Anti-cyclooxygenase effects of lipid extracts from the New Zealand green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus

Targeting the Inflammatory Hallmarks of Obesity-Associated Osteoarthritis: Towards Nutraceutical-Oriented Preventive and Complementary Therapeutic Strategies Based on n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

Obesity (Ob), which has dramatically increased in the last decade, is one of the main risk factors that contribute to the incidence and progression of osteoarthritis (OA). Targeting the characteristics of obesity-associated osteoarthritis (ObOA) may offer new chances for precision medicine strategies in this patient cohort. First, this review outlines how the medical perspective of ObOA has shifted from a focus on biomechanics to the significant contribution of inflammation, mainly mediated by changes in the adipose tissue metabolism through the release of adipokines and the modification of fatty acid (FA) compositions in joint tissues. Preclinical and clinical studies on n-3 polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs) are critically reviewed to outline the strengths and weaknesses of n-3 PUFAs' role in alleviating inflammatory, catabolic and painful processes. Emphasis is placed on potential preventive and therapeutic nutritional strategies based on n-3 PUFAs, with a focus on ObOA patients who could specifically benefit from reformulating the dietary composition of FAs towards a protective phenotype. Finally, tissue engineering approaches that involve the delivery of n-3 PUFAs directly into the joint are explored to address the perspectives and current limitations, such as safety and stability issues, for implementing preventive and therapeutic strategies based on dietary compounds in ObOA patients.

Bioactive Metabolite from Endophytic Aspergillus versicolor SB5 with Anti-Acetylcholinesterase, Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Activities: In Vitro and In Silico Studies

Endophytic fungi are a highly unpredictable group of microorganisms that can create a diverse range of secondary metabolites with biological activity. These metabolites enhance the host's ability to tolerate stress caused by various factors, such as disease, insects, pathogens, and herbivores. The secondary metabolites produced by endophytic fungi may have potential applications in agriculture, pharmacy, and medicine. The purpose of this study was to examine the anti-acetylcholinesterase activity of secondary metabolites extracted from endophytic fungi. Aspergillus versicolor SB5 was one of the many endophytic fungi isolated from Juncus rigidus and identified genetically with accession number ON872302. Our study utilized fermentation and microbial cultivation techniques to obtain secondary metabolites. During the course of our investigation, we isolated a compound called Physcion (C1) from the endophytic fungus Aspergillus versicolor SB5. We subsequently identified that C1 possesses inhibitory activity against COX-2 and LOX-1, with IC50 values of 43.10 and 17.54 µg/mL, respectively, making it an effective anti-inflammatory agent. Moreover, we found that C1 also exhibited potent anticholinesterase activity (86.9 ± 1.21%). In addition to these promising therapeutic properties, our experiments demonstrated that C1 possesses strong antioxidant capacity, as evidenced by its ability to scavenge DPPH, ABTS, O2 radicals, and NO and inhibit lipid peroxidation. To further investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying C1 pharmacological properties, we employed SwissADME web tools to predict the compound's ADME-related physicochemical properties and used Molecular Operating Environment and PyMOL for molecular docking studies.

Lipid extract from blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) improves glycemic traits in Chinese type 2 diabetic mellitus patients: a double-blind randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Studies have shown that blue mussel lipid extract (BMLE) has strong anti-inflammatory activity in both rheumatoid arthritis patients and animal arthritis models. Chronic inflammation was closely related to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Though the beneficial effects cannot be completely attributed to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, the aim of this study was to investigate whether BMLE can improve glycemic traits of T2DM patients.

METHOD

In a double-blind randomized controlled trial, 133 Chinese T2DM participants were randomized to either fish oil (FO, n = 44), BMLE (n = 44), or corn oil (CO, n = 45) groups for 60 days. The participants were asked to take the corresponding oil capsules (two capsules per day, 0.8 g per capsule), which provided 1.6 g day^-1 of FO (29.9% eicosapentaenoic acid + 20.4% docosahexaenoic acid), BMLE (20.7% eicosapentaenoic acid + 26.7% docosahexaenoic acid), or CO (53.5% linoleic acid).

RESULTS

The fasting serum concentration of insulin (P = 0.005) and the homeostasis model of insulin resistance (P = 0.026) were significantly decreased in the BMLE group, whereas no significant change was found in the FO or CO groups. There was no significant difference between groups on serum glycosylated hemoglobin. Tumor necrosis factor-α was significantly decreased in the BMLE group (P = 0.003), but not in the FO or CO groups. A significant decrease of interleukin-1β was observed in the BMLE and CO groups (P = 0.004 and P = 0.011 respectively), but not in the FO group. The total cholesterol was significantly decreased in the BMLE and CO groups (P < 0.001 and P < 0.001 respectively), but not in the FO group. Triacylglycerol was significantly decreased in the BMLE group (P = 0.007), but not in the FO or CO groups. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol was significantly lower in the BMLE and CO groups than in the FO group (P = 0.003).

CONCLUSION

Blue mussel lipid supplements improved glycemic traits, inflammatory cytokines, and lipids profile in Chinese T2DM patients (Chinese Clinical Trial Registration number: ChiCTR1900025617). © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of Greenshell™ mussel intervention on biomarkers of cartilage metabolism, inflammatory markers and joint symptoms in overweight/obese postmenopausal women: A randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled trial

Objective

To investigate the effect of whole greenshell mussel (GSM) powder on biomarkers of cartilage metabolism, inflammatory cytokines, and joint symptoms in postmenopausal women with overweight/obesity and joint discomfort.

Design

Fifty-five postmenopausal women with overweight/obesity were randomly assigned to receive 3 g/day whole GSM powder or placebo for 12 weeks. Cartilage turnover biomarkers urinary C-telopeptide of type II collagen (CTX-II) and serum cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) were measured at baseline, week 6 and 12. Plasma cytokines were measured at baseline and week 12. Joint pain and knee-related problems were assessed at baseline and week 12 using a 100 mm Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) and the Knee injury and Osteoarthritis Outcome Score (KOOS) questionnaire, respectively.

Results

Forty-nine participants completed the study (GSM n = 25, placebo n = 24). After 12 weeks, urinary CTX-II showed no significant change over time or between the groups (interaction effect P = 0.1). However, in women with symptomatic knees, a significant difference was noted between the group (treatment effect P = 0.04), as it was lower in the GSM group compared to placebo group at week 6 (P = 0.04) and week 12 (P = 0.03). Serum COMP and plasma cytokines were not affected. GSM supplementation showed greater reduction in the VAS pain score than placebo (-13.2 ± 20.3 vs. -2.9 ± 15.9; P = 0.04). No significant change in KOOS domains between the two groups was observed.

Conclusion

Oral supplementation of whole GSM powder at 3 g/day may slow down the degradation of type II collagen in postmenopausal women with symptomatic knees. GSM treatment conferred clinical benefit on overall joint pain. No significant effect was noted for inflammatory cytokines, suggesting that GSM may act within the joint microenvironment rather than at the systemic level.

Clinical trial registration

[www.australianclinicaltrials.gov.au/clinical-trialregistries], identifier [ACTRN12620000413921p].

Environmentally realistic concentrations of cocaine in seawater disturbed neuroendrocrine parameters and energy status in the marine mussel Perna perna

Cocaine (COC) is a powerful illicit drug frequently detected in the aquatic environment. COC acts by inhibiting the reuptake of dopamine (DOPA) and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT - serotonin) and causes endocrine disturbances in mammals. This study investigated similar effects from cocaine exposure in the marine mussel Perna perna, as well as neurotoxicity and energy imbalances. Mussels were exposed to COC (0.2 μg.L^-1 and 2 μg.L^-1) for periods of 48, 96, and 168 h. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was measured in adductor muscle tissue to determine neurotoxicity, and neurotransmitter levels (DOPA and 5-HT), monoamine oxidase (MAO) and cyclooxygenase (COX) activity, and energy status (mitrochondrial electron transport, MET, and total lipids, TLP) were evaluated in the mussels' gonads. COC decreased AChE activity in the mussels exposed to 0.2 μg.L^-1 and 2 μg.L -1 after 168 h, and all concentrations of COC increased neurotransmitter levels. Increases in MET (0.2 μg.L -1, for all exposure periods) and TLP (0.2 μg.L 1 after 48 h, and 2 μg.L -1 after 96 h and 168 h) were also observed. No significant change was detected in MAO activity. COC also decreased COX activity in the mussels exposed to 0.2 μg.L -1 (48 h and 96 h) and 2 μg.L -1 (96 h). These results suggest that COC may compromise neurotransmitter levels and COX activity. Furthermore, the changes in MET and LPT suggest that COC affects the energy balance of the mussels, and could negatively affect physiological processes such as metabolism, hormone production, and embryonic development.

The Influence of Obesity, Ovariectomy, and Greenshell Mussel Supplementation on Bone Mineral Density in Rats

Obesity is considered to impair long-term health by disturbing multiple physiological functions. However, it remains a controversial issue as to whether obesity has beneficial or detrimental effects on bone health in postmenopausal women. The aims of this study were to investigate the relationships between obesity and bone mineral density (BMD) under conditions of ovarian hormone deficiency in an animal model and to evaluate the potential health benefits of Greenshell mussel (GSM) on bone health. A total of 144 adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were fed from age 12 weeks on one of four diets (normal [ND]; ND + GSM; high fat/high sugar [HF/HS]; HF/HS + GSM; n = 36 per diet). At age 20 weeks, after a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan, 12 of the rats on each diet underwent ovariectomy (OVX) and the remaining rats were left intact. Twelve of the intact rats in each diet group were culled at age 26 weeks (short-term cohort). The remaining rats were culled at age 48 weeks (long-term cohort). Rats were DXA scanned before cull, then various fat pads were dissected. The results revealed that HF/HS rats and OVX rats dramatically increased body weight and fat deposition in correlation with leptin. In the long-term cohort, vertebral spine BMD rapidly declined after OVX. At termination, the OVX rats had decreased plasma bone turnover markers of CTX-1 and TRAP when compared with sham rats. Significantly higher BMD was found in OVX rats fed the HF/HS diet compared with ND, but this difference was not recapitulated in intact rats. BMD of right femur was significantly increased 5% to 10% by GSM in the short-term cohort. The data demonstrated that obesity can be beneficial by increasing BMD in OVX rats, and this may extrapolate to postmenopausal women as adipocyte-produced estrogen may slightly compensate for the reduction in ovarian hormones. Finally, the data showed that GSM may be beneficial to bone health by increasing BMD accrual. © 2021 The Authors. JBMR Plus published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Association Between Daily Dietary Eicosatetraenoic Acid Intake and the Lower Risk of Psoriasis in American Adults

Purpose

Unlike eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the relationship between eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA) and psoriasis remains unclear. Therefore, We performed a cross-sectional study in the general American population to investigate the association between daily dietary ETA, EPA, and DHA intake and the risk of psoriasis.

Participants and Methods

This study applied data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2006 and 2009-2014. Dietary n3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were calculated based on two 24-hour dietary recall interviews. We defined psoriasis by responding to the question "Have you ever been told by a doctor or other health care professional that you had psoriasis?". Multivariable logistic regression analysis, trend tests, subgroup analysis, and interaction tests were used to evaluate the associations of ETA, EPA, and DHA intake with the risk of psoriasis, respectively.

Results

A total of 15,733 participants were included in this study. In our optimal multivariate-adjusted model, the odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI) of psoriasis were 0.30 (0.12, 0.88), 1.92 (0.78, 4.74), 1.28 (0.72, 2.27) for daily dietary ETA, EPA, and DHA intake, respectively. Trend tests showed a dose-effect relationship between daily dietary ETA intake and the lower risk of psoriasis. Subgroup analysis and tests for interaction showed that the association was stable in different subgroups.

Conclusion

Our study revealed that there might be a dose-effect association of daily dietary ETA intake with the lower risk of psoriasis in American adults.

Non-polar lipid from greenshell mussel (Perna canaliculus) inhibits osteoclast differentiation

The osteoclast-dependent bone resorption process is a crucial part of the bone regulatory system. The excessive function of osteoclasts can cause diseases of bone, joint, and other tissues such as osteoporosis and osteoarthritis. Greenshell mussel oil (GSM), a good source of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCn-3PUFAs), was fractionated into total lipid, polar lipid, and non-polar lipid components and their anti-osteoclastogenic activity tested in RAW 264.7 cell cultures. Osteoclast differentiation process was achieved after 5 days of incubation with RANKL in 24-well culture plates. Introducing the non-polar lipid fraction into the culture caused a lack of cell differentiation, and a reduction in tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP) activity and TRAP cell numbers in a dose-dependent manner (50% reduction at the concentration of 20 μg/mL, p < 0.001). Moreover, actin ring formation was significantly diminished by non-polar lipids at 10-20 μg/mL. The bone digestive enzymes released by osteoclasts into the pit formation were also compromised by downregulating gene expression of cathepsin K, carbonic anhydrase II (CA II), matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), and nuclear factor of activated T-cells, cytoplasmic 1 (NFATc1). This study revealed that the non-polar lipid fraction of GSM oil contains bioactive substances which possess potent anti-osteoclastogenic activity.

Green-lipped (greenshell™) mussel (Perna canaliculus) extract supplementation in treatment of osteoarthritis: a systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Intervention studies using New Zealand green-lipped or greenshell™ mussel (GSM) (Perna canaliculus) extract in osteoarthritis (OA) patients have shown effective pain relief. This systematic review summarises the efficacy of GSM extracts in the treatment of OA.

METHODS

A literature search of the three databases EMBASE, MEDLINE, and Scopus was performed to identify relevant articles published up to March 2020. Inclusion criteria were clinical trials published in English measuring the effect of supplementation of whole or a lipid extract from GSM on pain and mobility outcomes in OA patients.

RESULTS

A total of nine clinical trials were included in systematic review, from which five studies were considered appropriate for inclusion in a forest plot. Pooled results showed that GSM extracts (lipid extract or whole powder) provide moderate and clinically significant treatment effects on a visual analogue scale (VAS) pain score (effect size: - 0.46; 95% CI - 0.82 to - 0.10; p = 0.01). The whole GSM extract improved gastrointestinal symptoms in OA patients taking anti-inflammatory medications. The GSM extract was considered to be generally well tolerated in most of the studies.

CONCLUSION

The overall analysis showed that GSM provided moderate and clinically meaningful treatment effects on OA pain. However, the current evidence is limited by the number and quality of studies, and further larger and high-quality studies are needed to confirm the effectiveness and to identify the optimal GSM format. Nevertheless, it is worth considering using GSM extracts especially for patients seeking alternative pain relief treatments with fewer side effects compared to conventional treatment.

High-value compounds from the molluscs of marine and estuarine ecosystems as prospective functional food ingredients: An overview

Extensive biodiversity and availability of marine and estuarine molluscs, along with their their wide-range of utilities as food and nutraceutical resources developed keen attention of the food technologists and dieticians, particularly during the recent years. The current review comprehensively summarized the nutritional qualities, functional food attributes, and bioactive properties of these organisms. Among the phylum mollusca, Cephalopoda, Bivalvia, and Gastropoda were mostly reported for their nutraceutical applications and bioactive properties. The online search tools, like Scifinder/Science Direct/PubMed/Google Scholar/MarinLit database and marine natural product reports (1984-2019) were used to comprehend the information about the molluscs. More than 1334 secondary metabolites were reported from marine molluscs between the periods from 1984 to 2019. Among various classes of specialized metabolites, terpenes were occupied by 55% in gastropods, whereas sterols occupied 41% in bivalves. The marketed nutraceuticals, such as CadalminTM green mussel extract (Perna viridis) and Lyprinol® (Perna canaliculus) were endowed with potential anti-inflammatory activities, and were used against arthritis. Molluscan-derived therapeutics, for example, ziconotide was used as an analgesic, and elisidepsin was used in the treatment of cancer. Greater numbers of granted patents (30%) during 2016-2019 recognized the increasing importance of bioactive compounds from molluscs. Consumption of molluscs as daily diets could be helpful in the enhancement of immunity, and reduce the risk of several ailments. The present review comprehended the high value compounds and functional food ingredients from marine and estuarine molluscs.

Effects of Greenshell Mussel (Perna canaliculus) Intake on Pathological Markers of Multiple Phenotypes of Osteoarthritis in Rats

The prevalence of metabolic osteoarthritis has been increasing worldwide, particularly among women. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the New Zealand greenshell mussel (Perna canaliculus; GSM) on osteoarthritis (OA) prevention in a rat model. One-hundred-and-eight female rats aged 12 weeks were divided into four test groups, containing 24 rats each, plus an additional control group. Each test group received one of the four experimental diets: normal control diet (ND), normal control diet supplemented with GSM (ND + GSM), high fat/high sugar diet (HFHS), or high fat/high sugar diet supplemented GSM (HFHS + GSM), for 36 weeks (end of the study). After 8 weeks on experimental diets, half of each group was subjected to ovariectomy (OVX) and the remaining half received a sham operation (ovaries left intact). The study evaluated body composition, bone mass, plasma cytokines, adipokines, HbA1c, CTX-II, and knee joint’s histopathology. HFHS diet and OVX significantly induced body weight gain and leptin production. OVX rats lost bone mineral density but increased adiponectin, HbA1C, and MCP-1. The OVX rats fed HFHS showed the highest Mankin scores. Importantly, inclusion of GSM reduced these pathological features. In conclusion, GSM might be beneficial in halting the progression of OA.

Acyl-lipid desaturases and Vipp1 cooperate in cyanobacteria to produce novel omega-3 PUFA-containing glycolipids

BACKGROUND

Dietary omega-3 (n-3), long chain (LC-, ≥ 20 carbons), polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) derived largely from marine animal sources protect against inflammatory processes and enhance brain development and function. With the depletion of natural stocks of marine animal sources and an increasing demand for n-3 LC-PUFAs, alternative, sustainable supplies are urgently needed. As a result, n-3 18-carbon and LC-PUFAs are being generated from plant or algal sources, either by engineering new biosynthetic pathways or by augmenting existing systems.

RESULTS

We utilized an engineered plasmid encoding two cyanobacterial acyl-lipid desaturases (DesB and DesD, encoding Δ15 and Δ6 desaturases, respectively) and "vesicle-inducing protein in plastids" (Vipp1) to induce production of stearidonic acid (SDA, 18:4 n-3) at high levels in three strains of cyanobacteria (10, 17 and 27% of total lipids in Anabaena sp. PCC7120, Synechococcus sp. PCC7002, and Leptolyngbya sp. strain BL0902, respectively). Lipidomic analysis revealed that in addition to SDA, the rare anti-inflammatory n-3 LC-PUFA eicosatetraenoic acid (ETA, 20:4 n-3) was synthesized in these engineered strains, and ~ 99% of SDA and ETA was complexed to bioavailable monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) species. Importantly, novel molecular species containing alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), SDA and/or ETA in both acyl positions of MGDG and DGDG were observed in the engineered Leptolyngbya and Synechococcus strains, suggesting that these could provide a rich source of anti-inflammatory molecules.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this technology utilizes solar energy, consumes carbon dioxide, and produces large amounts of nutritionally important n-3 PUFAs and LC-PUFAs. Importantly, it can generate previously undescribed, highly bioavailable, anti-inflammatory galactosyl lipids. This technology could therefore be transformative in protecting ocean fisheries and augmenting the nutritional quality of human and animal food products.

The Preventive Effects of Greenshell Mussel (Perna canaliculus) on Early-Stage Metabolic Osteoarthritis in Rats with Diet-Induced Obesity

The prevalence of osteoarthritis (OA) is rising worldwide, with the most pronounced increase being in the category of metabolic-associated osteoarthritis (MetOA). This is predicted to worsen with the global rise in aging societies and obesity. To address this health burden, research is being conducted to identify foods that can reduce the incidence or severity of MetOA. Oil from the Greenshell mussel (Perna canaliculus) (GSM), a native New Zealand shellfish, has been successfully used to reduce OA symptoms. The current study assessed the effect of including flash-dried powder from whole GSM meat as part of a normal (control) versus high-fat/high-sugar (HFHS) diet for 13 weeks on the development of MetOA in rats. Rats fed a HFHS diet developed metabolic dysregulation and obesity with elevated plasma leptin and HbA1C concentrations. Visible damage to knee joint cartilage was minimal, but plasma levels of C telopeptide of type II collagen (CTX-II), a biomarker of cartilage degradation, were markedly higher in HFHS-fed rats compared to control-fed rats. However, rats fed the HFHS diet containing GSM had significantly reduced serum CTX-II. Inclusion of GSM in rats fed the control diet also lowered CTX-II. These findings suggest that dietary GSM can reduce the incidence or slow the progression of early MetOA.

Antioxidant and antiinflammatory secondary metabolites from the Asian green mussel Perna viridis

The Asian green mussel, Perna viridis is a nutritious health food in the estuarine and coastal sea beds of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India. In the present study, bioactivity-guided purification of the chloroform fraction of the methanolic extract of P. viridis was carried out. The isolated secondary metabolites were characterized by spectroscopic experiments, and their antioxidative/antiinflammatory properties were evaluated. The titled compounds were characterized as 3-hydroxy-13-vinyl-dodecahydro-11-phenanthrenone (1), 4,4,9-trimethyl-13-vinyl-dodecahydro-2-phenanthrenone (2), 11,20-dihydroxy-6,6-dimethyl-decahydro-5H-benzo[h]naphtho[1,2-c]chromene-16-carbaldehyde (3), 16-acetyl-20-hydroxy-6,6-dimethyl-dodecahydro-5H-benzo[h]naphtho[1,2-c]chromen-12-one (4), cholest-5-en-3β-3-yl-(30-hydroxy-3-methyl-36-methyleneundeca-30E,34E-dienoate) (5), and cholest-5-en-3β-3-yl-((E)-33-oxooct-31-enoate) (6). No significant differences in the antioxidant activities of the compounds with chromene-16-carbaldehyde (3) and chromen-12-one (4) functionalities (IC₅₀ 0.52-0.68 mg/ml) vis-à-vis the positive control, α-tocopherol (IC₅₀ 0.65-0.76 mg/ml) were registered. The studied compounds, 1-4, displayed potential antiinflammatory activities against pro-inflammatory 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) (IC₅₀  < 1 mg/ml). The balanced hydrophilic-lipophilic properties and lower steric values of the studied compounds, 1-4, were correlated with their bioactive potentials. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The edible bivalve green mussels, P. viridis, are broadly available in the estuarine and coastal regions of the Indian Peninsula. The sequential chromatographic purification of the chloroform fraction of the methanolic extract of P. viridis led to the identification of six pure secondary metabolites. The metabolites with substituted chromene-16-carbaldehyde and chromen-12-one functionalities displayed potential antioxidative and antiinflammatory activities compared to other studied compounds. These bioactive metabolites could be used in functional food formulations and as antioxidant leads in medicinal food applications.

Influence of Blue Mussel (Mytilus edulis) Intake on Disease Activity in Female Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis: The MIRA Randomized Cross-Over Dietary Intervention

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease. This study evaluates the effect of blue mussel intake on disease activity and quality of life in women with RA. Thirty-nine women with established RA and a disease activity score 28 (DAS28) >3.0 were recruited to a randomized 2 &times; 11-week cross-over dietary intervention. The participants continued with their medication and habitual diet and exchanged one cooked meal a day, five days a week, with a meal including 75 g blue mussels or 75 g meat. Diets were switched after an eight week washout period. Data regarding quality of life (SF-36), blood lipids, erythrocyte sediment rate (ESR), C-reactive protein (CRP) and tender and swollen joints were examined at the start and end of each dietary period. Thirty women completed one period, and twenty-three completed both. Intake of the blue mussel diet led to a significant reduction of DAS28-CRP (p = 0.048), but not DAS28. The number of EULAR (European League Against Rheumatism) criteria moderate and good responders were higher when consuming blue mussel diet (p = 0.036). Blood lipids did not change. To conclude, blue mussel intake reduced disease symptoms in women with RA and improved perceived health. The reported effects need to be confirmed by non-patient reported outcomes, such as inflammation markers.

Greenshell™ Mussels: A Review of Veterinary Trials and Future Research Directions

The therapeutic benefits of Greenshell™ mussel (GSM; Perna canaliculus) preparations have been studied using in vitro test systems, animal models, and human clinical trials focusing mainly on anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects. Activity is thought to be linked to key active ingredients that include omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, a variety of carotenoids and other bioactive compounds. In this paper, we review the studies that have been undertaken in dogs, cats, and horses, and outline new research directions in shellfish breeding and high-value nutrition research programmes targeted at enhancing the efficacy of mussel and algal extracts. The addition of GSM to animal diets has alleviated feline degenerative joint disease and arthritis symptoms, and chronic orthopaedic pain in dogs. In horses, GSM extracts decreased the severity of lameness and joint pain and provided improved joint flexion in limbs with lameness attributed to osteoarthritis. Future research in this area should focus on elucidating the key active ingredients in order to link concentrations of these active ingredients with their pharmacokinetics and therapeutic effects. This would enable consistent and improved efficacy from GSM-based products for the purpose of improved animal health.

Green lipped mussel oil complex suppresses lipopolysaccharide stimulated inflammation via regulating nuclear factor-κB and mitogen activated protein kinases signaling in RAW264.7 murine macrophages

Here we investigated the effect of green lipped mussel oil complex (GLMOC) on inflammation and underlying mechanism in lipopolysaccharide stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophage cells. GLMOC containing green lipped mussel oil (GLMO), olive oil, and vitamin E (10:20:1) can induce significant suppression of iNOS, leading to reduced nitric oxide synthesis, and cyclooxygenase-2, leading to reduced prostaglandin E2 synthesis. In addition, it down-regulated the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, and IL-1β. Similar to upstream signaling mediators, GLMCO inhibited the degradation of inhibitory κB, nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and phosphorylation of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs) in a dose-dependent manner. Among the components of GLMOC, GLMO was responsible for anti-inflammatory efficacy. Taken together, GLMOC induces anti-inflammatory activity via regulating NF-κB and MAPK signaling in lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW264.7 cells, providing underlying mechanisms that elucidate the anti-inflammatory efficacy of GLMOC.

Characterisation of commercial Perna canaliculus samples and development of extemporaneous oral veterinary paste formulations containing Perna

Perna canaliculus is a nutritional supplement recently studied and highly recommended for its anti-inflammatory effects in both animals and humans. In this study, the physicochemical properties, the microbiological quality, the total lipid content and fatty acids composition of three commercial samples of Perna powder were determined. Subsequently, three simple formulations of extemporaneous oral pastes containing Perna were prepared and designed for veterinary use. Their microbiological stability was assessed after 1-month storage at either room temperature or 35 °C. The results demonstrated that commercial Perna samples lack homogeneity, in regard to some technological properties and fatty acid composition; therefore, a preliminary characterisation of commercial Perna samples is recommended to assure the quality of formulations containing this nutritional supplement. Oral paste formulations are easy and simple to prepare and show good physical and microbiological stability, suggesting their large-scale production.

Nitric oxide synthesis inhibition and cytotoxicity of Korean horse mussel Modiolus modiolus extracts on cancer cells in culture

The Korean horse mussel extract was purified and fractionated by a bioassay-guided purification step. The final fraction contained seven steroid and one polycyclic aromatic compounds, in which cholest-7-en-3-ol, (3β,5α)- (58.7 %) was a main component followed by ergosta-7,22dien-3-ol (3β,5α,22E) (13.0 %). This extract exhibited strong anti-inflammatory activity determined solely through the nitric oxide inhibition assay in a dose-dependant manner with the IC50 value of 9.6 µg/mL and no cytotoxic effect on the macrophages. Moreover, it also exhibited strong cytotoxicity with the IC50 values of 21.4, 36.4, and 37.1 µg/mL against AGS, DLD-1, and HeLa cells, respectively. These results indicated that the horse mussel extract might be a functional ingredient in the prevention of inflammation and human cancers.

Toxicity profile of a nutraceutical formulation derived from green mussel Perna viridis

The short-term (acute) and long-term (subchronic) toxicity profile, mean lethal dose 50 (LD50), and no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of a nutraceutical formulation developed from green mussel Perna viridis, which showed in vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory properties, were evaluated in the present study. The formulation was administered to the male and female Wistar rats at graded doses (0.5, 1.0, and 2.5 g/kg body weight) for two weeks of acute toxicity study and 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/kg body weight for 90 days in subchronic toxicity study. The LD50, variations in clinical signs, changes in body weight, body weight, food/water consumption, organ weight (liver, kidney, spleen, and brain), hematology, serum chemistry, and histopathological changes were evaluated. The LD50 of the formulation was 5,000 mg/kg BW. No test article related mortalities as well as change in body weight, and food and water consumption were observed. No toxicity related significant changes were noted in renal/hepatic function, hematological indices, and serum biochemical parameters between the control and treated groups. Histopathological alterations were not observed in the vital organs of rats. The subchronic NOAEL for the formulation in rats is greater than 2000 mg/kg. This study demonstrated that the green mussel formulation is safe to consume without any adverse effects in the body.

Detailed distribution of lipids in Greenshell™ mussel (Perna canaliculus)

Greenshell™ mussels (GSM-Perna canaliculus) are a source of omega-3 (n-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFA). Farmed GSM are considered to be a sustainable source of LC-PUFA as they require no dietary inputs, gaining all of their oil by filter-feeding microorganisms from sea water. GSM oil is a high-value product, with a value as much as 1000 times that of fish oils. GSM oil has important health benefits, for example, anti-inflammatory activity. It also contains several minor lipid components that are not present in most fish oil products, and that have their own beneficial effects on human health. We have shown the lipid content of the female GSM (1.9 g/100 g ww) was significantly greater than that of the male (1.4 g/100 g ww). Compared with male GSM, female GSM contained more n-3 LC-PUFA, and stored a greater proportion of total lipid in the gonad and mantle. The higher lipid content in the female than the male GSM is most likely related to gamete production. This information will be useful to optimize extraction of oils from GSM, a local and sustainable source of n-3 LC-PUFA.

Anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of a lipid extract from hard-shelled mussel (Mytilus coruscus) on chronic arthritis in rats

The present study was designed to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity and mechanism of a lipid extract from hard-shelled mussel (Mytilus coruscus) on adjuvant-induced (AIA) and collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) in rats. AIA and CIA rats that received hard-shelled mussel lipid extract (HMLE group) at a dose of 100 mg/kg demonstrated significantly lower paw swelling and arthritic index, but higher body weight gain than those which received olive oil (control group). Similar results were found in arthritic rats that received New Zealand green-lipped mussel lipid extract (GMLE) at the same dosage. The levels of leukotriene B₄ (LTB₄), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), thromboxane B₂ (TXB₂) in the serum, and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, interferon-γ (INF-γ), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in the ankle joint synovial fluids of HMLE group rats were significantly lower than those of control group. However, the levels of IL-4 and IL-10 in HMLE group rats were significantly higher than those in the control group. Decreased mRNA expressions of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP1) and MMP13, but increased tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1) were observed in the knee joint synovium tissues of HMLE group rats when compared with the control group. No hepatotoxicity was observed in both HMLE and GMLE group rats. The present results indicated that HMLE had a similarly strong anti-inflammatory activity as GMLE. Such a strong efficacy could result from the suppression of inflammatory mediators (LTB₄, PGE₂, TXB₂), pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, INF-γ, TNF-α) and MMPs (MMP1, MMP13), and the promotion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10) and TIMPs (TIMP1) productions.

Bioactive compounds from marine mussels and their effects on human health

The consumption of marine mussels as popular seafood has increased steadily over the past decades. Awareness of mussel derived molecules, that promote health, has contributed to extensive research efforts in that field. This review highlights the bioactive potential of mussel components from species of the genus Mytilus (e.g. M. edulis) and Perna (e.g. P. canaliculus). In particular, the bioactivity related to three major chemical classes of mussel primary metabolites, i.e. proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, is evaluated. Within the group of proteins the focus is mainly on mussel peptides e.g. those obtained by bio-transformation processes, such as fermentation. In addition, mussel lipids, comprising polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), are discussed as compounds that are well known for prevention and treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Within the third group of carbohydrates, mussel polysaccharides are investigated. Furthermore, the importance of monitoring the mussel as food material in respect to contaminations with natural toxins produced by microalgae is discussed.

Perna canaliculus lipid complex PCSO-524™ demonstrated pain relief for osteoarthritis patients benchmarked against fish oil, a randomized trial, without placebo control

Osteoarthritis (OA) typically generates pain, reduced mobility and reduced quality of life. Most conventional treatments for osteoarthritis, such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and simple analgesics, have side effects. PCSO-524™, a non polar lipid extract from the New Zealand Green Lipped Mussel, is rich in omega-3 fatty acids and has been shown to reduce inflammation in both animal studies and patient trials. This OA trial examined pain relief changes in relation to quality of life and safety of use for OA patients who took PCSO-524™ compared with patients who took fish oil (containing an industry standard EPA-18% and DHA-12% blend). PCSO-524™ patients showed a statistically significant improvement compared with patients who took fish oil. There was an 89% decrease in their pain symptoms and 91% reported an improved quality of life. Patients treated with fish oil showed significantly less improvement and a greater level of physical discomfort during the study. These results suggest that PCSO-524™ might offer a potential alternative complementary therapy with no side effects for OA patients.

Marine lipid fraction PCSO-524 (lyprinol/omega XL) of the New Zealand green lipped mussel attenuates hyperpnea-induced bronchoconstriction in asthma

PURPOSE

Evaluate the effect of the marine lipid fraction of the New Zealand green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) PCSO-524 (Lyprinol/Omega XL), rich in omega-3 fatty acids, on airway inflammation and the bronchoconstrictor response to eucapnic voluntary hyperpnea (EVH) in asthmatics.

METHODS

Twenty asthmatic subjects, with documented HIB, participated in a placebo controlled double-blind randomized crossover trial. Subjects entered the study on their usual diet and were then placed on 3 weeks of PCSO-524 or placebo supplementation, followed by a 2 week washout period, before crossing over to the alternative diet. Pre- and post-eucapnic voluntary hyperpnea (EVH) pulmonary function, fraction of exhaled nitric oxide (FENO), asthma symptom scores, medication use, exhaled breath condensate (EBC) pH, cysteinyl leukotrienes (cyst-LT), 8-isoprostane and urinary 9α, 11β-prostaglandin (PG)F2 and Clara (CC16) protein concentrations were assessed at the beginning of the trial and at the end of each treatment period.

RESULTS

The PCSO-524 diet significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the maximum fall in post-EVH FEV1 (-8.4 ± 3.2%) compared to usual (-19.3 ± 5.4%) and placebo diet (-22.5 ± 13.7%). Pre- and post- EVH EBC cyst-LT and 8-isoprostane, and urinary 9α, 11β-PGF2 and CC16 concentrations were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) on the PCSO-524 diet compared to the usual and placebo diet. EBC pH and asthma symptom scores were significantly improved (p < 0.05) and rescue medication use significantly reduced (p < 0.05) on the PCSO-524 diet compared to the usual and placebo diet.

CONCLUSION

PCSO-524 (Lyprinol)/Omega XL) may have beneficial effects in HIB and asthma by serving as a pro-resolving agonist and/or inflammatory antagonist.

New Zealand green-lipped mussels (Perna canaliculus) enhance non-haem iron absorption in vitro

Fe bioavailability can be manipulated by the nutritional composition of a meal. Ascorbic acid and unidentified components of meat, fish and poultry, but particularly beef, all appear to enhance the absorption of non-haem Fe. The aim of the present study is to identify whether extracts of green-lipped mussels (GLM; Perna canaliculus) enhance non-haem Fe absorption in Caco-2 cells and to compare the effect with that of beef. Raw GLM and raw beef homogenates were digested in vitro with pepsin at pH 2, and pancreatin and bile salts at pH 7. Tracer ⁵⁵Fe was used to measure cellular Fe uptake. Ascorbic acid was used as a positive control and egg albumin, exposed to the same in vitro digestion process, was used as a negative control. Caco-2 cell monolayers were incubated with treatments for 60 min. All values were standardised per μg of GLM, egg albumin, beef or ascorbic acid. The results showed that ascorbic acid enhanced non-haem Fe absorption to the highest degree. Beef and GLM digestates both significantly enhanced Fe absorption compared with egg albumin. In conclusion, GLM digestate significantly enhances non-haem Fe uptake in Caco-2 cells with a similar magnitude to that of beef.

Furan fatty acid as an anti-inflammatory component from the green-lipped mussel Perna canaliculus

A lipid extract of Perna canaliculus (New Zealand green-lipped mussel) has reportedly displayed anti-inflammatory effects in animal models and in human controlled studies. However, the anti-inflammatory lipid components have not been investigated in detail due to the instability of the lipid extract, which has made the identification of the distinct active components a formidable task. Considering the instability of the active component, we carefully fractionated a lipid extract of Perna canaliculus (Lyprinol) and detected furan fatty acids (F-acids). These naturally but rarely detected fatty acids show potent radical-scavenging ability and are essential constituents of plants and algae. Based on these data, it has been proposed that F-acids could be potential antioxidants, which may contribute to the protective properties of fish and fish oil diets against chronic inflammatory diseases. However, to date, in vivo data to support the hypothesis have not been obtained, presumably due to the limited availability of F-acids. To confirm the in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of F-acids in comparison with that of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), we developed a semisynthetic preparation and examined its anti-inflammatory activity in a rat model of adjuvant-induced arthritis. Indeed, the F-acid ethyl ester exhibited more potent anti-inflammatory activity than that of the EPA ethyl ester. We report on the in vivo activity of F-acids, confirming that the lipid extract of the green-lipped mussel includes an unstable fatty acid that is more effective than EPA.

Effect of novel marine nutraceuticals on IL-1α-mediated TNF-α release from UVB-irradiated human melanocyte-derived cells

UV-induced inflammation and reactive oxygen species formation are involved in the development of melanoma. Natural products like 5β-scymnol and CO₂-supercritical fluid extract (CO₂-SFE) of mussel oil contain anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that may aid in reducing the deleterious effects of UV radiation. Therefore, their effect on the release of the proinflammatory cytokine, tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), from UVB-irradiated human melanocytic cells was examined. Human epidermal melanocytes (HEM) and MM96L melanoma cells were exposed to UVB radiation and IL-1α. Cell viability and TNF-α levels were determined 24 hours after-irradiation while p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation was observed at 15 min after-irradiation. When α-tocopherol, CO₂-SFE mussel oil, and 5β-scymnol were added to the UVB-irradiated HEM cells treated with IL-1α, TNF-α levels fell by 53%, 65%, and 76%, respectively, while no inhibition was evident in MM96L cells. This effect was not due to inhibition of the intracellular p38 MAPK signalling pathway. These compounds may be useful in preventing inflammation-induced damage to normal melanocytes.

Lyprinol-is it a useful anti-inflammatory agent?

The New Zealand green lipped mussel preparation Lyprinol is available without a prescription from a supermarket, pharmacy or Web. The Food and Drug Administration have recently warned Lyprinol USA about their extravagant anti-inflammatory claims for Lyprinol appearing on the web. These claims are put to thorough review. Lyprinol does have anti-inflammatory mechanisms, and has anti-inflammatory effects in some animal models of inflammation. Lyprinol may have benefits in dogs with arthritis. There are design problems with the clinical trials of Lyprinol in humans as an anti-inflammatory agent in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis, making it difficult to give a definite answer to how effective Lyprinol is in these conditions, but any benefit is small. Lyprinol also has a small benefit in atopic allergy. As anti-inflammatory agents, there is little to choose between Lyprinol and fish oil. No adverse effects have been reported with Lyprinol. Thus, although it is difficult to conclude whether Lyprinol does much good, it can be concluded that Lyprinol probably does no major harm.

Prophylactic and therapeutic effects of Mytilus edulis fatty acids on adjuvant-induced arthritis in male Wistar rats

Lipid-rich fractions from the flesh tissue of Mytilus edulis were obtained by solvent extraction and chromatographic separation, and tested for anti-inflammatory (AI) activity in vitro and in vivo. Inhibition of leukotriene production by isolated human neutrophils in response to calcium ionophore stimulation in the presence of exogenous arachidonic acid substrate was demonstrated for the hydrolysed triglyceride fraction of the crude lipid extract. This fraction was subsequently tested for in vivo AI activity using the mycobacterial adjuvant-induced polyarthritis rat model. The hydrolysed triglyceride fraction showed significant AI activity when dosed therapeutically (10 mg/kg BW/day, p.o., for 6 days from the onset of arthritis), decreasing body weight loss by 55% and hind paw swelling by 65% compared to the arthritic control. The (non-hydrolysed) crude lipid extract was effective when dosed prophylactically (30 mg/kg BW/day, p.o., for 16 days starting on day -2 of arthritigen inoculation). Structural analysis by GC and GC-MS revealed in the extracts an abundance of EPA (20:5n-3) and DHA (22:6n-3) (37% of total fatty acids), along with a small quantity of a rare anti-inflammatory n-3 analogue of arachidonic acid, namely 7, 11, 14, 17-eicosatetraenoic acid (20:4n-3).

Novel anti-inflammatory ω-3 PUFAs from the New Zealand green-lipped mussel, Perna canaliculus

The present study has identified in the marine mollusc, Perna canaliculus, an homologous series of novel omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 PUFA) with significant anti-inflammatory (AI) activity. The free fatty acid (FFA) class was isolated from a supercritical-CO2 lipid extract of the tartaric acid-stabilised freeze-dried mussel powder by normal phase chromatography, followed by reversed-phase high performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). The RP-HPLC involved separation based on carbon numbers, followed by argentation-HPLC (Ag-HPLC) of the methyl esters based on degree of unsaturation. Identification of the FFA components was performed using gas chromatography (GC) with flame ionisation detection, and individual structures were assigned by GC-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Inhibition of leukotriene production by stimulated human neutrophils was used as an in vitro screening method to test the AI activity of the purified PUFAs. A structurally related family of omega-3 PUFAs was identified in the most bioactive fractions, which included C18:4, C19:4, C20:4, and C21:5 PUFA. The C20:4 was the predominant PUFA in the extract, and was a structural isomer of arachidonic acid (AA). The novel compounds may be biologically significant as AI agents, as a result of their in vitro inhibition of lipoxygenase products of the AA pathway.