is still cumbersome and beyond reach so far. Alternatively, the chemoenzymatic pathway exhibited exquisite stereoselectivity of glycosylation and regioselectivity of modification, with the advantage to skip the tedious protection steps unavoidable in chemical synthesis. However, to a scale of drug production needed today is still not in sight. In comparison, a procedure of de novo biosynthesis in an organism could be an ultimate goal. The main purpose of this review is to summarize the current available/developing strategies and techniques, which is expected to provide a comprehensive picture for production of heparin saccharides to replenish or eventually to replace the animal derived products. In chemical and chemoenzymatic approaches, the methodologies are discussed according to the synthesis procedures: building block preparation, chain elongation, and backbone modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siran Zhao
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China
| | - Tianji Zhang
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory of Chemical Metrology and Applications on Nutrition and Health for State Market Regulation, Beijing, China.
| | - Ying Kan
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory of Chemical Metrology and Applications on Nutrition and Health for State Market Regulation, Beijing, China
| | - Hongmei Li
- Division of Chemistry and Analytical Science, National Institute of Metrology, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory of Chemical Metrology and Applications on Nutrition and Health for State Market Regulation, Beijing, China
| | - Jin-Ping Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Centre for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing, China; Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden.
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2
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Dolan JP, Cosgrove SC, Miller GJ. Biocatalytic Approaches to Building Blocks for Enzymatic and Chemical Glycan Synthesis. JACS AU 2023; 3:47-61. [PMID: 36711082 PMCID: PMC9875253 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.2c00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
While the field of biocatalysis has bloomed over the past 20-30 years, advances in the understanding and improvement of carbohydrate-active enzymes, in particular, the sugar nucleotides involved in glycan building block biosynthesis, have progressed relatively more slowly. This perspective highlights the need for further insight into substrate promiscuity and the use of biocatalysis fundamentals (rational design, directed evolution, immobilization) to expand substrate scopes toward such carbohydrate building block syntheses and/or to improve enzyme stability, kinetics, or turnover. Further, it explores the growing premise of using biocatalysis to provide simple, cost-effective access to stereochemically defined carbohydrate materials, which can undergo late-stage chemical functionalization or automated glycan synthesis/polymerization.
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3
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Enzyme cascades for the synthesis of nucleotide sugars: Updates to recent production strategies. Carbohydr Res 2023; 523:108727. [PMID: 36521208 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2022.108727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Nucleotide sugars play an elementary role in nature as building blocks of glycans, polysaccharides, and glycoconjugates used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and food industries. As substrates of Leloir-glycosyltransferases, nucleotide sugars are essential for chemoenzymatic in vitro syntheses. However, high costs and the limited availability of nucleotide sugars prevent applications of biocatalytic cascades on a large industrial scale. Therefore, the focus is increasingly on nucleotide sugar synthesis strategies to make significant application processes feasible. The chemical synthesis of nucleotide sugars and their derivatives is well established, but the yields of these processes are usually low. Enzyme catalysis offers a suitable alternative here, and in the last 30 years, many synthesis routes for nucleotide sugars have been discovered and used for production. However, many of the published procedures shy away from assessing the practicability of their processes. With this review, we give an insight into the development of the (chemo)enzymatic nucleotide sugar synthesis pathways of the last years and present an assessment of critical process parameters such as total turnover number (TTN), space-time yield (STY), and enzyme loading.
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4
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Li Y, Yang X, Gao R. Thermophilic Inorganic Pyrophosphatase Ton1914 from Thermococcus onnurineus NA1 Removes the Inhibitory Effect of Pyrophosphate. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232112735. [PMID: 36361526 PMCID: PMC9653972 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232112735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyrophosphate (PPi) is a byproduct of over 120 biosynthetic reactions, and an overabundance of PPi can inhibit industrial synthesis. Pyrophosphatases (PPases) can effectively hydrolyze pyrophosphate to remove the inhibitory effect of pyrophosphate. In the present work, a thermophilic alkaline inorganic pyrophosphatase from Thermococcus onnurineus NA1 was studied. The optimum pH and temperature of Ton1914 were 9.0 and 80 °C, respectively, and the half-life was 52 h at 70 °C and 2.5 h at 90 °C. Ton1914 showed excellent thermal stability, and its relative enzyme activity, when incubated in Tris-HCl 9.0 containing 1.6 mM Mg2+ at 90 °C for 5 h, was still 100%, which was much higher than the control, whose relative activity was only 37%. Real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) results showed that the promotion of Ton1914 on long-chain DNA was more efficient than that on short-chain DNA when the same concentration of templates was supplemented. The yield of long-chain products was increased by 32-41%, while that of short-chain DNA was only improved by 9.5-15%. Ton1914 also increased the yields of UDP-glucose and UDP-galactose enzymatic synthesis from 40.1% to 84.8% and 20.9% to 35.4%, respectively. These findings suggested that Ton1914 has considerable potential for industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Renjun Gao
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-186-0431-3058
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5
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Kok K, Zwiers KC, Boot RG, Overkleeft HS, Aerts JMFG, Artola M. Fabry Disease: Molecular Basis, Pathophysiology, Diagnostics and Potential Therapeutic Directions. Biomolecules 2021; 11:271. [PMID: 33673160 PMCID: PMC7918333 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Fabry disease (FD) is a lysosomal storage disorder (LSD) characterized by the deficiency of α-galactosidase A (α-GalA) and the consequent accumulation of toxic metabolites such as globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) and globotriaosylsphingosine (lysoGb3). Early diagnosis and appropriate timely treatment of FD patients are crucial to prevent tissue damage and organ failure which no treatment can reverse. LSDs might profit from four main therapeutic strategies, but hitherto there is no cure. Among the therapeutic possibilities are intravenous administered enzyme replacement therapy (ERT), oral pharmacological chaperone therapy (PCT) or enzyme stabilizers, substrate reduction therapy (SRT) and the more recent gene/RNA therapy. Unfortunately, FD patients can only benefit from ERT and, since 2016, PCT, both always combined with supportive adjunctive and preventive therapies to clinically manage FD-related chronic renal, cardiac and neurological complications. Gene therapy for FD is currently studied and further strategies such as substrate reduction therapy (SRT) and novel PCTs are under investigation. In this review, we discuss the molecular basis of FD, the pathophysiology and diagnostic procedures, together with the current treatments and potential therapeutic avenues that FD patients could benefit from in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken Kok
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Kimberley C Zwiers
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rolf G Boot
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hermen S Overkleeft
- Department of Bio-organic Synthesis, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Johannes M F G Aerts
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marta Artola
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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6
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Li S, Wang H, Jin G, Chen Z, Gu G. Exploring the broad nucleotide triphosphate and sugar-1-phosphate specificity of thymidylyltransferase Cps23FL from Streptococcus pneumonia serotype 23F. RSC Adv 2020; 10:30110-30114. [PMID: 35518267 PMCID: PMC9056299 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra05799a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucose-1-phosphate thymidylyltransferase (Cps23FL) from Streptococcus pneumonia serotype 23F is the initial enzyme that catalyses the thymidylyl transfer reaction in prokaryotic deoxythymidine diphosphate-l-rhamnose (dTDP-Rha) biosynthetic pathway. In this study, the broad substrate specificity of Cps23FL towards six glucose-1-phosphates and nine nucleoside triphosphates as substrates was systematically explored, eventually providing access to nineteen sugar nucleotide analogs. The broad substrate specificities of thymidylyltransferase Cps23FL towards nucleotide triphosphates and sugar-1-phosphates were systemically investigated.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Siqiang Li
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Glycobiology, Shandong University 72 Binhai Road Qingdao 266237 China .,School of Biological and Food Processing Engineering, Huanghuai University 76 Kaiyuan Road Zhumadian 463000 China
| | - Hong Wang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Glycobiology, Shandong University 72 Binhai Road Qingdao 266237 China
| | - Guoxia Jin
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Shandong Normal University 88 Wenhua Dong Lu Jinan 250014 China
| | - Zonggang Chen
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Glycobiology, Shandong University 72 Binhai Road Qingdao 266237 China
| | - Guofeng Gu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Glycobiology, Shandong University 72 Binhai Road Qingdao 266237 China
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7
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Jaroentomeechai T, Taw MN, Li M, Aquino A, Agashe N, Chung S, Jewett MC, DeLisa MP. Cell-Free Synthetic Glycobiology: Designing and Engineering Glycomolecules Outside of Living Cells. Front Chem 2020; 8:645. [PMID: 32850660 PMCID: PMC7403607 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycans and glycosylated biomolecules are directly involved in almost every biological process as well as the etiology of most major diseases. Hence, glycoscience knowledge is essential to efforts aimed at addressing fundamental challenges in understanding and improving human health, protecting the environment and enhancing energy security, and developing renewable and sustainable resources that can serve as the source of next-generation materials. While much progress has been made, there remains an urgent need for new tools that can overexpress structurally uniform glycans and glycoconjugates in the quantities needed for characterization and that can be used to mechanistically dissect the enzymatic reactions and multi-enzyme assembly lines that promote their construction. To address this technology gap, cell-free synthetic glycobiology has emerged as a simplified and highly modular framework to investigate, prototype, and engineer pathways for glycan biosynthesis and biomolecule glycosylation outside the confines of living cells. From nucleotide sugars to complex glycoproteins, we summarize here recent efforts that harness the power of cell-free approaches to design, build, test, and utilize glyco-enzyme reaction networks that produce desired glycomolecules in a predictable and controllable manner. We also highlight novel cell-free methods for shedding light on poorly understood aspects of diverse glycosylation processes and engineering these processes toward desired outcomes. Taken together, cell-free synthetic glycobiology represents a promising set of tools and techniques for accelerating basic glycoscience research (e.g., deciphering the "glycan code") and its application (e.g., biomanufacturing high-value glycomolecules on demand).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thapakorn Jaroentomeechai
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - May N. Taw
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Mingji Li
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Alicia Aquino
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Ninad Agashe
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Sean Chung
- Graduate Field of Biochemistry, Molecular and Cell Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
| | - Michael C. Jewett
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
- Center for Synthetic Biology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
- Chemistry of Life Processes Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, United States
| | - Matthew P. DeLisa
- Robert Frederick Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
- Graduate Field of Biochemistry, Molecular and Cell Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States
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8
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Ukaegbu OI, DeMeester KE, Liang H, Brown AR, Jones ZS, Grimes CL. Utility of bacterial peptidoglycan recycling enzymes in the chemoenzymatic synthesis of valuable UDP sugar substrates. Methods Enzymol 2020; 638:1-26. [PMID: 32416908 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2020.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Uridine diphosphate (UDP) sugars are essential precursors for glycosylation reactions in all forms of life. Reactions that transfer the carbohydrate from the UDP donor are catalyzed by glycosyltransferases (Gtfs). While the stereochemistry and negative physiological charge of UDP-sugars are essential for their biochemical function in the cell, these characteristics make them challenging molecules to synthesize and purify on scale in the laboratory. This chapter focuses on the utilization of a chemoenzymatic synthesis of muramyl UDP-sugars, key building blocks in the bacterial cell peptidoglycan. A scalable strategy to obtain UDP-N-acetyl muramic acid derivatives (UDP-NAM), the first committed intermediate used solely in peptidoglycan biosynthesis, is described herein. This methodology utilizes two enzymes involving the cell wall recycling enzymes MurNAc/GlcNAc anomeric kinase (AmgK) and NAM α-1-phosphate uridylyl transferase (MurU), respectively. The promiscuity of these enzymes allows for the unique chemical functionality to be embedded in bacterial peptidoglycan both in vitro and in whole bacterial cells for subsequent structural and functional studies of this important biopolymer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ophelia I Ukaegbu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Kristen E DeMeester
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Hai Liang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Ashley R Brown
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Zachary S Jones
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
| | - Catherine Leimkuhler Grimes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States.
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9
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Wagstaff BA, Rejzek M, Kuhaudomlarp S, Hill L, Mascia I, Nepogodiev SA, Dorfmueller HC, Field RA. Discovery of an RmlC/D fusion protein in the microalga Prymnesium parvum and its implications for NDP-β-l-rhamnose biosynthesis in microalgae. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:9172-9185. [PMID: 31010825 PMCID: PMC6556577 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.006440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The 6-deoxy sugar l-rhamnose (l-Rha) is found widely in plant and microbial polysaccharides and natural products. The importance of this and related compounds in host-pathogen interactions often means that l-Rha plays an essential role in many organisms. l-Rha is most commonly biosynthesized as the activated sugar nucleotide uridine 5'-diphospho-β-l-rhamnose (UDP-β-l-Rha) or thymidine 5'-diphospho-β-l-rhamnose (TDP-β-l-Rha). Enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of these sugar nucleotides have been studied in some detail in bacteria and plants, but the activated form of l-Rha and the corresponding biosynthetic enzymes have yet to be explored in algae. Here, using sugar-nucleotide profiling in two representative algae, Euglena gracilis and the toxin-producing microalga Prymnesium parvum, we show that levels of UDP- and TDP-activated l-Rha differ significantly between these two algal species. Using bioinformatics and biochemical methods, we identified and characterized a fusion of the RmlC and RmlD proteins, two bacteria-like enzymes involved in TDP-β-l-Rha biosynthesis, from P. parvum Using this new sequence and also others, we explored l-Rha biosynthesis among algae, finding that although most algae contain sequences orthologous to plant-like l-Rha biosynthesis machineries, instances of the RmlC-RmlD fusion protein identified here exist across the Haptophyta and Gymnodiniaceae families of microalgae. On the basis of these findings, we propose potential routes for the evolution of nucleoside diphosphate β-l-Rha (NDP-β-l-Rha) pathways among algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben A Wagstaff
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom.,Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Martin Rejzek
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Sakonwan Kuhaudomlarp
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom.,Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CERMAV, 38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Lionel Hill
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Ilaria Mascia
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Sergey A Nepogodiev
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Helge C Dorfmueller
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, DD1 5EH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Robert A Field
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, United Kingdom,
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10
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Zhou AP, Zong D, Gan PH, Zou XL, Fei X, Zhong YY, He CZ. Physiological Analysis and Transcriptome Profiling of Inverted Cuttings of Populus yunnanensis Reveal That Cell Wall Metabolism Plays a Crucial Role in Responding to Inversion. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:E572. [PMID: 30477186 PMCID: PMC6316517 DOI: 10.3390/genes9120572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Inverted cuttings of Populus yunnanensis remain alive by rooting from the original morphological apex and sprouting from the base, but the lateral branches exhibit less vigorous growth than those of the upright plant. In this study, we examined the changes in hormone contents, oxidase activities, and transcriptome profiles between upright and inverted cuttings of P. yunnanensis. The results showed that the indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and gibberellic acid (GA₃) contents were significantly lower in inverted cuttings than in upright cuttings only in the late growth period (September and October), while the abscisic acid (ABA) level was always similar between the two direction types. The biosynthesis of these hormones was surprisingly unrelated to the inversion of P. yunnanensis during the vegetative growth stage (July and August). Increased levels of peroxidases (PODs) encoded by 13 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) served as lignification promoters that protected plants against oxidative stress. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis showed that most DEGs (107) were related to carbohydrate metabolism. Furthermore, altered activities of uridine diphosphate (UDP)-sugar pyrophosphorylase (USP, 15 DEGs) for nucleotide sugars, pectin methylesterase (PME, 7 DEGs) for pectin, and POD (13 DEGs) for lignin were important factors in the response of the trees to inversion, and these enzymes are all involved cell wall metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- An-Pei Zhou
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
| | - Dan Zong
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
| | - Pei-Hua Gan
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
| | - Xin-Lian Zou
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
| | - Xuan Fei
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
| | - Yuan-Yuan Zhong
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
| | - Cheng-Zhong He
- Key Laboratory for Forest Genetic and Tree Improvement and Propagation in Universities of Yunnan Province, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biodiversity Conservation in Southwest China, State Forestry Administration, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
- Key Laboratory for Forest Resources Conservation and Utilization in the Southwest Mountains of China, Ministry of Education, Southwest Forestry University, Kunming 650224, China.
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11
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Fischöder T, Wahl C, Zerhusen C, Elling L. Repetitive Batch Mode Facilitates Enzymatic Synthesis of the Nucleotide Sugars UDP-Gal, UDP-GlcNAc, and UDP-GalNAc on a Multi-Gram Scale. Biotechnol J 2018; 14. [PMID: 30367549 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201800386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The availability of nucleotide sugars is considered as bottleneck for Leloir-glycosyltransferases mediated glycan synthesis. A breakthrough for the synthesis of nucleotide sugars is the development of salvage pathway like enzyme cascades with high product yields from affordable monosaccharide substrates. In this regard, the authors aim at high enzyme productivities of these cascades by a repetitive batch approach. The authors report here for the first time that the exceptional high enzyme cascade stability facilitates the synthesis of Uridine-5'-diphospho-α-d-galactose (UDP-Gal), Uridine-5'-diphospho-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc), and Uridine-5'-diphospho-N-acetylgalactosamine (UDP-GalNAc) in a multi-gram scale by repetitive batch mode. The authors obtained 12.8 g UDP-Gal through a high mass based total turnover number (TTNmass ) of 494 [gproduct /genzyme ] and space-time-yield (STY) of 10.7 [g/L*h]. Synthesis of UDP-GlcNAc in repetitive batch mode gave 11.9 g product with a TTNmass of 522 [gproduct /genzyme ] and a STY of 9.9 [g/L*h]. Furthermore, the scale-up to a 200 mL scale using a pressure operated concentrator was demonstrated for a UDP-GalNAc producing enzyme cascade resulting in an exceptional high STY of 19.4 [g/L*h] and 23.3 g product. In conclusion, the authors demonstrate that repetitive batch mode is a versatile strategy for the multi-gram scale synthesis of nucleotide sugars by stable enzyme cascades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Fischöder
- Laboratory for Biomaterials and Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelstrasse 20, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Claudia Wahl
- Laboratory for Biomaterials and Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelstrasse 20, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Christian Zerhusen
- Laboratory for Biomaterials and Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelstrasse 20, Aachen 52074, Germany
| | - Lothar Elling
- Laboratory for Biomaterials and Institute for Biotechnology and Helmholtz-Institute for Biomedical Engineering RWTH Aachen University, Pauwelstrasse 20, Aachen 52074, Germany
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12
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Wagstaff BA, Rejzek M, Field RA. Identification of a Kdn biosynthesis pathway in the haptophyte Prymnesium parvum suggests widespread sialic acid biosynthesis among microalgae. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:16277-16290. [PMID: 30171074 PMCID: PMC6200933 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sialic acids are a family of more than 50 structurally distinct acidic sugars on the surface of all vertebrate cells where they terminate glycan chains and are exposed to many interactions with the surrounding environment. In particular, sialic acids play important roles in cell-cell and host-pathogen interactions. The sialic acids or related nonulosonic acids have been observed in Deuterostome lineages, Eubacteria, and Archaea but are notably absent from plants. However, the structurally related C8 acidic sugar 3-deoxy-d-manno-2-octulosonic acid (Kdo) is present in Gram-negative bacteria and plants as a component of bacterial lipopolysaccharide and pectic rhamnogalacturonan II in the plant cell wall. Until recently, sialic acids were not thought to occur in algae, but as in plants, Kdo has been observed in algae. Here, we report the de novo biosynthesis of the deaminated sialic acid, 3-deoxy-d-glycero-d-galacto-2-nonulosonic acid (Kdn), in the toxin-producing microalga Prymnesium parvum Using biochemical methods, we show that this alga contains CMP-Kdn and identified and recombinantly expressed the P. parvum genes encoding Kdn-9-P synthetase and CMP-Kdn synthetase enzymes that convert mannose-6-P to CMP-Kdn. Bioinformatics analysis revealed sequences related to those of the two P. parvum enzymes, suggesting that sialic acid biosynthesis is likely more widespread among microalgae than previously thought and that this acidic sugar may play a role in host-pathogen interactions involving microalgae. Our findings provide evidence that P. parvum has the biosynthetic machinery for de novo production of the deaminated sialic acid Kdn and that sialic acid biosynthesis may be common among microalgae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben A Wagstaff
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Rejzek
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Field
- From the Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, United Kingdom
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13
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Ahmadipour S, Beswick L, Miller GJ. Recent advances in the enzymatic synthesis of sugar-nucleotides using nucleotidylyltransferases and glycosyltransferases. Carbohydr Res 2018; 469:38-47. [PMID: 30265902 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sanaz Ahmadipour
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Laura Beswick
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Gavin J Miller
- Lennard-Jones Laboratory, School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK.
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14
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Mondal D, Koehn EM, Yao J, Wiemer DF, Kohen A. Chemo-enzymatic synthesis of the exocyclic olefin isomer of thymidine monophosphate. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:2365-2371. [PMID: 29606487 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Exocyclic olefin variants of thymidylate (dTMP) recently have been proposed as reaction intermediates for the thymidyl biosynthesis enzymes found in many pathogenic organisms, yet synthetic reports on these materials are lacking. Here we report two strategies to prepare the exocyclic olefin isomer of dTMP, which is a putative reaction intermediate in pathogenic thymidylate biosynthesis and a novel nucleotide analog. Our most effective strategy involves preserving the existing glyosidic bond of thymidine and manipulating the base to generate the exocyclic methylene moiety. We also report a successful enzymatic deoxyribosylation of a non-aromatic nucleobase isomer of thymine, which provides an additional strategy to access nucleotide analogs with disrupted ring conjugation or with reduced heterocyclic bases. The strategies reported here are straightforward and extendable towards the synthesis of various pyrimidine nucleotide analogs, which could lead to compounds of value in studies of enzyme reaction mechanisms or serve as templates for rational drug design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dibyendu Mondal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1294, United States
| | - Eric M Koehn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1294, United States
| | - Jiajun Yao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1294, United States
| | - David F Wiemer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1294, United States.
| | - Amnon Kohen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242-1294, United States
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15
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Benini S, Toccafondi M, Rejzek M, Musiani F, Wagstaff BA, Wuerges J, Cianci M, Field RA. Glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase from Erwinia amylovora: Activity, structure and substrate specificity. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2017; 1865:1348-1357. [PMID: 28844747 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2017.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Erwinia amylovora, a Gram-negative plant pathogen, is the causal agent of Fire Blight, a contagious necrotic disease affecting plants belonging to the Rosaceae family, including apple and pear. E. amylovora is highly virulent and capable of rapid dissemination in orchards; effective control methods are still lacking. One of its most important pathogenicity factors is the exopolysaccharide amylovoran. Amylovoran is a branched polymer made by the repetition of units mainly composed of galactose, with some residues of glucose, glucuronic acid and pyruvate. E. amylovora glucose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase (UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase, EC 2.7.7.9) has a key role in amylovoran biosynthesis. This enzyme catalyses the production of UDP-glucose from glucose-1-phosphate and UTP, which the epimerase GalE converts into UDP-galactose, the main building block of amylovoran. We determined EaGalU kinetic parameters and substrate specificity with a range of sugar 1-phosphates. At time point 120min the enzyme catalysed conversion of the sugar 1-phosphate into the corresponding UDP-sugar reached 74% for N-acetyl-α-d-glucosamine 1-phosphate, 28% for α-d-galactose 1-phosphate, 0% for α-d-galactosamine 1-phosphate, 100% for α-d-xylose 1-phosphate, 100% for α-d-glucosamine 1-phosphate, 70% for α-d-mannose 1-phosphate, and 0% for α-d-galacturonic acid 1-phosphate. To explain our results we obtained the crystal structure of EaGalU and augmented our study by docking the different sugar 1-phosphates into EaGalU active site, providing both reliable models for substrate binding and enzyme specificity, and a rationale that explains the different activity of EaGalU on the sugar 1-phosphates used. These data demonstrate EaGalU potential as a biocatalyst for biotechnological purposes, as an alternative to the enzyme from Escherichia coli, besides playing an important role in E. amylovora pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Benini
- Bioorganic Chemistry and Bio-Crystallography laboratory (B2Cl), Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bolzano, 39100 Bolzano, Italy.
| | - Mirco Toccafondi
- Bioorganic Chemistry and Bio-Crystallography laboratory (B2Cl), Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bolzano, 39100 Bolzano, Italy
| | - Martin Rejzek
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Francesco Musiani
- Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Viale G. Fanin 40, Bologna 40127, Italy
| | - Ben A Wagstaff
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Jochen Wuerges
- Bioorganic Chemistry and Bio-Crystallography laboratory (B2Cl), Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bolzano, 39100 Bolzano, Italy
| | - Michele Cianci
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Universita' Politecnica delle Marche, Via Brecce Bianche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; Hamburg Outstation, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Robert A Field
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
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16
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Beerens K, Van Overtveldt S, Desmet T. The “epimerring” highlights the potential of carbohydrate epimerases for rare sugar production. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/10242422.2017.1306738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Koen Beerens
- Unit for Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Stevie Van Overtveldt
- Unit for Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Unit for Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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17
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Kulmer ST, Gutmann A, Lemmerer M, Nidetzky B. Biocatalytic Cascade of Polyphosphate Kinase and Sucrose Synthase for Synthesis of Nucleotide-Activated Derivatives of Glucose. Adv Synth Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.201601078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra T. Kulmer
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering; Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz; Petersgasse 12 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Alexander Gutmann
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering; Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz; Petersgasse 12 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Martin Lemmerer
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology; Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Bernd Nidetzky
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering; Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz; Petersgasse 12 8010 Graz Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology; Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
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18
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Merino P, Delso I, Tejero T, Ghirardello M, Juste-Navarro V. Nucleoside Diphosphate Sugar Analogues that Target Glycosyltransferases. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.201600396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Merino
- Department of Synthesis and Structure of Biomolecules; Institute of Chemical Synthesis and Homogeneous Catalysis (ISQCH); University of Zaragoza, CSIC; Zaragoza, Aragón 50009 Spain
| | - Ignacio Delso
- NMR Service, Center of Chemistry and Materials of Aragon (CEQMA); University of Zaragoza, CSIC; Zaragoza, Aragón 50009 Spain
| | - Tomás Tejero
- Department of Synthesis and Structure of Biomolecules; Institute of Chemical Synthesis and Homogeneous Catalysis (ISQCH); University of Zaragoza, CSIC; Zaragoza, Aragón 50009 Spain
| | - Mattia Ghirardello
- Department of Synthesis and Structure of Biomolecules; Institute of Chemical Synthesis and Homogeneous Catalysis (ISQCH); University of Zaragoza, CSIC; Zaragoza, Aragón 50009 Spain
| | - Verónica Juste-Navarro
- Department of Synthesis and Structure of Biomolecules; Institute of Chemical Synthesis and Homogeneous Catalysis (ISQCH); University of Zaragoza, CSIC; Zaragoza, Aragón 50009 Spain
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19
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Abstract
Focusing on the recent literature (since 2000), this review outlines the main synthetic approaches for the preparation of 5'-mono-, 5'-di-, and 5'-triphosphorylated nucleosides, also known as nucleotides, as well as several derivatives, namely, cyclic nucleotides and dinucleotides, dinucleoside 5',5'-polyphosphates, sugar nucleotides, and nucleolipids. Endogenous nucleotides and their analogues can be obtained enzymatically, which is often restricted to natural substrates, or chemically. In chemical synthesis, protected or unprotected nucleosides can be used as the starting material, depending on the nature of the reagents selected from P(III) or P(V) species. Both solution-phase and solid-support syntheses have been developed and are reported here. Although a considerable amount of research has been conducted in this field, further work is required because chemists are still faced with the challenge of developing a universal methodology that is compatible with a large variety of nucleoside analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Béatrice Roy
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247 CNRS, Université de Montpellier, ENSCM , Campus Triolet, cc 1705, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Anaïs Depaix
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247 CNRS, Université de Montpellier, ENSCM , Campus Triolet, cc 1705, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Christian Périgaud
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247 CNRS, Université de Montpellier, ENSCM , Campus Triolet, cc 1705, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Suzanne Peyrottes
- Institut des Biomolécules Max Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247 CNRS, Université de Montpellier, ENSCM , Campus Triolet, cc 1705, Place Eugène Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier cedex 5, France
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20
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Wagner GK, Pesnot T, Palcic MM, Jørgensen R. Novel UDP-GalNAc Derivative Structures Provide Insight into the Donor Specificity of Human Blood Group Glycosyltransferase. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:31162-72. [PMID: 26527682 PMCID: PMC4692239 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.681262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Two closely related glycosyltransferases are responsible for the final step of the biosynthesis of ABO(H) human blood group A and B antigens. The two enzymes differ by only four amino acid residues, which determine whether the enzymes transfer GalNAc from UDP-GalNAc or Gal from UDP-Gal to the H-antigen acceptor. The enzymes belong to the class of GT-A folded enzymes, grouped as GT6 in the CAZy database, and are characterized by a single domain with a metal dependent retaining reaction mechanism. However, the exact role of the four amino acid residues in the specificity of the enzymes is still unresolved. In this study, we report the first structural information of a dual specificity cis-AB blood group glycosyltransferase in complex with a synthetic UDP-GalNAc derivative. Interestingly, the GalNAc moiety adopts an unusual yet catalytically productive conformation in the binding pocket, which is different from the "tucked under" conformation previously observed for the UDP-Gal donor. In addition, we show that this UDP-GalNAc derivative in complex with the H-antigen acceptor provokes the same unusual binding pocket closure as seen for the corresponding UDP-Gal derivative. Despite this, the two derivatives show vastly different kinetic properties. Our results provide a important structural insight into the donor substrate specificity and utilization in blood group biosynthesis, which can very likely be exploited for the development of new glycosyltransferase inhibitors and probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerd K Wagner
- From the Department of Chemistry, King's College London, Faculty of Natural & Mathematical Sciences, Britannia House, 7 Trinity Street, London SE1 1DB, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas Pesnot
- the University of East Anglia, School of Pharmacy, Norwich NR47TJ, England, and
| | - Monica M Palcic
- the Carlsberg Laboratory, Gamle Carlsberg Vej 10, DK-1799, Copenhagen V, Denmark
| | - Rene Jørgensen
- the Carlsberg Laboratory, Gamle Carlsberg Vej 10, DK-1799, Copenhagen V, Denmark
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21
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Beerens K, Soetaert W, Desmet T. UDP-hexose 4-epimerases: a view on structure, mechanism and substrate specificity. Carbohydr Res 2015; 414:8-14. [PMID: 26162744 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2015.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2015] [Revised: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
UDP-sugar 4-epimerase (GalE) belongs to the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) superfamily of proteins and is one of enzymes in the Leloir pathway. They have been shown to be important virulence factors in a number of Gram-negative pathogens and to be involved in the biosynthesis of different polysaccharide structures. The metabolic disease type III galactosemia is caused by detrimental mutations in the human GalE. GalE and related enzymes display unusual enzymologic, chemical, and stereochemical properties; including irreversible binding of the cofactor NAD and uridine nucleotide-induced activation of this cofactor. These epimerases have been found active on UDP-hexoses, the N-acetylated and uronic acid forms thereof as well as UDP-pentoses. As they are involved in different pathways and functions, a deeper understanding of the enzymes, and their substrate promiscuity and/or selectivity, could lead to drug and vaccine design as well as antibiotic and probiotic development. This review summarizes the research performed on UDP-sugar 4-epimerases' structure, mechanism and substrate promiscuity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen Beerens
- Centre for Industrial Biotechnology and Biocatalysis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium.
| | - Wim Soetaert
- Centre for Industrial Biotechnology and Biocatalysis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Centre for Industrial Biotechnology and Biocatalysis, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium
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