Exosomes: Current use and future applications

Omonijo F, A Ganai N, M. Ibeagha-Awemu E, Mudasir Ahmad S. Immunotherapy in mastitis: state of knowledge, research gaps and way forward

Mastitis is an inflammatory condition that affects dairy cow's mammary glands. Traditional treatment approaches with antibiotics are increasingly leading to challenging scenarios such as antimicrobial resistance. In order to mitigate the unwanted side effects of antibiotics, alternative strategies such as those that harness the host immune system response, also known as immunotherapy, have been implemented. Immunotherapy approaches to treat bovine mastitis aims to enhance the cow's immune response against pathogens by promoting pathogen clearance, and facilitating tissue repair. Various studies have demonstrated the potential of immunotherapy for reducing the incidence, duration and severity of mastitis. Nevertheless, majority of reported therapies are lacking in specificity hampering their broad application to treat mastitis. Meanwhile, advancements in mastitis immunotherapy hold great promise for the dairy industry, with potential to provide effective and sustainable alternatives to traditional antibiotic-based approaches. This review synthesizes immunotherapy strategies, their current understanding and potential future perspectives. The future perspectives should focus on the development of precision immunotherapies tailored to address individual pathogens/group of pathogens, development of combination therapies to address antimicrobial resistance, and the integration of nano- and omics technologies. By addressing research gaps, the field of mastitis immunotherapy can make significant strides in the control, treatment and prevention of mastitis, ultimately benefiting both animal and human health/welfare, and environment health.

Exosome: From biology to drug delivery

In recent years, different advancements have been observed in nanosized drug delivery systems. Factors such as stability, safety and targeting efficiency cause hindrances in the clinical translation of these synthetic nanocarriers. Therefore, researchers employed endogenous nanocarriers like exosomes as drug delivery vehicles that have an inherent ability to target more efficiently after appropriate functionalization and show higher biocompatibility and less immunogenicity and facilitate penetration through the biological barriers more quickly than the other available carriers. Exosomes are biologically derived lipid bilayer-enclosed nanosized extracellular vesicles (size ranges from 30 to 150 nm) secreted from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and appears significantly in the extracellular space. These EVs (extracellular vesicles) can exist in different sources, including mammals, plants and microorganisms. Different advanced techniques have been introduced for the isolation of exosomes to overcome the existing barriers present with conventional methods. Extensive research on the application of exosomes in therapeutic delivery for treating various diseases related to central nervous system, bone, cancer, skin, etc. has been employed. Several studies are on different stages of clinical trials, and many exosomes patents have been registered.

Multifunctional Nanocarriers for Alzheimer's Disease: Befriending the Barriers

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) have been increasing in incidence in recent years and are now widespread worldwide. Neuronal death is defined as the progressive loss of neuronal structure or function which is closely associated with NDDs and represents the intrinsic features of such disorders. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's diseases (AD, PD, and HD, respectively) are considered neurodegenerative diseases that affect a large number of people worldwide. Despite the testing of various drugs, there is currently no available therapy that can remedy or effectively slow the progression of these diseases. Nanomedicine has the potential to revolutionize drug delivery for the management of NDDs. The use of nanoparticles (NPs) has recently been developed to improve drug delivery efficiency and is currently subjected to extensive studies. Nanoengineered particles, known as nanodrugs, can cross the blood-brain barrier while also being less invasive compared to the most treatment strategies in use. Polymeric, magnetic, carbonic, and inorganic NPs are examples of NPs that have been developed to improve drug delivery efficiency. Primary research studies using NPs to cure AD are promising, but thorough research is needed to introduce these approaches to clinical use. In the present review, we discussed the role of metal-based NPs, polymeric nanogels, nanocarrier systems such as liposomes, solid lipid NPs, polymeric NPs, exosomes, quantum dots, dendrimers, polymersomes, carbon nanotubes, and nanofibers and surfactant-based systems for the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases. In addition, we highlighted nanoformulations such as N-butyl cyanoacrylate, poly(butyl cyanoacrylate), D-penicillamine, citrate-coated peptide, magnetic iron oxide, chitosan (CS), lipoprotein, ceria, silica, metallic nanoparticles, cholinesterase inhibitors, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, metal chelators, anti-amyloid, protein, and peptide-loaded NPs for the treatment of AD.

The complexity of extracellular vesicles: Bridging the gap between cellular communication and neuropathology

Brain-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) serve a prominent role in maintaining homeostasis and contributing to pathology in health and disease. This review establishes a crucial link between physiological processes leading to EV biogenesis and their impacts on disease. EVs are involved in the clearance and transport of proteins and nucleic acids, responding to changes in cellular processes associated with neurodegeneration, including autophagic disruption, organellar dysfunction, aging, and other cell stresses. In neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, etc.), EVs contribute to the spread of pathological proteins like amyloid β, tau, ɑ-synuclein, prions, and TDP-43, exacerbating neurodegeneration and accelerating disease progression. Despite evidence for both neuropathological and neuroprotective effects of EVs, the mechanistic switch between their physiological and pathological functions remains elusive, warranting further research into their involvement in neurodegenerative disease. Moreover, owing to their innate ability to traverse the blood-brain barrier and their ubiquitous nature, EVs emerge as promising candidates for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies. The review uniquely positions itself at the intersection of EV cell biology, neurophysiology, and neuropathology, offering insights into the diverse biological roles of EVs in health and disease.

Exosomes in Action: Unraveling Their Role in Autoimmune Diseases and Exploring Potential Therapeutic Applications

Exosomes are double phospholipid membrane vesicles that are synthesized and secreted by a variety of cells, including T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, immune cells, are extracellular vesicles. Recent studies have revealed that exosomes can play a significant role in under both physiological and pathological conditions. They have been implicated in regulation of inflammatory responses, immune response, angiogenesis, tissue repair, and antioxidant activities, particularly in modulating immunity in autoimmune diseases (AIDs). Moreover, variations in the expression of exosome-related substances, such as miRNA and proteins, may not only offer valuable perspectives for the early warning, and prognostic assessment of various AIDs, but may also serve as novel markers for disease diagnosis. This article examines the impact of exosomes on the development of AIDs and explores their potential for therapeutic application.

Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes Promote the Recovery of Spinal Cord Injury and Inhibit Ferroptosis by Inactivating IL-17 Pathway

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes are considered as alternative to cell therapy in various diseases. This study aimed to understand the effect of bone marrow MSC-derived exosomes (BMMSC-exos) on spinal cord injury (SCI) and to unveil its regulatory mechanism on ferroptosis. Exosomes were isolated from BMMSCs and the uptake of BMMSCs-exos by PC12 cells was determined using PKH67 staining. The effect of BMMSC-exos on SCI in rats was studied by evaluating pathological changes of spinal cord tissues, inflammatory cytokines, and ferroptosis-related proteins. Transcriptome sequencing was used to discover the differential expressed genes (DEGs) between SCI rats and BMMSC-exos-treated rats followed by functional enrichment analyses. The effect of BMMSC-exos on ferroptosis and interleukin 17 (IL-17) pathway was evaluated in SCI rats and oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-treated PC12 cells. The results showed that particles extracted from BMMSCs were exosomes that could be taken up by PC12 cells. BMMSC-exos treatment ameliorated injuries of spinal cord, suppressed the accumulation of Fe2+, malondialdehyde (MDA), and reactive oxygen species (ROS), with the elevated glutathione (GSH). Also, BMMSC-exos downregulated the expression of acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 4 (ACSL4) and upregulated glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and cysteine/glutamate antiporter xCT. A total of 110 DEGs were discovered and they were mainly enriched in IL-17 signaling pathway. Further in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that BMMSC-exos inactivated IL-17 pathway. BMMSC-exos promote the recovery of SCI and inhibit ferroptosis by inhibiting the IL-17 pathway, which provides BMMSC-exos as an alternative to the management of SCI.

Exosomes in renal cell carcinoma: challenges and opportunities

Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common type of kidney cancer that accounts for approximately 2-3% of adult malignancies. Among the primary treatment methods for this type of cancer are surgery and targeted treatment. Still, due to less than optimal effectiveness, there are problems such as advanced distant metastasis, delayed diagnosis, and drug resistance that continue to plague patients. In recent years, therapeutic advances have increased life expectancy and effective treatment in renal cell carcinoma patients. One of these methods is the use of stem cells. Although the therapeutic effects of stem cells, especially mesenchymal stem cells, are still impressive, today, extracellular vesicles (EVs) as carrying molecules and various mediators in intercellular communications, having a central role in tumorigenesis, metastasis, immune evasion, and drug response, and on the other hand, due to its low immunogenicity and strong regulatory properties of the immune system, has received much attention from researchers and doctors. Despite the increasing interest in exosomes as the most versatile type of EVs, the heterogeneity of their efficacy presents challenges and, on the other hand, exciting opportunities for diagnostic and clinical interventions.In the upcoming article, we will review the various aspects of exosomes' effects in the prevention, treatment, and progress of renal cell carcinoma and also ways to optimize them to strengthen their positive sides.

Dual role of mesenchymal stem/stromal cells and their cell-free extracellular vesicles in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the main causes of cancer-related deaths. However, the surgical control of the CRC progression is difficult, and in most cases, the metastasis leads to cancer-related mortality. Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) with potential translational applications in regenerative medicine have been widely researched for several years. MSCs could affect tumor development through secreting exosomes. The beneficial properties of stem cells are attributed to their cell-cell interactions as well as the secretion of paracrine factors in the tissue microenvironment. For several years, exosomes have been used as a cell-free therapy to regulate the fate of tumor cells in a tumor microenvironment. This review discusses the recent advances and current understanding of assessing MSC-derived exosomes for possible cell-free therapy in CRC.

Understanding exosomes: Part 1-Characterization, quantification and isolation techniques

Exosomes are the smallest subset of extracellular signaling vesicles secreted by most cells with a diameter in the range of 30-150 nm. Their use has gained great momentum recently due to their ability to be utilized as diagnostic tools with a vast array of therapeutic applications. Over 5000 publications are currently being published yearly on this topic, and this number is only expected to dramatically increase as novel therapeutic strategies continue to be investigated. This review article first focuses on understanding exosomes, including their cellular origin, biogenesis, function, and characterization. Thereafter, overviews of the quantification methods and isolation techniques are given with discussion over their potential use as novel therapeutics in regenerative medicine.

The Role of Exosomes in Upper-Extremity Tissue Regeneration

Exosomes are cell-free membrane vesicles secreted by a wide variety of cells as secretomes into the extracellular matrix. Alongside facilitating intercellular communication, exosomes carry various bioactive molecules consisting of nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. Exosome applications have increased in popularity by overcoming the disadvantages of mesenchymal stem cell therapies. Despite this, a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of action of exosomes is necessary prior to clinical application in upper-extremity tissue regeneration. The purpose of this review is to introduce the concept of exosomes and their possible applications in upper-extremity tissue regeneration, detail the shortcomings of current exosome research, and explore their potential clinical application in the upper extremity.

Optimized procedure for high-throughput transcriptome profiling of small extracellular vesicles isolated from low volume serum samples

OBJECTIVES

Small extracellular vesicles (EVs) contain various signaling molecules, thus playing a crucial role in cell-to-cell communication and emerging as a promising source of biomarkers. However, the lack of standardized procedures impedes their translation to clinical practice. Thus, we compared different approaches for high-throughput analysis of small EVs transcriptome.

METHODS

Small EVs were isolated from 150 μL of serum. Quality and quantity were assessed by dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and Western blot. Comparison of RNA extraction efficiency was performed, and expression of selected genes was analyzed by RT-qPCR. Whole transcriptome analysis was done using microarrays.

RESULTS

Obtained data confirmed the suitability of size exclusion chromatography for isolation of small EVs. Analyses of gene expression showed the best results in case of samples isolated by Monarch Total RNA Miniprep Kit. Totally, 7,182 transcripts were identified to be deregulated between colorectal cancer patients and healthy controls. The majority of them were non-coding RNAs with more than 70 % being lncRNAs, while protein-coding genes represented the second most common gene biotype.

CONCLUSIONS

We have optimized the protocol for isolation of small EVs and their RNA from low volume of sera and confirmed the suitability of Clariom D Pico Assays for transcriptome profiling.

Dual Role of Exosome in Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Review Study

INTRODUCTION

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are one of the crucial means of intercellular communication, which takes many different forms. They are heterogeneous, secreted by a range of cell types, and can be generally classified into microvesicles and exosomes depending on their location and function. Exosomes are small EVs with diameters of about 30-150 nm and diverse cell sources.

METHODS

The MEDLINE/PubMed database was reviewed for papers written in English and publication dates of recent years, using the search string "Exosome" and "Neurodegenerative diseases."

RESULTS

The exosomes have attracted interest as a significant biomarker for a better understanding of disease development, gene silencing delivery, and alternatives to stem cell-based therapy because of their low-invasive therapeutic approach, repeatable distribution in the central nervous system (CNS), and high efficiency. Also, they are nanovesicles that carry various substances, which can have an impact on neural plasticity and cognitive functioning in both healthy and pathological circumstances. Therefore, exosomes are conceived as nanovesicles containing proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. However, their composition varies considerably depending on the cells from which they are produced.

CONCLUSION

In the present review, we discuss several techniques for the isolation of exosomes from different cell sources. Furthermore, reviewing research on exosomes' possible functions as carriers of bioactive substances implicated in the etiology of neurodegenerative illnesses, we further examine them. We also analyze the preclinical and clinical research that shows exosomes to have therapeutic potential.

Applications of Exosome Vesicles in Different Cancer Types as Biomarkers

One of the biggest challenges in the fight against cancer is early detection. Early diagnosis is vital, but there are some barriers such as economic, cultural, and personal factors. Considering the disadvantages of radiological imaging techniques or serological analysis methods used in cancer diagnosis, such as being expensive, requiring expertise, and being time-consuming, there is a need to develop faster, more reliable, and cost-effective diagnostic methods for use in cancer diagnosis. Exosomes, which are responsible for intercellular communication with sizes ranging from 30-120 nm, are naturally produced biological nanoparticles. Thanks to the cargo contents they carry, they are a potential biomarker to be used in the diagnosis of cancer. Exosomes, defined as extracellular vesicles of endosomal origin, are effective in cancer growth, progression, metastasis, and drug resistance, and changes in microenvironmental conditions during tumor development change exosome secretion. Due to their high cellular activity, tumor cells produce much higher exosomes than healthy cells. Therefore, it is known that the number of exosomes in body fluids is significantly rich compared to other cells and can act as a stand-alone diagnostic biomarker. Cancer- derived exosomes have received great attention in recent years for the early detection of cancer and the evaluation of therapeutic response. In this article, the content, properties, and differences of exosomes detected in common types of cancer (lung, liver, pancreas, ovaries, breast, colorectal), which are the leading causes of cancer-related deaths, are reviewed. We also discuss the potential utility of exosome contents as a biomarker for early detection, which is known to be important in targeted cancer therapy.

Pharmacoscreening, molecular dynamics, and quantum mechanics of inermin from Panax ginseng: a crucial molecule inhibiting exosomal protein target associated with coronary artery disease progression

Background

Exosomes, microvesicles, carry and release several vital molecules across cells, tissues, and organs. Epicardial adipose tissue exosomes are critical in the development and progression of coronary artery disease (CAD). It is hypothesized that exosomes may transport causative molecules from inflamed tissue and deliver to the target tissue and progress CAD. Thus, identifying and inhibiting the CAD-associated proteins that are being transported to other cells via exosomes will help slow the progression of CAD.

Methods

This study uses a systems biological approach that integrates differential gene expression in the CAD, exosomal cargo assessment, protein network construction, and functional enrichment to identify the crucial exosomal cargo protein target. Meanwhile, absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) screening of Panax ginseng-derived compounds was conducted and then docked against the protein target to identify potential inhibitors and then subjected to molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) to understand the behavior of the protein-ligand complex till 100 nanoseconds. Finally, density functional theory (DFT) calculation was performed on the ligand with the highest affinity with the target.

Results

Through the systems biological approach, Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 2 protein (SMAD2) was determined as a potential target that linked with PI3K-Akt signaling, Ubiquitin mediated proteolysis, and the focal adhesion pathway. Further, screening of 190 Panax ginseng compounds, 27 showed drug-likeness properties. Inermin, a phytochemical showed good docking with -5.02 kcal/mol and achieved stability confirmation with SMAD2 based on MDS when compared to the known CAD drugs. Additionally, DFT analysis of inermin showed high chemical activity that significantly contributes to effective target binding. Overall, our computational study suggests that inermin could act against SMAD2 and may aid in the management of CAD.

Exosome Derived from Mesenchymal Stem Cells Alleviates Hypertrophic Scar by Inhibiting the Fibroblasts via TNFSF-13/HSPG2 Signaling Pathway

Background

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-exo) have been shown to have significant potential in wound healing and scar relief processes. According to reports, TNFSF13 and HSPG2 are associated with various fibrotic diseases. The aim of this study is to investigate how TNFSF13 and HSPG2 affect the formation of hypertrophic scar (HS) and the mechanism by which exosomes regulate HS.

Methods

Immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence were performed to measure TNFSF13 expression in HS skin tissues and hypertrophic scar fibroblast (HSF). HSF were treated with recombinant TNFSF13 protein and TNFSF13 siRNAs to probe the effect of TNFSF13 on the activity of HSF. The CCK-8, EdU, Transwell, and Western blot were used to investigate the role of TNFSF13 in viability, proliferation and inflammation. The influence of MSC-exo on the proliferation and function of HSF was determined by scratch and Western blot.

Results

TNFSF13 was dramatically up-regulated in HS skin tissues and HSF. Recombinant TNFSF13 protein increased cell viability, proliferation, migration, fibrosis, inflammation, and the binding between TNFSF13 and HSPG2 of HSF. The opposite results were obtained in TNFSF13 siRNAs transferred HSF. Furthermore, TNFSF13 activated the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway. Silencing of HSPG2 and inhibition of NF-κB remarkably eliminated the promoting effects of TNFSF13 on cell viability, proliferation, migration, fibrosis and inflammation of HSF. MSC-exo reduced α-SMA and COL1A1 inhibited the proliferation and migration of HSF by inhibiting TNFSF13 and HSPG2.

Conclusion

TNFSF13 activates NF-κB signaling pathway by interacting with HSPG2, which regulates the proliferation, migration, fibrosis and inflammatory response of HSF. Through the above mechanisms, knocking out TNFSF13 can inhibit the proliferation, migration, fibrosis and inflammatory response of HSF, whereas MSC-exo could reverse this process. These results suggest that MSC-exo alleviates HS by inhibiting the fibroblasts via TNFSF-13/HSPG2 signaling pathway.

Current progress, strategy, and prospects of PD-1/PDL-1 immune checkpoint biosensing platforms for cancer diagnostics, therapy monitoring, and drug screening

Recent technological advancements in testing and monitoring instrumentation have greatly contributed to the progress in cancer treatment by surgical, chemotherapeutic and radiotherapeutic interventions. However, the mortality rate still remains high, calling for the development of new treatment strategies with higher efficacy. Extensive efforts driven in this direction have included broadening of early cancer screening and applying innovative theranostic nanotechnologies. They have been supported by platforms introduced to enable the detection and monitoring of cancer biomarkers, inhibitors, and other agents, able to slow down cancer progression and prevent metastasis. Despite of the well-recognized principles of the immune checkpoint blockade, the efficacy of immunotherapy achieved so far does not meet the well-founded expectations. For a successful cancer treatment, highly sensitive, robust, and inexpensive multiplex biosensors have to be designed to aid in the biomarkers monitoring and in the development of new inhibitors. In this review, we provide an overview of the efforts undertaken to aid in the development and monitoring of anticancer immunotherapy, based on the programmed cell-death immune checkpoint (PD-1/PDL-1) blockade, by designing biosensors for the detection of relevant cancer biomarkers and their inhibitors screening. This review also emphasizes alternative targets made by exosomes carrying PD-L1 overexpressed in cancer cells and passed into the excreted exosomes. Evaluated are also novel targeted drug delivery nanocarriers, providing simultaneous biosensing, thereby contributing to the emerging immune checkpoint cancer therapy. On the basis of the current trends and the emerging technologies, future perspectives of cancer diagnostics and treatment monitoring using biosensing platforms are projected.

Tumor-associated macrophage-derived exosomes LINC01592 induce the immune escape of esophageal cancer by decreasing MHC-I surface expression

BACKGROUND

TAMs (tumor-associated macrophages) infiltration promotes the progression of esophageal cancer (EC). However, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear.

METHODS

Abnormal expression of LINC01592 from EC microarrays of the TCGA database was analyzed. LINC01592 expression level was validated in both EC cell lines and tissues. Stable LINC01592 knockdown and overexpression of EC cell lines were established. In vitro and in vivo trials were conducted to test the impact of LINC01592 knockdown and overexpression on EC cells. RNA binding protein immunoprecipitation (RIP), RNA pulldown assays, and Immunofluorescence (IF) were used to verify the combination of E2F6 and LINC01592. The combination of E2F6 and NBR1 was verified through the utilization of ChIP and dual luciferase reporter assays.

RESULTS

LINC01592 is carried and transferred by exosomes secreted by M2-TAMs to tumor cells. The molecular mechanism underlying the promotion of NBR1 transcription involves the direct binding of LINC01592 to E2F6, which facilitates the nuclear entry of E2F6. The collaborative action of LINC01592 and E2F6 results in improved NBR1 transcription. The elevation of NBR1 binding to the ubiquitinated protein MHC-I via the ubiquitin domain caused a higher degradation of MHC-I in autophagolysosomes and a reduction in MHC-I expression on the exterior of cancerous cell. Consequently, this caused cancerous cells to escape from CD8+ CTL immune attack. The tumor-promoting impacts of LINC01592, as well as the growth of M2-type macrophage-driven tumors, were significantly suppressed by the interruption of E2F6/NBR1/MHC-I signaling through the effect of siRNA or the corresponding antibody blockade. Significantly, the suppression of LINC01592 resulted in an upregulation of MHC-I expression on the tumor cell membrane, thereby enhancing the efficacy of CD8+ T cell reinfusion therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

The investigation conducted has revealed a significant molecular interaction between TAMs and EC via the LINC01592/E2F6/NBR1/MHC-I axis, which facilitates the progression of malignant tumors. This suggests that a therapeutic intervention targeting this axis may hold promise for the treatment of the disease.

The promise of small particles: extracellular vesicles as biomarkers in liver pathology

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscopic packages that are heterogeneous and bona fide players in hepatic physiology and pathology as they are involved in intercellular communication. EVs carrying bioactive cargoes rich in lipids, proteins or nucleic acids are implicated in the onset and progression of liver diseases. Liver pathology using liver biopsy has been assessed for several intricate conditions such as viral hepatitis, alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, hepatic malignancies and drug-induced liver injury. The lacunae, however, lie in early diagnosis and timely treatment of the above conditions, underscoring the need for non-invasive, accurate diagnostic tools that could replace the gold standard method of tissue biopsy. In this regard, EVs have emerged as promising candidates that could serve as potential biomarkers. In the last two decades, EVs, owing to their multifaceted charm in bringing out cell-free therapeutic responses and the ability of their cargoes to be applied to novel biomarkers, have drawn the great attention of researchers with the advancement and clinical application of liquid biopsy. In this review, we recapitulate the role of EVs and provide insights into the promising role of these small packages as biomarkers in liver pathology.

Label-free quantitative proteomic analysis of serum exosomes in mice with thoracic aortic aneurysm

OBJECTIVE

Thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) is a cardiovascular disease with high morbidity and mortality. However, the causes and mechanisms of TAA are not fully understood. Serum exosomes from mice with TAA were used to explore the markers associated with this disease.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups and given ordinary drinking water, ordinary drinking water plus a saline osmotic pump, or drinking water containing β-aminopropionitrile (BAPN) (1 g/kg/d) plus an angiotensin II (Ang II) (1 μg/kg/min) osmotic pump. Haematoxylin and eosin staining of thoracic aortic tissues was performed. The basic characteristics of exosomes were analysed. Differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified by LC‒MS/MS. Protein‒protein networks and enrichment analysis were used to explore possible molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

The present study elucidated the protein expression profile of serum exosomes in mice with TAA induced by BAPN combined with Ang II. In this work, the expression of a total of 196 proteins was significantly dysregulated in serum exosomes of mice with TAA, with 122 proteins significantly upregulated and 74 proteins markedly downregulated. Notably, Haptoglobin (Hp) and Serum amyloid p-component (Sap) identified based on the PPI network were significantly upregulated and have been strongly linked to cardiovascular disease. Interestingly, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis showed that the upregulated and downregulated proteins were involved in the complement and coagulation cascade pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that the identified DEPs have potential as biomarkers for the diagnosis of TAA and provided a more comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of TAA.

Engineered Exosomes as Theranostic Platforms for Cancer Treatment

Tremendous progress in nanotechnology and nanomedicine has made a significant positive effect on cancer treatment by integrating multicomponents into a single multifunctional nanosized delivery system for combinatorial therapies. Although numerous nanocarriers developed so far have achieved excellent therapeutic performance in mouse models via elegant integration of chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy, their synthetic origin may still cause systemic toxicity, immunogenicity, and preferential detection or elimination by the immune system. Exosomes, endogenous nanosized particles secreted by multiple biological cells, could be absorbed by recipient cells to facilitate intercellular communication and content delivery. Therefore, exosomes have emerged as novel cargo delivery tools and attracted considerable attention for cancer diagnosis and treatment due to their innate stability, biological compatibility, and biomembrane penetration capacity. Exosome-related properties and functions have been well-documented; however, there are few reviews, to our knowledge, with a focus on the combination of exosomes and nanotechnology for the development of exosome-based theranostic platforms. To make a timely review on this hot subject of research, we summarize the basic information, isolation and functionalization methodologies, diagnostic and therapeutic potential of exosomes in various cancers with an emphasis on the description of exosome-related nanomedicine for cancer theranostics. The existing appealing challenges and outlook in exosome clinical translation are finally introduced. Advanced biotechnology and nanotechnology will definitely not only promote the integration of intrinsic advantages of natural nanosized exosomes with traditional synthetic nanomaterials for modulated precise cancer treatment but also contribute to the clinical translations of exosome-based nanomedicine as theranostic nanoplatforms.

Exosomes derived from rapamycin-treated 4T1 breast cancer cells induced polarization of macrophages to M1 phenotype

M2 macrophages are the most prevalent type in the tumor microenvironment and their polarization to M1 type can be used as a potential cancer immunotherapy. Here, we investigated the role of tumor microenvironment and particularly purified exosomes in M2 to M1 macrophage polarization. Rapamycin treatment on triple-negative breast cancer cells (TNBC) was performed. Tumor cells-derived exosomes (called texosomes) were isolated and characterized using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, dynamic light scattering, high-performance liquid chromatography, Fourier transform infrared, and Western blot assays. M2 mouse peritoneal macrophages were treated with rapamycin or rapamycin-texosome. Then, M1/M2 phenotype-specific marker genes and proteins were measured to assess the degree of M2 to M1 polarization. Finally, nitric oxide (NO) production, phagocytosis, and efferocytosis assays were assessed to verify the functionality of the polarized macrophages. Purified rapamycin-texosomes significantly increased the expression of the M1 markers (Irf5, Nos2, and CD86) and decreased M2 markers (Arg, Ym1, and CD206). In addition, the levels of M1-specific cytokines tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1β (IL-1β) were increased, whereas the levels of M2 specific cytokines IL-10 and transforming growth factor beta were declined. Furthermore, texosome treatment increased NO concentration and phagocytosis and decreased efferocytosis indicating M1 polarization. These findings suggest rapamycin-texosomes can induce M2 to M1 macrophages polarization as a potential immunotherapy for TNBC.

CRISPR delivery with extracellular vesicles: Promises and challenges

The CRISPR gene editing tool holds great potential for curing genetic disorders. However, the safe, efficient, and specific delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 components into cells and tissues remains a challenge. While many currently available delivery methods achieve high levels of gene editing effects in vivo, they often result in genotoxicity and immunogenicity. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are cell-derived lipid nanoparticles, are capable of transferring protein and nucleic acid cargoes between cells, making them a promising endogenous alternative to synthetic delivery methods. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the currently available strategies for EV-mediated delivery of CRISPR/Cas9. These strategies include cell-based, passive loading obtained by overexpression of CRISPR/Cas9, active loading involving protein or RNA dimerization, and loading into already purified EVs. All these approaches suggest that EV-based CRISPR/Cas9 delivery is useful for achieving both in vitro and in vivo gene editing. Despite that, substantial variations in cellular uptake and gene editing efficiencies indicate that further improvement and standardization are required for the therapeutic use of EVs as a CRISPR/Cas9 delivery vehicle. These improvements include, but is not limited to, the high-yield purification of EVs, increased loading and release efficiencies, as well as improved tissue- or cell-specific targeting specificities.

Integrated computational screening and liquid biopsy approach to uncover the role of biomarkers for oral cancer lymph node metastasis

Cancer is an abnormal, heterogeneous growth of cells with the ability to invade surrounding tissue and even distant organs. Worldwide, GLOBOCAN had an estimated 18.1 million new cases and 9.6 million death rates of cancer in 2018. Among all cancers, Oral cancer (OC) is the sixth most common cancer worldwide, and the third most common in India, the most frequent type, oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), tends to spread to lymph nodes in advanced stages. Throughout the past few decades, the molecular landscape of OSCC biology has remained unknown despite breakthroughs in our understanding of the genome-scale gene expression pattern of oral cancer particularly in lymph node metastasis. Moreover, due to tissue variability in single-cohort studies, investigations on OSCC gene-expression profiles are scarce or inconsistent. The work provides a comprehensive analysis of changed expression and lays a major focus on employing a liquid biopsy base method to find new therapeutic targets and early prediction biomarkers for lymph node metastasis. Therefore, the current study combined the profile information from GSE9844, GSE30784, GSE3524, and GSE2280 cohorts to screen for differentially expressed genes, and then using gene enrichment analysis and protein-protein interaction network design, identified the possible candidate genes and pathways in lymph node metastatic patients. Additionally, the mRNA expression of discovered genes was assessed using real-time PCR, and the Human Protein Atlas database was utilized to determine the protein levels of hub genes in tumor and normal tissues. Angiogenesis was been investigated using the Chorioallentoic membrane (CAM) angiogenesis test. In a cohort of OSCC patients, fibronectin (FN1), C-X-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 8 (CXCL8), and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) were significantly upregulated, corroborating these findings. Our identified significant gene signature showed greater serum exosome effectiveness in early detection and clinically linked with intracellular communication in the establishment of the premetastatic niche. Also, the results of the CAM test reveal that primary OC derived exosomes may have a function in angiogenesis. As a result, our study finds three potential genes that may be used as a possible biomarker for lymph node metastasis early detection and sheds light on the underlying processes of exosomes that cause a premetastatic condition.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Protect Rat Nucleus Pulposus Cells from Oxidative Stress

BACKGROUND

Oxidative stress (OS) is mainly associated with the pathogenesis of intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration; it causes nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs) to undergo senescence and triggers autophagy and apoptosis. This study aims to evaluate the regeneration potential of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from human umbilical cord-mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) in an in vitro rat NPC-induced OS model.

DESIGN

NPCs were isolated from rat coccygeal discs, propagated, and characterized. OS was induced by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), which is confirmed by 2,7-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (H₂DCFDA) assay. EVs were isolated from hUC-MSCs and characterized by analyzing the vesicles using fluorescence microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM), atomic force microscope (AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and Western blot (WB). The in vitro effects of EVs on migration, uptake, and survival of NPCs were determined.

RESULTS

SEM and AFM topographic images revealed the size distribution of EVs. The phenotypes of isolated EVs showed that the size of EVs was 403.3 ± 85.94 nm, and the zeta potential was -0.270 ± 4.02 mV. Protein expression analysis showed that EVs were positive for CD81 and annexin V. Treatment of NPCs with EVs reduced H₂O₂-induced OS as evidenced by a decrease in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Co-culture of NPCs with DiI-labeled EVs showed the cellular internalization of EVs. In the scratch assay, EVs significantly increased NPC proliferation and migration toward the scratched area. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that EVs significantly reduced the expression of OS genes.

CONCLUSION

EVs protected NPCs from H₂O₂-induced OS by reducing intracellular ROS generation and improved NPC proliferation and migration.

Exosome-loaded scaffolds for regenerative medicine in hard tissues

Tissue engineering can be used to repair tissue by employing bioscaffolds that provide better spatial control, porosity, and a three-dimensional (3D) environment like the human body. Optimization of injectability, biocompatibility, bioactivity, and controlled drug release are also features of such scaffolds. The 3D shape of the scaffold can control cell interaction and improve cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Exosomes (EXOs) are nanovesicles that can regulate osteoblast activity and proliferation using a complex composition of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in their vesicles. Due to their excellent biocompatibility and efficient cellular internalization, EXOs have enormous potential as desirable drug/gene delivery vectors in the field of regenerative medicine. They can cross the biological barrier with minimal immunogenicity and side effects. Scaffolds that contain EXOs have been studied extensively in both basic and preclinical settings for the regeneration and repair of both hard (bone, cartilage) and soft (skin, heart, liver, kidney) tissue. Cell motility, proliferation, phenotype, and maturation can all be controlled by EXOs. The angiogenic and anti-inflammatory properties of EXOs significantly influence tissue healing. The current study focused on the use of EXO-loaded scaffolds in hard tissue regeneration.

A New Detection Method of Oral and Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Based on Multivariate Analysis of Surface Enhanced Raman Spectra of Salivary Exosomes

Raman spectroscopy recently proved a tremendous capacity to identify disease-specific markers in various (bio)samples being a non-invasive, rapid, and reliable method for cancer detection. In this study, we first aimed to record vibrational spectra of salivary exosomes isolated from oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma patients and healthy controls using surface enhancement Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Then, we assessed this method's capacity to discriminate between malignant and non-malignant samples by means of principal component-linear discriminant analysis (PC-LDA) and we used area under the receiver operating characteristics with illustration as the area under the curve to measure the power of salivary exosomes SERS spectra analysis to identify cancer presence. The vibrational spectra were collected on a solid plasmonic substrate developed in our group, synthesized using tangential flow filtered and concentrated silver nanoparticles, capable of generating very reproducible spectra for a whole range of bioanalytes. SERS examination identified interesting variations in the vibrational bands assigned to thiocyanate, proteins, and nucleic acids between the saliva of cancer and control groups. Chemometric analysis indicated discrimination sensitivity between the two groups up to 79.3%. The sensitivity is influenced by the spectral interval used for the multivariate analysis, being lower (75.9%) when the full-range spectra were used.

Advances in mesenchymal stem/stromal cell-based therapy and their extracellular vesicles for skin wound healing

Wound healing is a dynamic and complicated process containing overlapping phases. Presently, definitive therapy is not available, and the investigation into optimal wound care is influenced by the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of developing therapies. Accumulating evidence demonstrated the potential role of mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC) therapy in several tissue injuries and diseases due to their high proliferation and differentiation abilities along with an easy collection procedure, low tumorigenesis, and immuno-privileged status. MSCs have also accelerated wound repair in all phases through their advantageous properties, such as accelerating wound closure, improving re-epithelialization, elevating angiogenesis, suppressing inflammation, and modulating extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling. In addition, the beneficial therapeutic impacts of MSCs are largely associated with their paracrine functions, including extracellular vesicles (EVs). Exosomes and microvesicles are the two main subgroups of EVs. These vesicles are heterogeneous bilayer membrane structures that contain several proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. EVs have emerged as a promising alternative to stem cell-based therapies because of their lower immunogenicity, tumorigenicity, and ease of management. MSCs from various sources have been widely investigated in skin wound healing and regeneration. Considering these features, in this review, we highlighted recent studies that the investigated therapeutic potential of various MSCs and MSC-EVs in skin damages and wounds.

A Novel Electrochemical Differentiation between Exosomal-RNA of Breast Cancer MCF7 and MCF7/ADR-Resistant Cells

Cancer is considered one of the most burdensome diseases affecting lives and, hence, the economy. Breast cancer is one of the most common types of cancer. Patients with breast cancer are divided into two groups: one group responds to the chemotherapy, and the other group resists the chemotherapy. Unfortunately, the group which resists the chemotherapy is still suffering the pain associated with the severe side effects of the chemotherapy. Therefore, there is a critical need for a method to differentiate between both groups before the administration of the chemotherapy. Exosomes, the recently discovered nano-vesicles, are often used as cancer diagnostic biomarkers as their unique composition allows them to represent their parental cells, which makes them promising indicators for tumor prognosis. Exosomes contain proteins, lipids, and RNA that exist in most body fluids and are expelled by multiple cell types, including cancer cells. Furthermore, exosomal RNA has been significantly used as a promising biomarker for tumor prognosis. Herein, we have developed an electrochemical system that could successfully differentiate between MCF7 and MCF7/ADR depending on the exosomal RNA. The high sensitivity of the proposed electrochemical assay opens the door for further investigation that will address the other type of cancer cells.

Exosomes in Cardiovascular Disease: From Mechanism to Therapeutic Target

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. In recent decades, clinical research has made significant advances, resulting in improved survival and recovery rates for patients with CVD. Despite this progress, there is substantial residual CVD risk and an unmet need for better treatment. The complex and multifaceted pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the development of CVD pose a challenge for researchers seeking effective therapeutic interventions. Consequently, exosomes have emerged as a new focus for CVD research because their role as intercellular communicators gives them the potential to act as noninvasive diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic nanocarriers. In the heart and vasculature, cell types such as cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle, cardiac fibroblasts, inflammatory cells, and resident stem cells are involved in cardiac homeostasis via the release of exosomes. Exosomes encapsulate cell-type specific miRNAs, and this miRNA content fluctuates in response to the pathophysiological setting of the heart, indicating that the pathways affected by these differentially expressed miRNAs may be targets for new treatments. This review discusses a number of miRNAs and the evidence that supports their clinical relevance in CVD. The latest technologies in applying exosomal vesicles as cargo delivery vehicles for gene therapy, tissue regeneration, and cell repair are described.

Exosomes: The role in mammalian reproductive regulation and pregnancy-related diseases

Exosomes are a kind of extracellular vesicles that are produced and secreted by different mammalian cells. They serve as cargo proteins and can transfer different kinds of biomolecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which consequently act on target cells to exert different biological effects. Recent years have witnessed a significant increase in the number of studies on exosomes due to the potential effects of exosomes in the diagnosis and treatment of cancers, neurodegenerative diseases, and immune disorders. Previous studies have demonstrated that exosomal contents, especially miRNAs, are implicated in numerous physiological processes such as reproduction, and are crucial regulators of mammalian reproduction and pregnancy-related diseases. Here, we describe the origin, composition, and intercellular communication of exosomes, and discuss their functions in follicular development, early embryonic development, embryonic implantation, male reproduction and development of pregnancy-related diseases in humans and animals. We believe this study will provide a foundation for revealing the mechanism of exosomes in regulating mammalian reproduction, and providing new approaches and ideas for the diagnosis and treatment of pregnancy-related diseases.

Post-prostatic-massage urine exosomes of men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome carry prostate-cancer-typical microRNAs and activate proto-oncogenes

Chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS) has a high prevalence of up to 15% and accounts for 90-95% of prostatitis diagnoses, and yet its etiopathogenesis and link to prostate cancer (PCa) are still unclear. Here, we investigated microRNAs in exosomes isolated from blood and post-prostatic-massage urine of CP/CPPS type IIIb patients and healthy men. THP-1 monocytes (human leukemia monocytic cell line) were treated with exosomes and subjected to mRNA arrays "Cancer Inflammation and Immunity Crosstalk" and "Transcription Factors." Using The Cancer Genome Atlas, the expression of CP/CPPS-associated microRNAs was analyzed in PCa and normal prostate tissue. In silico functional studies were carried out to explore the disease ontology of CP/CPPS. In CP/CPPS, urine exosomes exhibited significant upregulation of eight PCa-specific microRNAs (e.g., hsa-miR-501, hsa-miR-20a, and hsa-miR-106), whose target genes were significantly enriched for GO terms, hallmark gene sets, and pathways specific for carcinogenesis. In THP-1 monocytes, CP/CPPS-derived urine exosomes induced upregulation of PCa-associated proinflammatory genes (e.g., CCR2 and TLR2) and proto-oncogene transcription factors (e.g., MYB and JUNB). In contrast, CP/CPPS-derived blood exosomes exhibited molecular properties similar to those of healthy men. Thus, CP/CPPS exhibits molecular changes that constitute a risk for PCa and should be considered in the development of PCa biomarkers and cancer screening programs.

Plasma-derived exosomal miRNA as potential biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis of vector-borne diseases: A review

Early disease diagnosis is critical for better management and treatment outcome of patients. Therefore, diagnostic methods should ideally be accurate, consistent, easy to perform at low cost and preferably non-invasive. In recent years, various biomarkers have been studied for the detection of cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, infectious diseases, diabetes mellitus and malignancies. Exosomal microRNA (miRNA) are small non-coding RNA molecules that influence gene expression after transcription. Previous studies have shown that these types of miRNAs can potentially be used as biomarkers for cancers of the breast and colon, as well as diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. It may also be used to indicate viral and bacterial infections, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis and hepatitis. However, its use in the diagnosis of vector-borne diseases is rather limited. Therefore, this review aims to introduce several miRNAs derived from exosomal plasma that may potentially serve as a disease biomarker due to the body's immune response, with special focus on the early detection of vector-borne diseases.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as a new therapeutic strategy in the brain tumors

Brain tumors are one of the most mortal cancers, leading to many deaths among kids and adults. Surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy are available options for brain tumor treatment. However, these methods are not able to eradicate cancer cells. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is one of the most important barriers to treat brain tumors that prevents adequate drug delivery to brain tissue. The connection between different brain parts is heterogeneous and causes many challenges in treatment. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) migrate to brain tumor cells and have anti-tumor effects by delivering cytotoxic compounds. They contain very high regenerative properties, as well as support the immune system. MSCs-based therapy involves cell replacement and releases various vesicles, including exosomes. Exosomes receive more attention due to their excellent stability, less immunogenicity and toxicity compare to cells. Exosomes derived from MSCs can develop a powerful therapeutic strategy for different diseases and be a hopeful candidate for cell-based and cell-free regenerative medicine. These nanoparticles contain nucleic acid, proteins, lipids, microRNAs, and other biologically active substances. Many studies show that each microRNA can prevent angiogenesis, migration, and metastasis in glioblastoma. These exosomes can-act as a suitable nanoparticle carrier for therapeutic applications of brain tumors by passing through the BBB. In this review, we discuss potential applications of MSC and their produced exosomes in the treatment of brain tumors.

Apple Derived Exosomes Improve Collagen Type I Production and Decrease MMPs during Aging of the Skin through Downregulation of the NF-κB Pathway as Mode of Action

Skin ageing is strictly related to chronic inflammation of the derma and the decay of structural proteins of the extracellular matrix. Indeed, it has become common practice to refer to this phenomenon as inflammageing. Biotech innovation is always in search of new active principles that induce a youthful appearance. In this paper, apple-derived nanovesicles (ADNVs) were investigated as novel anti-inflammatory compounds, which are able to alter the extracellular matrix production of dermal fibroblasts. Total RNA sequencing analysis revealed that ADNVs negatively influence the activity of Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4), and, thus, downregulate the NF-κB pro-inflammatory pathway. ADNVs also reduce extracellular matrix degradation by increasing collagen synthesis (COL3A1, COL1A2, COL8A1 and COL6A1) and downregulating metalloproteinase production (MMP1, MMP8 and MMP9). Topical applications for skin regeneration were evaluated by the association of ADNVs with hyaluronic-acid-based hydrogel and patches.

Exosomes as New Generation Vehicles for Drug Delivery: Biomedical Applications and Future Perspectives

Currently, particular interest among the scientific community is focused on exploring the use of exosomes for several pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. This is due to the identification of the role of exosomes as an excellent intercellular communicator by delivering the requisite cargo comprising of functional proteins, metabolites and nucleic acids. Exosomes are the smallest extracellular vesicles (EV) with sizes ranging from 30–100 nm and are derived from endosomes. Exosomes have similar surface morphology to cells and act as a signal transduction channel between cells. They encompass different biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids and lipids, thus rendering them naturally as an attractive drug delivery vehicle. Like the other advanced drug delivery systems, such as polymeric nanoparticles and liposomes to encapsulate drug substances, exosomes also gained much attention in enhancing therapeutic activity. Exosomes present many advantages, such as compatibility with living tissues, low toxicity, extended blood circulation, capability to pass contents from one cell to another, non-immunogenic and special targeting of various cells, making them an excellent therapeutic carrier. Exosome-based molecules for drug delivery are still in the early stages of research and clinical trials. The problems and clinical transition issues related to exosome-based drugs need to be overcome using advanced tools for better understanding and systemic evaluation of exosomes. In this current review, we summarize the most up-to-date knowledge about the complex biological journey of exosomes from biogenesis and secretion, isolation techniques, characterization, loading methods, pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications, challenges and future perspectives of exosomes.

The role of milk-derived exosomes in the treatment of diseases

Exosomes (EXOs) are natural nanoparticles of endosome origin that are secreted by a variety of cells in the body. Exosomes have been found in bio-fluids such as urine, saliva, amniotic fluid, and ascites, among others. Milk is the only commercially available biological liquid containing EXOs. Proof that exosomes are essential for cell-to-cell communication is increasingly being reported. Studies have shown that they migrate from the cell of origin to various bioactive substances, including membrane receptors, proteins, mRNAs, microRNAs, and organelles, or they can stimulate target cells directly through interactions with receptors. Because of the presence of specific proteins, lipids, and RNAs, exosomes act in physiological and pathological conditions in vivo. Other salient features of EXOs include their long half-life in the body, no tumorigenesis, low immune response, good biocompatibility, ability to target cells through their surface biomarkers, and capacity to carry macromolecules. EXOs have been introduced to the scientific community as important, efficient, and attractive nanoparticles. They can be extracted from different sources and have the same characteristics as their parents. EXOs present in milk can be separated by size exclusion chromatography, density gradient centrifugation, or (ultra) centrifugation; however, the complex composition of milk that includes casein micelles and milk fat globules makes it necessary to take additional issues into consideration when employing the mentioned techniques with milk. As a rich source of EXOs, milk has unique properties that, in addition to its role as a carrier, promotes its use in treating diseases such as digestive problems, skin ulcers, and cancer, Moreover, EXOs derived from camel milk are reported to reduce the risk of oxidative stress and cancer. Milk-derived exosomes (MDEs) from yak milk improves gastrointestinal tract (GIT) development under hypoxic conditions. Furthermore, yak-MDEs have been suggested to be the best treatment for intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6 cell line). Because of their availability as well as the non-invasiveness and cost-effectiveness of their preparation, isolates from mammals milk can be excellent resources for studies related to EXOs. These features also make it possible to exploit MDEs in clinical trials. The current study aimed to investigate the therapeutic applications of EXOs isolated from various milk sources.

Salivary Exosomal MicroRNA-486-5p and MicroRNA-10b-5p in Oral and Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Background and Objectives: The research aimed at evaluating the capacity of salivary exosomal miR-10b-5p and miR-486-5p for oral and oropharyngeal cancer detection. Materials and Methods: The saliva samples were harvested from histopathological diagnosed oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma patients and healthy volunteer subjects. The exosomes were isolated by differential ultracentrifugation and quantified by Nano Track Analysis. The microRNAs were extracted and quantified from salivary exosomes by quantitative Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction. Results: This research comprised fifty participants. When compared to healthy controls, salivary exosomal miR-486-5p was elevated and miR-10b-5p was reduced in oral and oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Moreover, miR-486-5p had a high expression level in stage II of cancer in comparison to the other cancer stages. The cancer samples presented an increased exosome dimension compared to the control samples. Conclusions: Salivary exosomal miR-10b-5p and miR-486-5p have an altered expression in oral and oropharyngeal cancer.

Intestine epithelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles alleviate inflammation induced by Clostridioides difficile TcdB through the activity of TGF-β1

Background

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) has been primarily associated with the toxin B (TcdB), one of the three known protein toxins secreted by C. difficile, which can activate the intestinal immune system and lead to pathological damage. Even though the biological functions of intestine epithelial cell-derived extracellular vesicles (I-Evs) have been well documented, the role of I-Evs in the process of CDI is still unknown.

Objectives

The protective effect of I-Evs against C. difficile TcdB was investigated both in cultured murine colon carcinoma MC38 cells and a mouse model used in this study.

Results

Mouse I-Evs with mean diameter ranging from 100 to 200 nm and a density of 1.09-1.17 g/mL were obtained and confirmed containing the Ev-associated specific surface markers CD63 and TSG101 as well as high level of TGF-β1. In MC38 cells, I-Evs were able to decrease the gene expression of IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-22 induced by C. difficile TcdB, but to increase both the gene expression and protein levels of TGF-β1. I-Evs treatment via intraperitoneal administration alleviates C. difficile TcdB-induced local colon inflammation in mice and increased their survival rate from 50% up to 80%. Furthermore, I-Evs induced an increase in the proportion of CD4+Foxp3+Tregs in vitro and in vivo through a TGF-β1-dependent mechanism by activating the TGF-β1 pathway and prompting phosphorylation of the downstream proteins Smad 2/3.

Conclusion

For the first time, our study demonstrated that I-Evs originated from intestine epithelial cells can alleviate inflammation induced by C. difficile TcdB both in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, I-Evs might be potentially a novel endogenous candidate for effective treatment of CDI.

Exosomal MicroRNAs Signature Acts as Efficient Biomarker for Non-Invasive Diagnosis of Gallbladder Carcinoma

Through a three-step study that relies on biomarker discovery, training, and validation, we identified a set of five exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) that can be used to evaluate the risk of gallbladder carcinoma (GBC), including miR-552-3p, miR-581, miR-4433a-3p, miR-496, and miR-203b-3p. When validated in 102 GBC patients and 112 chronic cholecystitis patients from multiple medical centers, the AUC of this combinatorial biomarker was 0.905, with a sensitivity of 81.37% and a specificity of 86.61%. The performance of this biomarker is superior to that of the standard biomarkers CA199 and CEA and is suited for GBC early diagnosis. The multi-clinicopathological features and prognosis of GBC patients were significantly associated with this biomarker. After building a miRNA-target gene regulation network, cell functions and signaling pathways regulated by these five miRNAs were examined. This biomarker signature can be used in the development of a noninvasive tool for GBC diagnosis, screening and prognosis prediction.

•

A five exosomal miRNAs-set is identified to diagnose GBC through a three-step study

•

The efficacy of this noninvasive biomarker is superior to that of conventional ones

•

This biomarker is correlated with multiple GBC clinical features and the prognosis

•

The functions and signal pathways that this biomarker may affect were estimated

Current Status, Opportunities, and Challenges of Exosomes in Oral Cancer Diagnosis and Treatment

Oral cancer is one of the most common cancers in the world, with more than 300,000 cases diagnosed each year, of which oral squamous cell carcinoma accounts for more than 90%, with a 5-year survival rate of only 40–60%, and poor prognosis. Exploring new strategies for the early diagnosis and treatment of oral cancer is key to improving the survival rate. Exosomes are nanoscale lipid bilayer membrane vesicles that are secreted by almost all cell types. During the development of oral cancer, exosomes can transport their contents (DNA, RNA, proteins, etc) to target cells and promote or inhibit the proliferation, invasion, and metastasis of oral cancer cells by influencing the host immune response, drug-resistant metastasis, and tumour angiogenesis. Therefore, exosomes have great potential and advantages as biomarkers for oral cancer diagnosis, and as drug delivery vehicles or targets for oral cancer therapy. In this review, we first describe the biogenesis, biological functions, and isolation methods of exosomes, followed by their relationship with oral cancer. Here, we focused on the potential of exosomes as oral cancer biomarkers, drug carriers, and therapeutic targets. Finally, we provide an insightful discussion of the opportunities and challenges of exosome application in oral cancer diagnosis and treatment, intending to offer new ideas for the clinical management of oral cancer.

Dietary Exosome-Like Nanoparticles: An Updated Review on Their Pharmacological and Drug Delivery Applications

Exosomes are lipid bilayer membrane-bound extracellular vesicular structures (30-150 nm) mainly released by eukaryotic cells of animal origin. Exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) are the vesicular structures originating from plant sources with features similar to eukaryotic animal cell derived exosomes. ELNs derived from dietary sources (dietary ELNs) have exceptional pharmacological potential in alleviating many diseases and are good in maintaining intestinal health through the manipulation of the gut microbiome. The dietary ELNs being highly biocompatible find their application in targeted therapy as well. They are being established as promising drug delivery agents and can also be developed into dietary supplements. This review highlights the ELNs derived from various dietary sources, their diversity in molecular compositions, potential health benefits, and drug delivery applications. Few clinical trials are attempted with dietary ELNs which are also described in the review along with their properties that can be exploited for the food and pharma industries in the future.

Raman spectroscopy combined with comprehensive gas chromatography for label-free characterization of plasma-derived extracellular vesicle subpopulations

Raman spectroscopy together with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GCxGC-TOFMS) was employed to characterize exomere- (<50 nm) and exosome-sized (50-80 nm) EVs isolated from human plasma by the novel on-line immunoaffinity chromatography - asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation method. CD9⁺, CD63⁺, and CD81⁺ EVs were selected to represent general EV subpopulations secreted into plasma, while CD61+EVs represented the specific EV subset derived from platelets. Raman spectroscopy could distinguish EVs from non-EV particles, including apolipoprotein B-100-containing lipoproteins, signifying its potential in EV purity assessment. Moreover, platelet-derived (CD61⁺) EVs of both exomere and exosome sizes were discriminated from other EV subpopulations due to different biochemical compositions. Further investigations demonstrated composition differences between exomere- and exosome-sized EVs, confirming the applicability of Raman spectroscopy in distinguishing EVs, not only from different origins but also sizes. In addition, fatty acids that act as building blocks for lipids and membranes in EVs were studied by GCxGC-TOF-MS. The results achieved highlighted differences in EV fatty acid compositions in both esterified (membrane lipids) and non-esterified (free fatty acids) fractions, indicating possible differences in membrane structures, biological functions, and roles in cell-to-cell communications of EV subpopulations.

Exosomes in the Treatment of Pancreatic Cancer: A Moonshot to PDAC Treatment?

Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma (PDAC) constitutes a leading cause of cancer death globally. Its mortality remains unaltered despite the considerable scientific progress made in the fields of diagnostics and treatment. Exosomes comprise of small extracellular vesicles secreted by nearly all cells; their cargo contains a vast array of biomolecules, such as proteins and microRNAs. It is currently established that their role as messengers is central to a plethora of both physiologic and pathologic processes. Accumulating data have shed light on their contributions to carcinogenesis, metastasis, and immunological response. Meanwhile, the advancement of personalized targeted therapies into everyday clinical practice necessitates the development of cost-efficient treatment approaches. The role of exosomes is currently being extensively investigated towards this direction. This review aims to summarize the current pre-clinical and clinical evidence regarding the effects of exosomal applications in the timely diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic management of pancreatic cancer.

Therapeutic applications of exosomes in various diseases: A review

Exosomes (30-150 nm in diameter) a subset of extracellular vesicles, secreted by mostly all cells, have been gaining enormous recognition from the last decade. In recent times, several studies have included exosomes to design novel therapeutic applications along with their contribution to diagnostic evaluations and pathophysiological processes. Based on cell origin, they show diverse functions and characteristics. This article is classified into several sections that include exosomes biogenesis, isolation methods, and application as therapeutic tools, commercialized exosome products, clinical trials, benefits, and challenges faced in the progress of exosome-dependent therapeutics. This work aims to give a thorough review of the numerous studies where exosomes act as therapeutic tools in the treatment of various disorders including heart, kidney, liver, and lung illnesses. The clinical trials involving exosomes, their advantages, and hazards, and difficulties involved during storage and large-scale production, applications of nanotechnology in exosome research while applying for therapeutic applications, and future directions are summarized.

An Apple a Day Keeps the Doctor Away: Potential Role of miRNA 146 on Macrophages Treated with Exosomes Derived from Apples

The constant dialogue between the plant world and the animal world (including man among them) has been known since the time of Adam and Eve, where an apple was the origin of the evils of the world. Apart from Snow White—who might have something to object to when it comes to the use of apples—fruits, plants, and natural extracts have been known for millennia as remedies for human health-related ailments. In the light of such evidence, the aim of the present work was to investigate from a biological point of view the potential role of apple exosomes in inflammatory processes on human cells. To this end we isolated and characterized apple exosomes and treated human cells such as macrophages and NCTC L929 as cancer cells in order to evaluate the tumorigenic and anti-inflammatory effect of apple exomes. Microscopic and molecular biology analyses were conducted to characterize exosomes and to assess cell proliferation, death, and miRNA line, as well as gene expression and the uptake of exosomes by cells. The results confirm the absolute biological safety of exosomes and their anti-inflammatory effect, mediated mainly by miRNA146 production by M2 macrophages.

Noncoding RNAs from tissue-derived small extracellular vesicles: Roles in diabetes and diabetic complications

Diabetes is a systemic disease, and its progression involves multiple organ dysfunction. However, the exact mechanisms underlying pathological progression remain unclear. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) mediate physiological and pathological signaling communication between organs and have been shown to have important regulatory roles in diabetes and its complications in recent years. In particular, the majority of studies in the diabetes-related research field have focused on the noncoding RNAs carried by sEVs. Researchers found that noncoding RNA sorting into sEVs is not random but selective. Both tissue origin differences and environmental variations affect the cargo of sEVs. In addition, the function of sEVs differs according to the tissue they derive from; for example, sEVs derived from adipose tissue regulate insulin sensitivity in the periphery, while sEVs derived from bone marrow promote β-cell regeneration. Therefore, understanding the roles of sEVs from different tissues is important for elucidating their molecular mechanisms and is necessary for the application of sEVs as therapeutic agents for diabetes treatment in the future. In this review, we summarized current studies on the mechanisms of noncoding RNA sorting into sEVs, as well as the research progress on the effects of sEVs from different tissue origins and noncoding RNAs in diabetes and diabetic complications. The knowledge of noncoding RNAs in sEVs will help us better understand the role of sEVs in the diabetes progression.

Biodistribution of Biomimetic Drug Carriers, Mononuclear Cells, and Extracellular Vesicles, in Nonhuman Primates

Discovery of novel drug delivery systems to the brain remains a key task for successful treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Herein, the biodistribution of immunocyte-based carriers, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and monocyte-derived EVs are investigated in adult rhesus macaques using longitudinal PET/MRI imaging. ⁶⁴ Cu-labeled drug carriers are introduced via different routes of administration: intraperitoneal (IP), intravenous (IV), or intrathecal (IT) injection. Whole body PET/MRI (or PET/CT) images are acquired at 1, 24, and 48 h post injection of ⁶⁴ Cu-labeled drug carriers, and standardized uptake values (SUV_mean and SUV_max ) in the main organs are estimated. The brain retention for both types of carriers increases based on route of administration: IP < IV < IT. Importantly, a single IT injection of PBMCs produces higher brain retention compared to IT injection of EVs. In contrast, EVs show superior brain accumulation compared to the cells when administered via IP and IV routes, respectively. Finally, a comprehensive chemistry panel of blood samples demonstrates no cytotoxic effects of either carrier. Overall, living cells and EVs have a great potential to be used for drug delivery to the brain. When identifying the ideal drug carrier, the route of administration could make big differences in CNS drug delivery.

The Interaction Between Long Non-Coding RNAs and Cancer-Associated Fibroblasts in Lung Cancer

Despite great advances in research and treatment, lung cancer is still one of the most leading causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Evidence is mounting that dynamic communication network in the tumor microenvironment (TME) play an integral role in tumor initiation and development. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), which promote tumor growth and metastasis, are the most important stroma component in the tumor microenvironment. Consequently, in-depth identification of relevant molecular mechanisms and biomarkers related to CAFs will increase understanding of tumor development process, which is of great significance for precise treatment of lung cancer. With the development of sequencing technologies such as microarray and next-generation sequencing, lncRNAs without protein-coding ability have been found to act as communicators between tumor cells and CAFs. LncRNAs participate in the activation of normal fibroblasts (NFs) to CAFs. Moreover, activated CAFs can influence the gene expression and secretion characteristics of cells through lncRNAs, enhancing the malignant biological process in tumor cells. In addition, lncRNA-loaded exosomes are considered to be another important form of crosstalk between tumor cells and CAFs. In this review, we focus on the interaction between tumor cells and CAFs mediated by lncRNAs in the lung cancer microenvironment, and discuss the analysis of biological function and molecular mechanism. Furthermore, it contributes to paving a novel direction for the clinical treatment of lung cancer.

Poor Sleep Quality is Linked to Elevated Extracellular Vesicle-Associated Inflammatory Cytokines in Warfighters With Chronic Mild Traumatic Brain Injuries

Background: Elevations of inflammatory cytokine levels occur immediately after mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) and can persist for years. These elevations have been associated with neuropsychological outcomes, including depression and PTSD symptoms. Sleep disorders, another common sequelae of mTBI, are independently associated with inflammation in otherwise healthy individuals. However, whether sleep and inflammation are linked in chronic mTBI has not been reported.

Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional cohort of warfighters was used to investigate the hypothesis that inflammation may be linked to sleep quality in chronic mTBI. Clinical history, peripheral blood samples, and sleep quality scores were collected from 182 warfighters (n = 138 mTBI; n = 44 controls) during enrollment in the Chronic Effects of Neurotrauma Consortium study. Biomarkers of inflammation (IL-6, IL-10, TNFα cytokines) from plasma and plasma-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) were quantified using single molecule array. Relationships between sleep quality and cytokine levels were assessed, controlling for age, sex, and BMI. Using clinical cutoff scores for sleep quality, mTBI patients were then divided into “good” and “poor” sleepers and cytokine levels compared between groups.

Results: In mTBI participants, sleep quality was significantly associated with EV levels of IL-10 [ß (SE) = 0.11 (0.04), p = 0.01] and TNFα [ß (SE) = 0.07 (0.03), p < 0.01]. When divided according to “good” versus “poor” sleepers, those reporting poor sleep had significantly elevated EV IL-10 compared to those reporting good sleep [ß (SE) = 0.12 (0.04), p < 0.01]. Plasma-derived associations were not significant. No associations were found between sleep quality and cytokine levels in controls.

Conclusion: These results suggest a significant relationship between sleep quality and chronic inflammation in mTBI patients. Clinically, mTBI patients with a high likelihood of sleep disorders demonstrate elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines. Signal from EVs, though smaller in magnitude, may have stronger clinical associations than from plasma. Sleep-focused interventions may also serve to regulate chronic inflammatory processes in these patients. Larger prospective studies are needed to investigate the mechanisms and therapeutic implications of the likely bi-directional relationship between sleep and inflammation following mTBI.