Association between PAHs biomarkers and kidney injury biomarkers among kitchen workers with microalbuminuria: A cross-sectional pilot study

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons promotes the progression of low-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: A population-based cohort study in China

Low-grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN1) is an early stage of cervical cancer development. Previously, we reported that exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) increases the risk of cervical precancerous lesions, especially in females with a high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) infection. However, the effects of PAHs on CIN1 progression remain unclear. A community-based prospective cohort study was conducted to evaluate the role of exposure to PAHs in the progression of CIN1. A total of 564 patients diagnosed with CIN1 were followed-up at 6, 12, and 24 months, post-diagnosis, to determine CIN1 reversion, persistence, and progression. Exposure to PAHs was determined by the urine 1-hydroxipayrene (1-OHP) level. Our results showed that the 1-OHP level was significantly higher in patients with CIN1 persistence/progression than in those with reversion (P < .05). High exposure to PAHs increased the risk of CIN1 persistence/progression, with hazard ratios (HR), 95% confidence intervals (CI) of (1.62, 1.24-2.67), (1.98, 1.42-2.75), and (2.37, 1.61-3.49) at 6, 12, and 24 months, post-diagnosis, respectively. The effect was enhanced with HR-HPV positivity, as determined at 6 (1.82, 1.24-2.67), 12 (3.02, 1.74-5.23), and 24 (2.51, 1.48-4.26) months, post-diagnosis. Moreover, the predictive value of exposure to PAHs for CIN1 persistence/progression was higher in HR-HPV-positive patients than in HR-HPV-negative patients. The results revealed that exposure to PAHs facilitated the malignant progression of CIN1 and hindered its reversal, particularly in patients with HR-HPV infection. Our findings provide novel insights into early prevention and intervention targeting the initiation and progression of cervical neoplasia.

Metabolomics perspectives into the co-exposure effect of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and metals on renal function: A meet-in-the-middle approach

Studies on the dose effects of kidney impairment and metabolomes in co-exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and metals are limited. We aimed to identify overall associations and metabolic perturbations in 130 participants (53 petrochemical workers and 77 controls) exposed to a PAHs-metals mixture in Southern China. The urinary 7 hydroxylated PAHs and 15 metal(loid)s were determined, and serum creatinine, beta-2 microglobulin, and estimated glomerular filtration rate were health outcomes. The liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based method was applied to serum metabolomics. Generalized weighted quantile sum (gWQS) regressions were used to estimate the overall dose-response relationships, and pathway analysis, "meet-in-the-middle" approach, and mediation effect analyses were conducted to identify potential metabolites and biological mechanisms linking exposure with nephrotoxic effects. Our results indicated that renal function reduction was associated with a PAHs-metals mixture in a dose-dependent manner, and 1-hydroxynaphthalene and copper were the most predominant contributors among the two families of pollutants. Furthermore, the metabolic disruptions associated with the early onset of kidney impairment induced by the combination of PAHs and metals encompassed pathways such as phenylalanine-tyrosine-tryptophan biosynthesis, phenylalanine metabolism, and alpha-linolenic acid metabolism. In addition, the specifically identified metabolites demonstrated excellent potential as bridging biomarkers connecting the reduction in renal function with the mixture of PAHs and metals. These findings shed light on understanding the overall associations and metabolic mechanism of nephrotoxic effects of co-exposure to PAHs and metals.

Associations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, water-soluble ions and metals in PM2.5 with liver function: Evidence from schizophrenia cohort

BACKGROUND

Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) was reported to impact liver function, but the roles of specific PM_2.5 chemical components remained to be explored. Besides, severe liver dysfunction in schizophrenia patients deserves attention.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the associations of short-term PM_2.5 components with liver function in schizophrenia patients.

METHODS

A repeated-measures study based on schizophrenia cohort including 1023 visits (n = 446) was conducted during 2017-2020. Liver function was reflected by 10 indicators including liver enzymes, proteins and bilirubin et al. Monitoring data of PM_2.5 and its components, including 16 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 4 water-soluble ions and 10 metals were collected. Linear mixed effect and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) models were used to evaluate the single and combined effects of PM_2.5 components (0-3 day) on liver function in schizophrenia patients.

RESULTS

Several PAHs were significantly associated with liver enzymes, while water-soluble ions and metal components had almost no association. Specifically, with per interquartile range (IQR) increased in Fluoranthene, levels of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST) and gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) increased by 2.06 %, 5.07 %, 4.94 % and 5.56 %, respectively. An IQR increases in Benzo[a]pyrene was significantly associated with 6.62 %, 3.67 % and 7.83 % increase in ALT, AST and GGT. Almost all PAHs, sulfate, nitrate, ammonium, Sb, Al, As, Pb, Mn and Tl were positively associated with albumin (ALB). Phenanthrene was associated with increased levels of direct bilirubin (DBIL) and total bilirubin (TBIL). The combined effects of significant PM_2.5 components on ALP, GGT, ALB, globulin (GLOB), ratio of albumin to globulin (A/G), TBIL and total bile acid (TBA) were found by BKMR, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the short-term combined effects of PM_2.5 components, especially PAHs, on liver function in schizophrenia patients, which contribute to the management of PM_2.5 sources including combustion activities and traffic emissions as well as improving schizophrenia comorbidities.

Biomonitoring of unmetabolized polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urine of waterpipe/cigarette café workers

Fresh tobacco or the smoke resulting from waterpipe and cigarette contains large amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which consumption can cause releasing of these contaminants into the indoor air of cigarette and waterpipe cafés. This study was conducted to investigate the urinary concentrations of unmetabolized PAH compounds among the employed workers as well as the customers in waterpipe and cigarette cafés along with its association with oxidative stress factors plus kidney injury biomarkers. For this, 35 staffs and 35 customers in these cafés (as an exposed group (EG)), 20 staffs in non-smoking cafés (as 1st control group (CG-1)), and 20 of the public population (as 2nd control group 2 (CG-2)) were chosen and their urine specimens were collected. The results indicated that there is a significant difference between urinary concentration of ƩPAHs in the exposed and control groups (P value < 0.05). Also, "type of tobacco" can be considered as an influential and determining factor for the urinary levels of PAHs among the subjects. Considering the contribution of PAHs to the total toxic equivalents, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DahA), and fluoranthene (Flrt) with 32.76%, 27.62%, and 18.65% claimed the largest share in waterpipe/cigarette cafés. The results also indicated a positive and significant relationship between some PAHs and oxidative stress biomarkers as well as uKIM-1 (biomarker for assessing and diagnosing glomerular damage) and TIMP-1 (biomarker of stress in primary steps of injury in tubular cell). Thus, it can be expressed that the workers of these smoking cafés are prone to the detrimental health impacts. Accordingly, proper policies and decisions should be taken to limit the activity of these cafés or proper protective strategies should be adopted to protect the health of exposed individuals.

The Content and Emission form of Volatile Organic Compounds from Cooking Oils: A Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Analysis

Cooking oil fumes are full of dangerous chemicals that are bad for human health. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in cooking oil fumes are not only emitted in the form of gas but may also accumulate with other substances in oil fumes and form particulate matter emitted into the atmosphere. Different forms of VOCs can enter different regions of the human body and have varying effects on health. This paper investigated the VOC emission types found in some cooking fumes. The findings demonstrate that organic contaminants from edible oils were released as gas and particle matter, with gas being the predominant component. The fraction of gaseous VOCs steadily declined as oil temperature rose, whereas the proportion of VOCs released as particulate matter gradually rose. It is possible to assume that the increase in oil fume with temperature was caused by the original oil's components volatilizing more frequently under the influence of vapor pressure and that chemical reactions were not the primary cause of oil fume creation.

Urinary profile of PAHs and related compounds in women working in beauty salons

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of chemical compounds which interest to human biological monitoring researches because of their potential carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic properties. However, the exposure of female beauticians to these contaminants is not well-reported. For biomonitoring of potential exposure of female cosmeticians to PAHs in beauty salons, urine samples were taken from cosmetologist women (n = 50.00) and housewives (n = 35.00) as the exposure group (EG) and control group (CG), respectively. Next, unmetabolized PAHs levels as well as the concentration of - 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) were analyzed in these specimens. In addition, since benzene has some common source with PAHs, in this study t, t'-Muconic acid (TTMA) level was also determined as the metabolite and indicator of exposure to benzene. The results indicated a high detection frequency of the target compounds (PAHs, 1-OHP and TTMA) in the urine specimens of beauticians. The results also showed that there is a significant difference between the concentration of these pollutants in the urine specimens of the exposure and control groups. The median concentration of ΣPAHs, 1-OHP, and TTMA in the before exposure (BE) specimens collected from the exposure group were 337.42 ng/L, 593.92 ng/L, and 247.90 μg/L, respectively. However, a higher concentration of these contaminants was observed in the after exposure specimens with a median concentration of 423.29 ng/L, 745.03 ng/L, and 310.97 μg/L, respectively. In terms of contribution of PAHs compounds in total toxic equivalents, DahA, BaP, and IndP with 59.03, 28.73, and 2.86 % had the largest share. In this study, it was also observed that some kidney damage biomarkers as well as some oxidative stress injury biomarkers are positively and significantly correlated with the urinary values of ∑PAHs. Thus, it can be concluded that high health risks threaten the female beauticians regarding kidney injury and DNA oxidative stress.

Evaluation of cytokines in exhaled breath condensate in an occupationally exposed population to pneumotoxic pollutants

The quarrying is considered a precarious occupation with high toxicity, is an informal economic activity that employs low technology, limited protection, and poses a risk to workers and their families. In quarrying, silica dust is generated and there is also occupational exposure to significant mixtures of pneumotoxic pollutants, including mineral dust (crystalline silica, carbon or cement, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), solvents, and others, which are aggravated by the lack of use of protective equipment, causing irreversible damage to the worker's respiratory health. Thus, the objective of this work focused on the evaluation of the respiratory health of artisan stonemasons in San Luis Potosí, Mexico through the study of exhaled breath condensate (EBC) (pH, pro-inflammatory cytokines) as well as the study of the exposure to pollutants present in the work area (PAHs, toluene, and 2.5 µm particulate matter) through biomarkers of exposure (hippuric acid and hydroxylated metabolites of PAHs). The results show the presence of crystalline SiO₂ in 100% of the samples analyzed; the PM_2.5 concentrations were 5 to 10 times the permitted levels. Regarding exposure to PAHs, all the stonemasons presented urine concentrations of at least 5 of the OH-PAHs evaluated; 9-OH-FLU occurred at higher concentrations of 171.2 (122.7-279.4) µg L^-1; hippuric acid, which was present in 100% of the workers evaluated in concentrations of 283.4 (27.72-1119) mg L^-1, 100% of which were above the values established for occupational scenarios. The pH values obtained for the EBC samples were presented at an average of 7.07 (6.33-7.66). Pro-inflammatory cytokines were present in 86.1% of the study population. The cytokine that was found in higher concentrations was IL-2, with a mean of 178.01 pg mL^-1 and 3124.01 pg mL^-1 for the pH < 7 and pH > 7 groups, respectively. Some correlations between the cytokines and the exposure biomarkers were presented. Stonemasons are highly exposed to pneumotoxic pollutants and markers of inflammation at the pulmonary level; in addition, a high risk of developing silicosis. Quarrying should be addressed as a carcinogenic activity, which would imply the design of monitoring and control strategies for these pollutants that our country currently lacks, particularly in precarious occupations. It is necessary to develop strategies to protect the health of precarious workers.

Source identification and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air and dust samples of Lahore City

During two consecutive summer and winter seasons in Lahore, the health risk of air and dust-borne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was evaluated. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GS/MS) was used to determine air and dust samples from various functional areas across the city. The mean ∑₁₆PAHs were higher in air 1035.8 ± 310.7 (pg m^-3) and dust 963.4 ± 289.0 (ng g^-1 d.w.) during winter seasons as compared to summer seasons in air 1010.9 ± 303.3 (pg m^-3) and dust matrices 945.2 ± 283.6 (ng g^-1 d.w.), respectively. PAHs ring profile recognized 3 and 4 rings PAHs as most dominant in air and dust samples. Estimated results of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) highlighted high carcinogenic risk among the residents of Lahore via ingestion and dermal contact on exposure to atmospheric PAHs. The total ILCR values in air among children (summer: 9.61E - 02, winter: 2.09E - 02) and adults (summer: 1.45E - 01, winter: 3.14E - 02) and in dust, children (summer: 9.16E - 03, winter: 8.80E - 03) and adults (summer: 1.38E - 02, winter: 1.33E - 02) during the study period. The isomeric ratios in the study area revealed mixed PAH sources, including vehicular emission, petroleum, diesel and biomass combustion. As a result, it is advised that atmospheric PAHs should be monitored throughout the year and the ecologically friendly fuels be used to prevent PAHs pollution and health concerns in the city. The findings of this study are beneficial to the local regulating bodies in terms of controlling the exposure and promoting steps to reduce PAHs pollution and manage health in Lahore.

Assessment of biomarkers of early kidney damage and exposure to pollutants in artisanal mercury mining workers from Mexico

Artisanal mercury mining (AMM) is an informal economic activity that employs low technology and limited protection, and poses a risk to workers and their families; due to the extraction process, these scenarios involve exposure to complex mixtures of pollutants that synergistically aggravate the health of miners and people living near the site. Although mercury is the predominant pollutant, there are others such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), toluene, arsenic, and lead which have been classified as nephrotoxic pollutants. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to evaluate the association between exposure to a complex mixture of pollutants (mercury, lead, arsenic, PAHs, and toluene) and kidney damage in artisanal Hg mining workers through early kidney damage proteins (KIM-1, OPN, RBP-4, NGAL, and Cys-C). The results demonstrate the presence of OH-PAHs at concentrations of 9.21 (6.57-80.63) μg/L, hippuric acid as a biomarker of exposure to toluene, As and Pb (655. 1 (203.8-1231) mg/L, 24.05 (1.24-42.98) g/g creatinine, and 4.74 (2.71-8.14) g/dL, respectively), and urinary Hg (503.4 (177.9-878.7) g/g creatinine) in the study population. As well as biomarkers of kidney damage, NGAL and RPB-4 were found in 100% of the samples, KIM-1 and Cys-C in 44.1%, and OPN in 41% of the miners. Significant correlations were found between several of the evaluated pollutants and early kidney damage proteins. Our results demonstrate the application of the early kidney damage biomarkers for the assessment of damage caused by the exposure to mixtures of pollutants and, therefore, the urgent need for monitoring in AMM areas.

Evaluation of hydroxylated metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and biomarkers of early kidney damage in indigenous children from Ticul, Yucatán, Mexico

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are environmental persistent chemicals, produced by the incomplete combustion of solid fuels, found in smoke. PAHs are considered carcinogenic, teratogenic, and genotoxic. Children are susceptible to environmental pollutants, particularly those living in high-exposure settings. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to evaluate the exposure to PAHs through hydroxylated metabolites of PAHs (OH-PAHs), 1-hydroxynaphtalene (1-OH-NAP), and 2-hydroxynaphtalene (2-OH-NAP); 2-,3-, and 9-hydroxyfluorene (2-OH-FLU, 3-OH-FLU, 9-OH-FLU); 1-,2-,3-, and 4-hydroxyphenanthrene (1-OH-PHE, 2-OH-PHE, 3-OH-PHE, 4-OH-PHE); and 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OH-PYR), as well as kidney health through biomarkers of early kidney damage (osteopontin (OPN), neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), α1-microglobulin (α1-MG), and cystatin C (Cys-C)) in children from an indigenous community dedicated to footwear manufacturing and pottery in Ticul, Yucatán, Mexico. The results show a high exposure to PAHs from the found concentrations of OH-PAHs in urine in 80.5% of the children in median concentrations of 18.4 (5.1-71.0) μg/L of total OH-PAHs, as well as concentrations of kidney damage proteins in 100% of the study population in concentrations of 4.8 (3-12.2) and 7.9 (6.5-13.7) μg/g creatinine of NGAL and Cys-C respectively, and 97.5% of the population with concentrations of OPN and α1-MG at mean concentrations of 207.3 (119.8-399.8) and 92.2 (68.5-165.5) μg/g creatinine. The information provided should be considered and addressed by the health authorities to establish continuous biomonitoring and programs to reduce para-occupational exposure in the vulnerable population, particularly children, based on their fundamental human right to health.

Urinary level of un-metabolized parabens in women working in beauty salons

Parabens are a group of chemical additive extensively utilized in various health care products and ubiquitously observed in the different environmental matrixes. Nevertheless, the exposure of women working in beauty salons to these pollutants is not well-documented. For this purpose, 50.00 women working in beauty salons were chosen as the exposed group (EG) and 35.00 housewives were chosen as the control group (GC). The concentration of methyl paraben (MeP), ethyl paraben (EtP), butyl paraben (BuP), propyl paraben (PrP), benzyl paraben (BzP), heptyl paraben (HepP), and para-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HB) metabolite were quantified in the collected urine samples. It was seen that paraben sexist with a high detection frequency (DF) in the urine of women working in beauty salons. The results also revealed that the significant difference between the urinary parabens level in the EG and CG (P value < 0.05). The median concentration of Σparaben and HB-4 metabolite in the before exposure (BE) samples was 124.00 and 219.00 μg/L, while in the after exposure (AE) samples, it was 156.00 and 249.00 μg/L, respectively. Moreover, the parabens levels in the AE samples were considerably higher than in BE samples in women working in beauty salons (P value < 0.05). This research also documented that "personal care products (PCPs) usage" can be known as a leading factor for the urinary paraben level in the studied individuals. The median total estimated daily intakes (TEsDI) for MeP, EtP, and PrP for the studied women were obtained as 8.02, 4.57, and 7.88 μg/L respectively. Also, a significant and positive association was observed between EtP, PrP as well as BuP and 8-OhdG (as a DNA oxidative stress biomarker) (P value < 0.01). Further, a significant and positive association was found between EtP as well as BuP and some biomarkers of kidney damage (like uTIMP-1 and uKim-1). Accordingly, it can be stated that women working in beauty salons are at a high risk in terms of DNA oxidative stress and kidney damage.

Long-term exposure to environmental level of phenanthrene causes adaptive immune response and fibrosis in mouse kidneys

As ubiquitous, persistent organic pollutants, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) have adverse impacts on human health. Phenanthrene (Phe) is one of the most abundant PAHs in the environment. However, the long-term effects of exposure to environmental level of Phe on the kidneys and the potential mechanisms are unclear. T helper (Th) cells, a subtype of CD4⁺ T cells that play a central role in the renal immune microenvironment. In this study, male mice were chronically exposed to 5, 50, and 500 ng/kg bw Phe every other day for total 210 days. Those results indicated that environmental Phe exposure caused kidney hypertrophy, injury and fibrosis in the mice. Chronic, long-term environmental level of Phe exposure did not significantly alter the innate immune response but induced adaptive immune response changes (Th1/Th2 related cytokines release), causing a type 1 immune response in the 5 ng/kg bw Phe group and a type 2 immune response in the high dose groups (50 and 500 ng/kg bw). This study provides novel insights into the roles of adaptive immune response in long-term PAH exposure-induced chronic kidney injury and fibrosis, which is beneficial for further understanding the potential health hazards of PAHs and providing new avenues for immune intervention strategies to alleviate PAHs toxicity.

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mixtures and early kidney damage in Mexican indigenous population

The traditions and habits of indigenous communities in México include the use of wood and biomass burning to cook their food, which generates large amounts of smoke and therefore pollution inside the households. This smoke is composed of a complex mixture of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) which at high levels of exposure cause carcinogenic, genotoxic effects and some chronic pulmonary and cardiovascular diseases; however, few studies relate kidney health with exposure to PAHs. Thus, the aim of this study was the evaluation of 10 hydroxylated metabolites of PAHs (OH-PAHs), and their correlation with biomarkers of early kidney damage renal (cystatin-C (Cys-C)), osteopontin (OPN), retinol-binding protein-4 (RPB-4), and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in the indigenous population of the Huasteca Potosina in Mexico. The results demonstrate the presence of the OH-PAHs and kidney damage biomarkers in 100% of the study population. The OH-PAHs were shown in the following order of frequency, 1-OH-PYR > 4-OH-PHE > 2-OH-NAP > 1-OH-NAP > 9-OH-FLU > 3-OH-FLU > 2-OH-FLU > 3-OH-PHE and with the following percentages of detection 97.6, 87.8, 78, 73.2, 68.3, 31.7, 14.6, and 12.2%, respectively. NGAL and RBP-4 were present in above 85% of the population, with mean concentrations of 78.5 ± 143.9 and 139.4 ± 131.7 ng/g creatinine, respectively, OPN (64%) with a mean concentration of 642.6 ± 723.3 ng/g g creatinine, and Cys-C with a mean concentration of 33.72 ± 44.96 ng/g creatinine. Correlations were found between 1-OH-NAP, 2-OH-NAP, 9-OH-FLU, and 4-OH-PHE and the four biomarkers of early kidney damage. 3-OH-FLU with OPN and 1-OH-PYR correlated significantly with NGAL, OPN, and RPB-4.

Concentrations of selected monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons across various stages of glomerular function

The objective of this study was to evaluate the variabilities in the concentrations of selected monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OH-PAH) in urine across various stages of glomerular function. Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for US adult smokers (N = 3125) and nonsmokers (N = 6793) were selected for analysis to meet the objectives of the study. OH-PAHs selected for analysis were as follows: 1-hydroxynaphthalene, 2-hydroxynaphthalene, 2-hydroxyfluorene, 3-hydroxyfluorene, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, and 1-hydroxypyrene. Stages of glomerular function (GF) considered were as follows: hyperfiltrators (GF-1A, eGFR ≥ 110 mL/min/1.73 m²), normal filtrators (GF-1B, 90 < eGFR < 110 mL/min/1.73 m²), GF-2 (60 ≤ eGFR < 90 mL/min/1.73 m²), GF-3A (45 ≤ eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m²), and GF-3B/4 (15 ≤ eGFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m²). For the analysis of data for smokers, however, data for GF-3A and GF-3B/4 were merged because of small sample sizes for these GF stages for smokers. Among nonsmokers, (i) there was almost a straight-line decrease in adjusted concentrations of 2-hydroxyfluorene, 3-hydroxyfluorene, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, and 1-hydroxypyrene over GF-1A through GF-3B/4; (ii) concentrations of these OH-PAHs at GF-3B/4 varied from being 37.5% for 1-hydroxypyrene to being 87% for 9-hydroxyfluorene of what they were at GF-1A; and (iii) while concentrations of 1-hydroxynaphthalene were located on an inverted U-shaped curve, concentrations of 2-hydroxynaphthalene were located on a U-shaped curve with pints of inflections at GF-3A. Among smokers, concentrations of all nine OH-PAHs in urine were located on inverted U-shaped curves with points of inflections located at GF-2 and concentrations of these OH-PAHs at GF-3/4 varied from being 48.7% for 1-hydroxypyrene to being 116.1% for 9-hydroxyfluorene of what they were at GF-1A. The kidneys differ in how they process urinary metabolites of PAHs among smokers and nonsmokers.

Grill Workers Exposure to Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Levels and Excretion Profiles of the Urinary Biomarkers

Grilling activities release large amounts of hazardous pollutants, but information on restaurant grill workers’ exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is almost inexistent. This study assessed the impact of grilling emissions on total workers’ exposure to PAHs by evaluating the concentrations of six urinary biomarkers of exposure (OHPAHs): naphthalene, acenaphthene, fluorene, phenanthrene, pyrene, and benzo(a)pyrene. Individual levels and excretion profiles of urinary OHPAHs were determined during working and nonworking periods. Urinary OHPAHs were quantified by high-performance liquid-chromatography with fluorescence detection. Levels of total OHPAHs (∑OHPAHs) were significantly increased (about nine times; p ≤ 0.001) during working comparatively with nonworking days. Urinary 1-hydroxynaphthalene + 1-hydroxyacenapthene and 2-hydroxyfluorene presented the highest increments (ca. 23- and 6-fold increase, respectively), followed by 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (ca. 2.3 times) and 1-hydroxypyrene (ca. 1.8 times). Additionally, 1-hydroxypyrene levels were higher than the benchmark, 0.5 µmol/mol creatinine, in 5% of exposed workers. Moreover, 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene, biomarker of exposure to carcinogenic PAHs, was detected in 13% of exposed workers. Individual excretion profiles showed a cumulative increase in ∑OHPAHs during consecutive working days. A principal component analysis model partially discriminated workers’ exposure during working and nonworking periods showing the impact of grilling activities. Urinary OHPAHs were increased in grill workers during working days.

Contributions of dietary, demographic, disease, lifestyle and other factors in explaining variabilities in concentrations of selected monohydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urine: Data for US children, adolescents, and adults

Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey for 2003-2014 for US children aged 6-11 years (N = 2097), adolescents aged 12-19 ears (N = 2642), and adults aged ≥ 20 years (N = 9170) were analyzed to investigate the effects of dietary, demographic, disease, lifestyle, and other factors on concentrations of nine metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in urine. PAHs analyzed were: 1-hydroxynaphthalene, 2-hydroxynaphthalene, 2-hydroxyfluorene, 3-hydroxyfluorene, 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 2-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, and 1-hydroxypyrene. Adults with diabetes were found to have higher adjusted levels of 1-hydroxynaphthalene (4139 vs. 3622 ng/L, p < 0.01) than nondiabetics. Adults with albuminuria had higher adjusted levels of 1-hydroxynaphthalene (4140 vs.3621 ng/L, p < 0.01) and 2-hydroxynaphthalene (6039 vs. 5468 ng/L, p < 0.01) than those without albuminuria. Children with albuminuria had lower adjusted levels of 9-hydroxyfluorene (162 vs. 187 ng/L, p = 0.04), 1-hydroxyphenanthrene (92 vs. 108 ng/L, p < 0.01), and 1-hydroxypyrene (118 vs. 138 ng/L, p < 0.01) than those without albuminuria. The ratios of smoker to nonsmoker adjusted levels for adults varied from a low of 1.4 for 2-hydroxyphenanthrene to a high of 5.6 for 3-hydroxyfluorene. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at home was associated with higher levels of most OH-PAHs among children, adolescents, and adults. Consumption of red meat not processed at high temperatures was associated with increased levels of 1-hydroxypyrene (β = 0.00040, p = 0.01), 1-, 2-, and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene, 3-, and 9-hydroxyfluorene. Consumption of red meat processed at high temperatures was associated with increased levels of 2-hydroxynaphthalene (β = 0.00046, p = 0.02) among adults. Consumption of fish processed at high temperatures was associated with decreased levels of 1-hydroxynaphtahlene (β = - 0.00088, p < 0.01), 2-, 3-, and 9-hydroxyfluorene, 1-, 2-, and 3-hydroxyphenanthrene. Among adults, alcohol consumption and caffeine may be associated with increased levels of certain OH-PAHs. Oxidative stress and inflammation associated with exposure to PAHs are associated with albuminuria and have the potential to lead to the development of diabetes.

Firefighters exposure to fire emissions: Impact on levels of biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and genotoxic/oxidative-effects

Firefighters represent one of the riskiest occupations, yet due to the logistic reasons, the respective exposure assessment is one of the most challenging. Thus, this work assessed the impact of firefighting activities on levels of urinary monohydroxyl-polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OHPAHs; 1-hydroxynaphthalene, 1-hydroxyacenaphthene, 2-hydroxyfluorene, 1-hydroxyphenanthrene, 1-hydroxypyrene, 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene) and genotoxic/oxidative-effect biomarkers (basal DNA and oxidative DNA damage) of firefighters from eight firehouses. Cardiac frequency, blood pressure and arterial oxygen saturation were also monitored. OHPAHs were determined by liquid-chromatography with fluorescence detection, while genotoxic/oxidative-effect biomarkers were assessed by the comet assay. Concentrations of total OHPAHs were up to 340% higher (p ≤ 0.05) in (non-smoking and smoking) exposed workers than in control subjects (non-smoking and non-exposed to combat activities); the highest increments were observed for 1-hydroxynaphthalene and 1-hydroxyacenaphthene (82-88% of ∑OHPAHs), and for 2-hydroxyfluorene (5-15%). Levels of biomarker for oxidative stress were increased in non-smoking exposed workers than in control group (316%; p ≤ 0.001); inconclusive results were found for DNA damage. Positive correlations were found between the cardiac frequency, ∑OHPAHs and the oxidative DNA damage of non-smoking (non-exposed and exposed) firefighters. Evidences were raised regarding the simultaneous use of these biomarkers for the surveillance of firefighters' health and to better estimate the potential short-term health risks.