1
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Oprea CI, Panait P, Essam ZM, Abd El-Aal RM, Gîrțu MA. Photoexcitation Processes in Oligomethine Cyanine Dyes for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells-Synthesis and Computational Study. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10040662. [PMID: 32252286 PMCID: PMC7221816 DOI: 10.3390/nano10040662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We report density functional theory (DFT) calculations of three newly synthesized oligomethine cyanine-based dyes as potential TiO2-sensitizers in dye-sensitized solar cells. The three dyes have π-symmetry and the same acceptor side, terminating in the carboxylic anchor, but they differ through the π-bridge and the donor groups. We perform DFT and time-dependent DFT studies and present the electronic structure and optical properties of the dyes alone as well as adsorbed to the TiO2 nanocluster, to provide some predictions on the photovoltaic performance of the system. We analyze theoretically the factors that can influence the short circuit current and the open circuit voltage of the dye-sensitized solar cells. We examine the matching of the absorption spectra of the dye and dye-nanocluster system with the solar irradiation spectrum. We display the energy level diagrams and discuss the alignment between the excited state of the dyes and the conduction band edge of the oxide as well as between the redox level of the electrolyte and the ground state of the dyes. We determine the electron density of the key molecular orbitals and analyze comparatively the electron transfer from the dye to the semiconducting substrate. To put our findings in the right perspective we compare the results of our calculations with those obtained for a coumarin-based dye used in fabricating and testing actual devices, for which experimental data regarding the photovoltaic performance are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corneliu I. Oprea
- Department of Physics and Electronics, Ovidius University of Constanța, 900527 Constanța, Romania;
| | - Petre Panait
- Doctoral School, Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, 077125 Bucharest, Romania;
| | - Zahraa M. Essam
- Department of Chemistry, Suez University, 43511 Suez, Egypt;
| | - Reda M. Abd El-Aal
- Department of Chemistry, Suez University, 43511 Suez, Egypt;
- Correspondence: (R.M.A.E.-A.); (M.A.G.)
| | - Mihai A. Gîrțu
- Department of Physics and Electronics, Ovidius University of Constanța, 900527 Constanța, Romania;
- Correspondence: (R.M.A.E.-A.); (M.A.G.)
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2
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Abstract
After presenting the basic theoretical models of excitation energy transfer and charge transfer, I describe some of the novel experimental methods used to probe them. Finally, I discuss recent results concerning ultrafast energy and charge transfer in biological systems, in chemical systems and in photovoltaics based on sensitized transition metal oxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majed Chergui
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire de Spectroscopie Ultrarapide, ISIC, Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), FSB, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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3
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Cole JM, Pepe G, Al Bahri OK, Cooper CB. Cosensitization in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Chem Rev 2019; 119:7279-7327. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline M. Cole
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
- ISIS Neutron and Muon Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, West Cambridge Site, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
- Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Giulio Pepe
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
| | - Othman K. Al Bahri
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher B. Cooper
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, West Cambridge Site, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
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4
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Mahl J, Neppl S, Roth F, Shavorskiy A, Huse N, Bluhm H, Eberhardt W, Gessner O. Real-time probing of charge-transfer induced interfacial fields in a dye-semiconductor system using time-resolved XPS. EPJ WEB OF CONFERENCES 2019. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/201920505021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Photo-induced charge carrier dynamics and transient interfacial fields at the interface between N3 polypyridine complexes and films of nanocrystalline ZnO are probed by picosecond time-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
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5
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Riente P, Noël T. Application of metal oxide semiconductors in light-driven organic transformations. Catal Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cy01170f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we provide an up-to-date overview of metal oxide semiconductors (MOS) as versatile and inexpensive photocatalysts to enable light-driven organic transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Riente
- Micro Flow Chemistry and Synthetic Methodology
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
- Eindhoven University of Technology
- Eindhoven
- The Netherlands
| | - Timothy Noël
- Micro Flow Chemistry and Synthetic Methodology
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry
- Eindhoven University of Technology
- Eindhoven
- The Netherlands
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6
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Revealing hole trapping in zinc oxide nanoparticles by time-resolved X-ray spectroscopy. Nat Commun 2018; 9:478. [PMID: 29396396 PMCID: PMC5797134 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-02870-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanostructures of transition metal oxides, such as zinc oxide, have attracted considerable interest for solar-energy conversion and photocatalysis. Both applications are sensitive to the transport and trapping of photoexcited charge carriers. The probing of electron trapping has recently become possible using time-resolved element-sensitive methods, such as X-ray spectroscopy. However, valence-band-trapped holes have so far escaped observation. Herein we use X-ray absorption spectroscopy combined with a dispersive X-ray emission spectrometer to probe the charge carrier relaxation and trapping processes in zinc oxide nanoparticles after above band-gap photoexcitation. Our results, supported by simulations, demonstrate that within 80 ps, photoexcited holes are trapped at singly charged oxygen vacancies, which causes an outward displacement by ~15% of the four surrounding zinc atoms away from the doubly charged vacancy. This identification of the hole traps provides insight for future developments of transition metal oxide-based nanodevices. Metal-oxide nanostructures are used in a range of light-driven applications, yet the fundamentals behind their properties are poorly understood. Here the authors probe photoexcited zinc oxide nanoparticles using time-resolved X-ray spectroscopy, identifying photocatalytically-active hole traps as oxygen vacancies in the lattice.
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7
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Effect of Nanodiamonds on the Optoelectronic Properties of TiO
$$_{2 }$$
2
Photoanode in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-017-2979-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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8
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Liu C, Jakubikova E. Two-step model for ultrafast interfacial electron transfer: limitations of Fermi's golden rule revealed by quantum dynamics simulations. Chem Sci 2017; 8:5979-5991. [PMID: 28989628 PMCID: PMC5621017 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc01169e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Interfacial electron transfer (IET) is one of the crucial steps in the light-harvesting process that occurs in various assemblies for solar energy conversion, such as dye-sensitized solar cells or dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cells. Computational studies of IET in dye-semiconductor assemblies employ a variety of approaches, ranging from phenomenological models such as Fermi's golden rule to more complex methods relying on explicit solutions of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation. This work investigates IET in a model pyridine-TiO2 assembly, with the goals of assessing the validity of Fermi's golden rule for calculation of the IET rates, understanding the importance of conformational sampling in modeling the IET process, and establishing an approach to rapid computational screening of dye-sensitizers that undergo fast IET into the semiconductor. Our results suggest that IET is a two-step process, in which the electron is first transferred into the semiconductor surface states, followed by diffusion of the electron into the nanoparticle bulk states. Furthermore, while Fermi's golden rule and related approaches are appropriate for predicting the initial IET rate (i.e., the initial transfer of an electron from the dye into the semiconductor surface states), they are not reliable for prediction of the overall IET rate. The inclusion of conformational sampling at room temperature into the model offers a more complete picture of the IET process, leading to a distribution of IET rates with a median rate faster than the IET rate obtained for the fully-optimized structure at 0 K. Finally, the two most important criteria for determination of the initial IET rate are the percentage of electron density on the linker in the excited state as well as the number of semiconductor acceptor states available at the energy of the excited state. Both of these can be obtained from relatively simple electronic structure calculations at either ab initio or semiempirical levels of theory and can thus be used for rapid screening of dyes with the desired properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Liu
- Department of Chemistry , North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , USA .
| | - Elena Jakubikova
- Department of Chemistry , North Carolina State University , Raleigh , North Carolina 27695 , USA .
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9
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Baldini E, Palmieri T, Rossi T, Oppermann M, Pomarico E, Auböck G, Chergui M. Interfacial Electron Injection Probed by a Substrate-Specific Excitonic Signature. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:11584-11589. [PMID: 28762734 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b06322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafast interfacial electron transfer in sensitized solar cells has mostly been probed by visible-to-terahertz radiation, which is sensitive to the free carriers in the conduction band of the semiconductor substrate. Here, we demonstrate the use of deep-ultraviolet continuum pulses to probe the interfacial electron transfer, by detecting a specific excitonic transition in both N719-sensitized anatase TiO2 and wurtzite ZnO nanoparticles. Our results are compared to those obtained on bare nanoparticles upon above-gap excitation. We show that the signal upon electron injection from the N719 dye into TiO2 is dominated by long-range Coulomb screening of the final states of the excitonic transitions, whereas in sensitized ZnO it is dominated by phase-space filling. The present approach offers a possible route to detecting interfacial electron transfer in a broad class of systems, including other transition metal oxides or sensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Baldini
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tania Palmieri
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rossi
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Malte Oppermann
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Enrico Pomarico
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gerald Auböck
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Majed Chergui
- Laboratory of Ultrafast Spectroscopy, ISIC and Lausanne Centre for Ultrafast Science (LACUS), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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10
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Dillon RJ, Alibabaei L, Meyer TJ, Papanikolas JM. Enabling Efficient Creation of Long-Lived Charge-Separation on Dye-Sensitized NiO Photocathodes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:26786-26796. [PMID: 28731676 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b05856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The hole-injection and recombination photophysics for NiO sensitized with RuP ([RuII(bpy)2(4,4'-(PO3H2)2-bpy)]2+) are explored. Ultrafast transient absorption (TA) measurements performed with an external electrochemical bias reveal the efficiency for productive hole-injection, that is, quenching of the dye excited state that results in a detectable charge-separated electron-hole pair, is linearly dependent on the electronic occupation of intragap states in the NiO film. Population of these states via a negative applied potential increases the efficiency from 0% to 100%. The results indicate the primary loss mechanism for dye-sensitized NiO is rapid nongeminate recombination enabled by the presence of latent holes in the surface of the NiO film. Our findings suggest a new design paradigm for NiO photocathodes and devices centered on the avoidance of this recombination pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Dillon
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, United States
| | - Leila Alibabaei
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, United States
| | - Thomas J Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, United States
| | - John M Papanikolas
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514, United States
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11
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Liao T, Sun Z, Dou SX. Theoretically Manipulating Quantum Dots on Two-Dimensional TiO 2 Monolayer for Effective Visible Light Absorption. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:8255-8262. [PMID: 28218505 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b15741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Low solar energy harvesting and conversion efficiency has become a major problem in solar energy science and engineering owing to the difficulty in capturing solar energy across the wide solar spectrum, especially in the visible light range. Inspired by the extraordinary properties of materials arising from decreased dimensions, in this study, we explore a nanocontact system formed by a two-dimensional (2D) TiO2 monolayer and II-VI semiconductor (CdX)13 (X = S, Se, and Te) nanocages for engineering the visible light absorption. The nanocontact system, via either Ti-X or Cd-O bond coupling mechanism, forms an ideal type II band alignment, where the stronger donor-acceptor coupling in the Ti-X contact system more efficiently relaxes the coupled geometry and helps it to couple to more electrons, therefore leading to an enhancement of the absorption peaks in the visible frequency range. On changing the element X in (CdX)13 from S to Se then Te, a red shift of the visible light absorption peaks accompanied by stimulating optical response of the whole nanocontact system was observed. Nanocontacting semiconductors comprising low-dimensional (CdX)13 nanocage@TiO2 monolayer systems, which promote charge separation and optical absorption in the visible range that arise from the effects of adsorbent nature, decreasing size, and efficient interfacial coupling mechanism, are therefore promising photovoltaic and photocatalytic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Liao
- Institute for Superconducting & Electronic Materials, University of Wollongong, Australia and ‡School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Ziqi Sun
- Institute for Superconducting & Electronic Materials, University of Wollongong, Australia and ‡School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
| | - Shi Xue Dou
- Institute for Superconducting & Electronic Materials, University of Wollongong, Australia and ‡School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia
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12
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Vanselous H, Stingel AM, Petersen PB. Interferometric 2D Sum Frequency Generation Spectroscopy Reveals Structural Heterogeneity of Catalytic Monolayers on Transparent Materials. J Phys Chem Lett 2017; 8:825-830. [PMID: 28151677 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.6b03025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Molecular monolayers exhibit structural and dynamical properties that are different from their bulk counterparts due to their interaction with the substrate. Extracting these distinct properties is crucial for a better understanding of processes such as heterogeneous catalysis and interfacial charge transfer. Ultrafast nonlinear spectroscopic techniques such as 2D infrared (2D IR) spectroscopy are powerful tools for understanding molecular dynamics in complex bulk systems. Here, we build on technical advancements in 2D IR and heterodyne-detected sum frequency generation (SFG) spectroscopy to study a CO2 reduction catalyst on nanostructured TiO2 with interferometric 2D SFG spectroscopy. Our method combines phase-stable heterodyne detection employing an external local oscillator with a broad-band pump pulse pair to provide the first high spectral and temporal resolution 2D SFG spectra of a transparent material. We determine the overall molecular orientation of the catalyst and find that there is a static structural heterogeneity reflective of different local environments at the surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather Vanselous
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Ashley M Stingel
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Poul B Petersen
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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13
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Abdellah M, El-Zohry AM, Antila LJ, Windle CD, Reisner E, Hammarström L. Time-Resolved IR Spectroscopy Reveals a Mechanism with TiO 2 as a Reversible Electron Acceptor in a TiO 2-Re Catalyst System for CO 2 Photoreduction. J Am Chem Soc 2017; 139:1226-1232. [PMID: 28013539 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b11308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Attaching the phosphonated molecular catalyst [ReIBr(bpy)(CO)3]0 to the wide-bandgap semiconductor TiO2 strongly enhances the rate of visible-light-driven reduction of CO2 to CO in dimethylformamide with triethanolamine (TEOA) as sacrificial electron donor. Herein, we show by transient mid-IR spectroscopy that the mechanism of catalyst photoreduction is initiated by ultrafast electron injection into TiO2, followed by rapid (ps-ns) and sequential two-electron oxidation of TEOA that is coordinated to the Re center. The injected electrons can be stored in the conduction band of TiO2 on an ms-s time scale, and we propose that they lead to further reduction of the Re catalyst and completion of the catalytic cycle. Thus, the excited Re catalyst gives away one electron and would eventually get three electrons back. The function of an electron reservoir would represent a role for TiO2 in photocatalytic CO2 reduction that has previously not been considered. We propose that the increase in photocatalytic activity upon heterogenization of the catalyst to TiO2 is due to the slow charge recombination and the high oxidative power of the ReII species after electron injection as compared to the excited MLCT state of the unbound Re catalyst or when immobilized on ZrO2, which results in a more efficient reaction with TEOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Abdellah
- Ångström Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University , Box 523, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden.,Department of Chemistry, Qena Faculty of Science, South Valley University , 83523 Qena, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M El-Zohry
- Ångström Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University , Box 523, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Liisa J Antila
- Ångström Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University , Box 523, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Christopher D Windle
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| | - Erwin Reisner
- Christian Doppler Laboratory for Sustainable SynGas Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge , Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, United Kingdom
| | - Leif Hammarström
- Ångström Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Uppsala University , Box 523, 75120 Uppsala, Sweden
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14
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Oehrlein AN, Sanchez-Diaz A, Goff PC, Ziegler GM, Pappenfus TM, Mann KR, Blank DA, Gladfelter WL. Effects of a phosphonate anchoring group on the excited state electron transfer rates from a terthiophene chromophore to a ZnO nanocrystal. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2017; 19:24294-24303. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cp03784h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Relative to carboxyl-anchored chromophores, phosphonate-anchored dyes are bound more strongly but slow the excited state electron transfer to ZnO nanocrystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda N. Oehrlein
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Minnesota-Twin Cities
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | | | - Philip C. Goff
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Minnesota-Twin Cities
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | | | - Ted M. Pappenfus
- Division of Science and Mathematics
- University of Minnesota-Morris
- Morris
- USA
| | - Kent R. Mann
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Minnesota-Twin Cities
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - David A. Blank
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Minnesota-Twin Cities
- Minneapolis
- USA
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15
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Al-Alwani MA, Mohamad AB, Ludin NA, Kadhum AAH, Sopian K. Dye-sensitised solar cells: Development, structure, operation principles, electron kinetics, characterisation, synthesis materials and natural photosensitisers. RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY REVIEWS 2016; 65:183-213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.06.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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16
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Brennaman MK, Dillon RJ, Alibabaei L, Gish MK, Dares CJ, Ashford DL, House RL, Meyer GJ, Papanikolas JM, Meyer TJ. Finding the Way to Solar Fuels with Dye-Sensitized Photoelectrosynthesis Cells. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:13085-13102. [PMID: 27654634 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b06466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cell (DSPEC) integrates high bandgap, nanoparticle oxide semiconductors with the light-absorbing and catalytic properties of designed chromophore-catalyst assemblies. The goals are photoelectrochemical water splitting into hydrogen and oxygen and reduction of CO2 by water to give oxygen and carbon-based fuels. Solar-driven water oxidation occurs at a photoanode and water or CO2 reduction at a cathode or photocathode initiated by molecular-level light absorption. Light absorption is followed by electron or hole injection, catalyst activation, and catalytic water oxidation or water/CO2 reduction. The DSPEC is of recent origin but significant progress has been made. It has the potential to play an important role in our energy future.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kyle Brennaman
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Robert J Dillon
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Leila Alibabaei
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Melissa K Gish
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Christopher J Dares
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Dennis L Ashford
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Ralph L House
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Gerald J Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - John M Papanikolas
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Thomas J Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , CB#3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
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17
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Ranjbar M, Mozaffari SA, Kouhestanian E, Salar Amoli H. Sonochemical synthesis and characterization of a Zn(II) supramolecule, bis(2,6 diaminopyridinium)bis(pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylato)zincate(II), as a novel precursor for the ZnO-based dye sensitizer solar cell. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2016.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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18
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On the performance of ruthenium dyes in dye sensitized solar cells: a free cluster approach based on theoretical indexes. J Mol Model 2016; 22:118. [DOI: 10.1007/s00894-016-2984-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Abstract
Understanding photoinduced charge transfer from nanomaterials is essential to the many applications of these materials. This review summarizes recent progress in understanding charge transfer from quantum dots (QDs), an ideal model system for investigating fundamental charge transfer properties of low-dimensional quantum-confined nanomaterials. We first discuss charge transfer from QDs to weakly coupled acceptors within the framework of Marcus nonadiabatic electron transfer (ET) theory, focusing on the dependence of ET rates on reorganization energy, electronic coupling, and driving force. Because of the strong electron-hole interaction, we show that ET from QDs should be described by the Auger-assisted ET model, which is significantly different from ET between molecules or from bulk semiconductor electrodes. For strongly quantum-confined QDs on semiconductor surfaces, the coupling can fall within the strong coupling limit, in which case the donor-acceptor interaction and ET properties can be described by the Newns-Anderson model of chemisorption. We also briefly discuss recent progress in controlling charge transfer properties in quantum-confined nanoheterostructures through wavefunction engineering and multiple exciton dissociation. Finally, we identify a few key areas for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiming Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
| | - Ye Yang
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
| | - Kaifeng Wu
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
| | - Tianquan Lian
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322;
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20
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Nance J, Bowman DN, Mukherjee S, Kelley CT, Jakubikova E. Insights into the Spin-State Transitions in [Fe(tpy)2]2+: Importance of the Terpyridine Rocking Motion. Inorg Chem 2015; 54:11259-68. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.5b01747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- James Nance
- Department of Mathematics and ‡Department of
Chemistry, North Carolina State University (NCSU), Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - David N. Bowman
- Department of Mathematics and ‡Department of
Chemistry, North Carolina State University (NCSU), Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Sriparna Mukherjee
- Department of Mathematics and ‡Department of
Chemistry, North Carolina State University (NCSU), Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - C. T. Kelley
- Department of Mathematics and ‡Department of
Chemistry, North Carolina State University (NCSU), Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Elena Jakubikova
- Department of Mathematics and ‡Department of
Chemistry, North Carolina State University (NCSU), Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
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21
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Kumar P, Pal SK. Ab Initio Assessment of the Structural and Optoelectronic Properties of Organic–ZnO Nanoclusters. J Phys Chem A 2015; 119:10067-75. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.5b04109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pushpendra Kumar
- School of Basic Sciences and Advanced
Materials Research Center, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Mandi 175005, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Suman Kalyan Pal
- School of Basic Sciences and Advanced
Materials Research Center, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Kamand, Mandi 175005, Himachal Pradesh, India
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22
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Knoll JD, Albani BA, Turro C. New Ru(II) complexes for dual photoreactivity: ligand exchange and (1)O2 generation. Acc Chem Res 2015; 48:2280-7. [PMID: 26186416 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.5b00227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Uncovering the factors that govern the electronic structure of Ru(II)-polypyridyl complexes is critical in designing new compounds for desired photochemical reactions, and strategies to tune excited states for ligand dissociation and (1)O2 production are discussed herein. The generally accepted mechanism for photoinduced ligand dissociation proposes that population of the dissociative triplet ligand field ((3)LF) state proceeds through thermal population from the vibrationally cooled triplet metal-to-ligand charge transfer ((3)MLCT) state; however, temperature-dependent emission spectroscopy provides varied activation energies using the emission and ligand exchange quantum yields for [Ru(bpy)2(L)2](2+) (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine; L = CH3CN or py). This suggests that population of the (3)LF state proceeds from the vibrationally excited (3)MLCT state. Because the quantum yield of ligand dissociation for nitriles is much more efficient than that for py, steric bulk was introduced into the ligand set to distort the pseudo-octahedral geometry and lower the energy of the (3)LF state. The py dissociation quantum yield with 500 nm irradiation in a series of [Ru(tpy)(NN)(py)](2+) complexes (tpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine; NN = bpy, 6,6'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine (Me2bpy), 2,2'-biquinoline (biq)) increases by 2-3 orders of magnitude with the sterically bulky Me2bpy and biq ligands relative to bpy. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy reveals population of the (3)LF state within 3-7 ps when NN is bulky, and density functional theory calculations support stabilized (3)LF states. Dual activity via ligand dissociation and (1)O2 production can be achieved by careful selection of the ligand set to tune the excited-state dynamics. Incorporation of an extended π system in Ru(II) complexes such as [Ru(bpy)(dppn)(CH3CN)2](2+) (dppn = benzo[i]dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine) and [Ru(tpy)(Me2dppn)(py)](2+) (Me2dppn = 3,6-dimethylbenzo[i]dipyrido[3,2-a:2',3'-c]phenazine) introduces low-lying, long-lived dppn/Me2dppn (3)ππ* excited states that generate (1)O2. Similar to [Ru(bpy)2(CH3CN)2](2+), photodissociation of CH3CN occurs upon irradiation of [Ru(bpy)(dppn)(CH3CN)2](2+), although with lower efficiency because of the presence of the (3)ππ* state. The steric bulk in [Ru(tpy)(Me2dppn)(py)](2+) is critical in facilitating the photoinduced py dissociation, as the analogous complex [Ru(tpy)(dppn)(py)](2+) produces (1)O2 with near-unit efficiency. The ability to tune the relative energies of the excited states provides a means to design potentially more active drugs for photochemotherapy because the photorelease of drugs can be coupled to the therapeutic action of reactive oxygen species, effecting cell death via two different mechanisms. The lessons learned about tuning of the excited-state properties can be applied to the use of Ru(II)-polypyridyl compounds in a variety of applications, such as solar energy conversion, sensors and switches, and molecular machines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica D. Knoll
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Bryan A. Albani
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Claudia Turro
- Department
of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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23
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Cheema H, Younts R, Ogbose L, Gautam B, Gundogdu K, El-Shafei A. A femtosecond study of the anomaly in electron injection for dye-sensitized solar cells: the influence of isomerization employing Ru(ii) sensitizers with anthracene and phenanthrene ancillary ligands. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:2750-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp04741a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
HD-7 is prone to ISC and shows a continuous increase in the triplet TA signal, whereas HD-8 shows enhanced singlet injection, followed by decay in the TA signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hammad Cheema
- Polymer and Color Chemistry Program
- North Carolina State University
- Raleigh
- USA
| | - Robert Younts
- Physics Department
- North Carolina State University
- Raleigh
- USA
| | | | - Bhoj Gautam
- Physics Department
- North Carolina State University
- Raleigh
- USA
| | - Kenan Gundogdu
- Physics Department
- North Carolina State University
- Raleigh
- USA
| | - Ahmed El-Shafei
- Polymer and Color Chemistry Program
- North Carolina State University
- Raleigh
- USA
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24
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Ashford DL, Brennaman MK, Brown RJ, Keinan S, Concepcion JJ, Papanikolas JM, Templeton JL, Meyer TJ. Varying the Electronic Structure of Surface-Bound Ruthenium(II) Polypyridyl Complexes. Inorg Chem 2014; 54:460-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ic501682k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis L. Ashford
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - M. Kyle Brennaman
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Robert J. Brown
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Shahar Keinan
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Javier J. Concepcion
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - John M. Papanikolas
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Joseph L. Templeton
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Thomas J. Meyer
- Department
of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB 3290, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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25
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King AW, McClure BA, Jin Y, Rack JJ. Investigating the effects of solvent on the ultrafast dynamics of a photoreversible ruthenium sulfoxide complex. J Phys Chem A 2014; 118:10425-32. [PMID: 25137451 DOI: 10.1021/jp504078g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The photochromic complex [Ru(bpy)2(pySO)](2+) [pySO is 2-(isopropylsulfinylmethyl)pyridine] undergoes wavelength specific, photoreversible S → O and O → S linkage isomerizations. Irradiation of the ground state S-bonded complex with blue light produces the O-bonded isomer, while irradiation of the O-bonded isomer with green light produces the S-bonded isomer. Furthermore, isomerization time constants are solvent-dependent. Ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy has been employed to investigate the relaxation processes that lead to S → O isomerization in 1,2-dichloroethane, propylene carbonate, and ethylene glycol. The isomerization is most rapid in 1,2-dichloroethane and slowest in ethylene glycol. Photochemical reversion of the O-bonded isomer in propylene carbonate has further been investigated and indicates similar relaxation or isomerization kinetics, though the excited states that lead to isomerization are distinct between the S- and O-bonded isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert W King
- Nanoscale and Quantum Phenomena Institute, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio University , Athens, Ohio 45701, United States
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26
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Oprea CI, Panait P, Gîrţu MA. DFT study of binding and electron transfer from colorless aromatic pollutants to a TiO2 nanocluster: Application to photocatalytic degradation under visible light irradiation. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 5:1016-30. [PMID: 25161837 PMCID: PMC4143121 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.5.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We report results of density functional theory (DFT) calculations on some colorless aromatic systems adsorbed on a TiO2 nanocluster, in order to explain experimental results regarding the photocatalytic degradation of these pollutants under visible light irradiation. Based on our modeling, we are able to clarify why transparent pollutants can degrade under visible light in the presence of a catalyst that absorbs only in the UV, to explain experimental data regarding differences in the efficiency of the degradation process, and to state the key requirements for effective water-cleaning. For that purpose, we analyze the absorption spectrum of the free and adsorbed molecules, the binding configurations, the matching of the energy levels with the oxide catalyst and the likelihood of the charge-transfer to the substrate. The comparison between several colorless aniline and phenolic systems allows a correlation between the chemical structure and the degradation rate of these pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corneliu I Oprea
- Department of Physics, Ovidius University of Constanţa, Constanţa 900527, Romania
| | - Petre Panait
- Department of Physics, Ovidius University of Constanţa, Constanţa 900527, Romania
| | - Mihai A Gîrţu
- Department of Physics, Ovidius University of Constanţa, Constanţa 900527, Romania
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27
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Anselmi C, Mosconi E, Pastore M, Ronca E, De Angelis F. Adsorption of organic dyes on TiO2 surfaces in dye-sensitized solar cells: interplay of theory and experiment. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 14:15963-74. [PMID: 23108504 DOI: 10.1039/c2cp43006a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
First-principles computer simulations can contribute to a deeper understanding of the dye/semiconductor interface lying at the heart of Dye-sensitized Solar Cells (DSCs). Here, we present the results of simulation of dye adsorption onto TiO(2) surfaces, and of their implications for the functioning of the corresponding solar cells. We propose an integrated strategy which combines FT-IR measurements with DFT calculations to individuate the energetically favorable TiO(2) adsorption mode of acetic acid, as a meaningful model for realistic organic dyes. Although we found a sizable variability in the relative stability of the considered adsorption modes with the model system and the method, a bridged bidentate structure was found to closely match the FT-IR frequency pattern, also being calculated as the most stable adsorption mode by calculations in solution. This adsorption mode was found to be the most stable binding also for realistic organic dyes bearing cyanoacrylic anchoring groups, while for a rhodanine-3-acetic acid anchoring group, an undissociated monodentate adsorption mode was found to be of comparable stability. The structural differences induced by the different anchoring groups were related to the different electron injection/recombination with oxidized dye properties which were experimentally assessed for the two classes of dyes. A stronger coupling and a possibly faster electron injection were also calculated for the bridged bidentate mode. We then investigated the adsorption mode and I(2) binding of prototype organic dyes. Car-Parrinello molecular dynamics and geometry optimizations were performed for two coumarin dyes differing by the length of the π-bridge separating the donor and acceptor moieties. We related the decreasing distance of the carbonylic oxygen from the titania to an increased I(2) concentration in proximity of the oxide surface, which might account for the different observed photovoltaic performances. The interplay between theory/simulation and experiments appears to be the key to further DSCs progress, both concerning the design of new dye sensitizers and their interaction with the semiconductor and with the solution environment and/or an electrolyte upon adsorption onto the semiconductor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Anselmi
- Computational Laboratory for Hybrid/Organic Photovoltaics, Istituto CNR di Scienze e Tecnologie Molecolari, Perugia, Italy
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28
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Neppl S, Shavorskiy A, Zegkinoglou I, Fraund M, Slaughter DS, Troy T, Ziemkiewicz MP, Ahmed M, Gul S, Rude B, Zhang JZ, Tremsin AS, Glans PA, Liu YS, Wu CH, Guo J, Salmeron M, Bluhm H, Gessner O. Capturing interfacial photoelectrochemical dynamics with picosecond time-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Faraday Discuss 2014; 171:219-41. [DOI: 10.1039/c4fd00036f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Time-resolved core-level spectroscopy using laser pulses to initiate and short X-ray pulses to trace photoinduced processes has the unique potential to provide electronic state- and atomic site-specific insight into fundamental electron dynamics in complex systems. Time-domain studies using transient X-ray absorption and emission techniques have proven extremely valuable to investigate electronic and structural dynamics in isolated and solvated molecules. Here, we describe the implementation of a picosecond time-resolved X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (TRXPS) technique at the Advanced Light Source (ALS) and its application to monitor photoinduced electron dynamics at the technologically pertinent interface formed by N3 dye molecules anchored to nanoporous ZnO. Indications for a dynamical chemical shift of the Ru3d photoemission line originating from the N3 metal centre are observed ∼30 ps after resonant HOMO–LUMO excitation with a visible laser pump pulse. The transient changes in the TRXPS spectra are accompanied by a characteristic surface photovoltage (SPV) response of the ZnO substrate on a pico- to nanosecond time scale. The interplay between the two phenomena is discussed in the context of possible electronic relaxation and recombination pathways that lead to the neutralisation of the transiently oxidised dye after ultrafast electron injection. A detailed account of the experimental technique is given including an analysis of the chemical modification of the nano-structured ZnO substrate during extended periods of solution-based dye sensitisation and its relevance for studies using surface-sensitive spectroscopy techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Neppl
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Andrey Shavorskiy
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Ioannis Zegkinoglou
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Matthew Fraund
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Daniel S. Slaughter
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Tyler Troy
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | | | - Musahid Ahmed
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Sheraz Gul
- Advanced Light Source
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- University of California Santa Cruz
| | - Bruce Rude
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Jin Z. Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- University of California Santa Cruz
- Santa Cruz, USA
| | - Anton S. Tremsin
- Space Sciences Laboratory
- University of California Berkeley
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Per-Anders Glans
- Advanced Light Source
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Yi-Sheng Liu
- Advanced Light Source
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Cheng Hao Wu
- Materials Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
- Department of Chemistry
- University of California Berkeley
| | - Jinghua Guo
- Advanced Light Source
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Miquel Salmeron
- Materials Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Hendrik Bluhm
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
| | - Oliver Gessner
- Chemical Sciences Division
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
- Berkeley, USA
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29
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Zhang M, Yang L, Yan C, Ma W, Wang P. Multiple-state interfacial electron injection competes with excited state relaxation and de-excitation to determine external quantum efficiencies of organic dye-sensitized solar cells. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:20578-85. [DOI: 10.1039/c4cp03230f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We have revealed stepwise excited state relaxations and multiple state electron injections at a realistic TiO2/dye/electrolyte interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun, China
| | - Lin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun, China
| | - Cancan Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun, China
| | - Wentao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun, China
| | - Peng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry
- Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Changchun, China
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30
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Li Z, Leed NA, Dickson-Karn NM, Dunbar KR, Turro C. Directional charge transfer and highly reducing and oxidizing excited states of new dirhodium(ii,ii) complexes: potential applications in solar energy conversion. Chem Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3sc52366g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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31
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Luitel T, Zamborini FP. Covalent modification of photoanodes for stable dye-sensitized solar cells. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2013; 29:13582-94. [PMID: 24087979 DOI: 10.1021/la402256v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes the surface modification of TiO2 with 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (APTES) followed by covalent attachment of Ru-based N719 dye molecules to TiO2 through an amide linkage for use as photoanodes (PAs) in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) confirms the surface chemistry between the TiO2 and dye. The photovoltaic efficiency of DSSCs with covalently linked dye is very similar (6-7%) to that of traditionally prepared DSSCs prepared by direct immersion when both have similar dye coverage. Importantly, the efficiency of PAs with covalently linked dye did not change after storage for more than 60 days in air, whereas the traditionally prepared PAs decreased dramatically after 1 day and lost most of their efficiency after a week. FTIR and UV-vis characterization of the dye suggests that covalent linkage improves stability by preventing the loss of the thiocyanato ligands and/or tetrabutylammonium cations on the dye. PAs with covalently linked dye are also more stable toward water, acid, heat, and UV light compared to traditionally prepared PAs and are more stable compared to other modified PAs with dye attached through electrostatic or hydrogen-bonding interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tulashi Luitel
- Department of Chemistry, University of Louisville , Louisville, Kentucky 40292, United States
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32
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Yue Y, Grusenmeyer T, Ma Z, Zhang P, Pham TT, Mague JT, Donahue JP, Schmehl RH, Beratan DN, Rubtsov IV. Evaluating the Extent of Intramolecular Charge Transfer in the Excited States of Rhenium(I) Donor–Acceptor Complexes with Time-Resolved Vibrational Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 2013; 117:15903-16. [DOI: 10.1021/jp409628e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuankai Yue
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Tod Grusenmeyer
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Zheng Ma
- Departments
of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Peng Zhang
- Departments
of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Tri Tat Pham
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Joel T. Mague
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - James P. Donahue
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - Russell H. Schmehl
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
| | - David N. Beratan
- Departments
of Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Physics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Igor V. Rubtsov
- Department
of Chemistry, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, United States
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33
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Hart AS, Chandra BKC, Gobeze HB, Sequeira LR, D'Souza F. Porphyrin-sensitized solar cells: effect of carboxyl anchor group orientation on the cell performance. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:5314-5323. [PMID: 23647324 DOI: 10.1021/am401201q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The effect of the orientation of the porphyrin sensitizer onto the TiO2 surface on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) is reported. Free-base and zinc porphyrins bearing a carboxyl anchoring group at the para, meta, or ortho positions of one of the meso-phenyl rings were synthesized for application in Grätzel-type photoelectrochemical cells. The remainder of the meso-phenyl rings was substituted with alkyl chains of different length to visualize any aggregation effects. Absorption and fluorescence studies were performed to characterize and observe spectral coverage of the thirteen newly synthesized porphyrin derivatives. Photoelectrochemical studies were performed after immobilization of porphyrins onto nanocrystalline TiO2 and compared with DSSC constructed using N719 dye as reference. The performance of DSSCs with the porphyrin anchoring at the para or meta position were found to greatly exceed those with the anchoring group in the ortho position. Additionally, cells constructed using zinc porphyrin derivatives outperformed the free-base porphyrin analogs. Better dye regeneration efficiency for the zinc porphyrin derivatives compared to their free-base porphyrin analogs, and for the meta and para derivatives over the ortho derivatives was evaluated from electrochemical impedance spectroscopy studies. Femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy studies were performed to probe the kinetics of charge injection and charge recombination with respect to the orientation of porphyrin macrocycle on TiO2 surface. The ortho porphyrin derivative with an almost flat orientation to the TiO2 surface revealed fast charge recombination and suggested occurrence of through-space charge transfer. The overall structure-performance trends observed for the present porphyrin DSSCs have been rationalized based on spectral, electrochemical, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and transient spectroscopy results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron S Hart
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas 76203-5017, United States
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34
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Oprea CI, Panait P, Cimpoesu F, Ferbinteanu M, Gîrţu MA. Density Functional Theory (DFT) Study of Coumarin-based Dyes Adsorbed on TiO₂ Nanoclusters-Applications to Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. MATERIALS 2013; 6:2372-2392. [PMID: 28809278 PMCID: PMC5458949 DOI: 10.3390/ma6062372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Coumarin-based dyes have been successfully used in dye-sensitized solar cells, leading to photovoltaic conversion efficiencies of up to about 8%. Given the need to better understand the behavior of the dye adsorbed on the TiO2 nanoparticle, we report results of density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) studies of several coumarin-based dyes, as well as complex systems consisting of the dye bound to a TiO2 cluster. We provide the electronic structure and simulated UV-Vis spectra of the dyes alone and adsorbed to the cluster and discuss the matching with the solar spectrum. We display the energy level diagrams and the electron density of the key molecular orbitals and analyze the electron transfer from the dye to the oxide. Finally, we compare our theoretical results with the experimental data available and discuss the key issues that influence the device performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corneliu I Oprea
- Department of Physics, Ovidius University of Constanţa, Constanţa 900527, Romania.
| | - Petre Panait
- Department of Physics, Ovidius University of Constanţa, Constanţa 900527, Romania.
| | - Fanica Cimpoesu
- Department of Theoretical Chemistry, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Bucharest 060021, Romania.
| | - Marilena Ferbinteanu
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, University of Bucharest, Bucharest 020462, Romania.
| | - Mihai A Gîrţu
- Department of Physics, Ovidius University of Constanţa, Constanţa 900527, Romania.
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35
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Li Y, Song P, Liu J, Su R, Zhao M. Charge transfer and optoelectronic properties in the triarylamine-based donor–π bridge–acceptor dyes for dye-sensitised solar cells. MOLECULAR SIMULATION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/08927022.2012.751532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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36
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Patrocinio AOT, Frin KPM, Murakami Iha NY. Solid State Molecular Device Based on a Rhenium(I) Polypyridyl Complex Immobilized on TiO2 Films. Inorg Chem 2013; 52:5889-96. [DOI: 10.1021/ic3028572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Karina P. M. Frin
- Centro de Ciências Naturais
e Humanas, Universidade Federal do ABC,
Santo André 09210-170, Brazil
| | - Neyde Y. Murakami Iha
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Energy Conversion, Instituto de Química-USP, São Paulo 05508-900,
Brazil
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37
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Banerjee T, Kaniyankandy S, Das A, Ghosh HN. Synthesis, Steady-State, and Femtosecond Transient Absorption Studies of Resorcinol Bound Ruthenium(II)- and Osmium(II)-polypyridyl Complexes on Nano-TiO2 Surface in Water. Inorg Chem 2013; 52:5366-77. [DOI: 10.1021/ic4003548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tanmay Banerjee
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar 364002, India
| | - Sreejith Kaniyankandy
- Radiation and Photochemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
| | - Amitava Das
- Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar 364002, India
| | - Hirendra Nath Ghosh
- Radiation and Photochemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Mumbai 400085, India
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38
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Effects of ligand LUMO levels, anchoring groups and spacers in Ru(II)-based terpyridine and dipyrazinylpyridine complexes on adsorption and photoconversion efficiency in DSSCs. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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39
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Song W, Chen Z, Glasson CRK, Hanson K, Luo H, Norris MR, Ashford DL, Concepcion JJ, Brennaman MK, Meyer TJ. Interfacial dynamics and solar fuel formation in dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cells. Chemphyschem 2012; 13:2882-90. [PMID: 22715164 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201200100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2012] [Revised: 05/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Dye-sensitized photoelectrosynthesis cells (DSPECs) represent a promising approach to solar fuels with solar-energy storage in chemical bonds. The targets are water splitting and carbon dioxide reduction by water to CO, other oxygenates, or hydrocarbons. DSPECs are based on dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) but with photoexcitation driving physically separated solar fuel half reactions. A systematic basis for DSPECs is available based on a modular approach with light absorption/excited-state electron injection, and catalyst activation assembled in integrated structures. Progress has been made on catalysts for water oxidation and CO(2) reduction, dynamics of electron injection, back electron transfer, and photostability under conditions appropriate for water splitting. With added reductive scavengers, as surrogates for water oxidation, DSPECs have been investigated for hydrogen generation based on transient absorption and photocurrent measurements. Detailed insights are emerging which define kinetic and thermodynamic requirements for the individual processes underlying DSPEC performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Song
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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40
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Jungsuttiwong S, Yakhanthip T, Surakhot Y, Khunchalee J, Sudyoadsuk T, Promarak V, Kungwan N, Namuangruk S. The effect of conjugated spacer on novel carbazole derivatives for dye-sensitized solar cells: Density functional theory/time-dependent density functional theory study. J Comput Chem 2012; 33:1517-23. [DOI: 10.1002/jcc.22983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Revised: 02/03/2012] [Accepted: 03/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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41
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Jin S, Lian T. Electron transfer dynamics of single quantum dots on the (110) surface of a rutile TiO2 single crystal. Sci China Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-011-4431-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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42
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Brennaman MK, Patrocinio AOT, Song W, Jurss JW, Concepcion JJ, Hoertz PG, Traub MC, Iha NYM, Meyer TJ. Interfacial electron transfer dynamics following laser flash photolysis of [Ru(bpy)2((4,4'-PO3H2)2bpy)]2+ in TiO2 nanoparticle films in aqueous environments. CHEMSUSCHEM 2011; 4:216-227. [PMID: 21328552 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201000356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Nanosecond laser flash photolysis has been used to investigate injection and back electron transfer from the complex [(Ru(bpy)(2)(4,4'-(PO(3)H(2))(2)bpy)](2+) surface-bound to TiO(2) (TiO(2)-Ru(II)). The measurements were conducted under conditions appropriate for water oxidation catalysis by known single-site water oxidation catalysts. Systematic variations in average lifetimes for back electron transfer, <τ(bet)>, were observed with changes in pH, surface coverage, incident excitation intensity, and applied bias. The results were qualitatively consistent with a model involving rate-limiting thermal activation of injected electrons from trap sites to the conduction band or shallow trap sites followed by site-to-site hopping and interfacial electron transfer, TiO(2)(e(-))-Ru(3+) → TiO(2)-Ru(2+). The appearance of pH-dependent decreases in the efficiency of formation of TiO(2)-Ru(3+) and in incident-photon-to-current efficiencies with the added reductive scavenger hydroquinone point to pH-dependent back electron transfer processes on both the sub-nanosecond and millisecond-microsecond time scales, which could be significant in limiting long-term storage of multiple redox equivalents.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kyle Brennaman
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, USA.
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43
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Verma S, Kar P, Das A, Ghosh HN. Efficient Charge Separation in TiO2 Films Sensitized with Ruthenium(II)-Polypyridyl Complexes: Hole Stabilization by Ligand-Localized Charge-Transfer States. Chemistry 2011; 17:1561-8. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201001798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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44
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Fan W, Tan D, Deng W. Theoretical investigation of triphenylamine dye/titanium dioxide interface for dye-sensitized solar cells. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:16159-67. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp21308c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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45
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Clifford JN, Martínez-Ferrero E, Viterisi A, Palomares E. Sensitizer molecular structure-device efficiency relationship in dye sensitized solar cells. Chem Soc Rev 2011; 40:1635-46. [DOI: 10.1039/b920664g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 494] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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46
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Amelia M, Font M, Credi A. Luminescence quenching in self-assembled adducts of [Ru(dpp)3]2+ complexes and CdTe nanocrystals. Dalton Trans 2011; 40:12083-8. [DOI: 10.1039/c1dt11054c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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47
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Photoinduced electron transfer from Ru am(m)ine compounds with low-lying ligand field excited states to nanocrystalline TiO2. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2010.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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48
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Hagfeldt A, Boschloo G, Sun L, Kloo L, Pettersson H. Dye-sensitized solar cells. Chem Rev 2010; 110:6595-663. [PMID: 20831177 DOI: 10.1021/cr900356p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4259] [Impact Index Per Article: 304.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anders Hagfeldt
- Department of Physical and Analytical Chemistry, Uppsala University, Box 259, SE-751 05 Uppsala, Sweden.
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49
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Stublla A, Potvin PG. Ruthenium(II) Complexes of Carboxylated Terpyridines and Dipyrazinylpyridines. Eur J Inorg Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201000122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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50
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Kaledin AL, Huang Z, Yin Q, Dunphy EL, Constable EC, Housecroft CE, Geletii YV, Lian T, Hill CL, Musaev DG. Insights into Photoinduced Electron Transfer Between [Ru(mptpy)2]4+ (mptpy = 4′(4-methylpyridinio)-2,2′:6′,2′′-terpyridine) and [S2O8]2−: Computational and Experimental Studies. J Phys Chem A 2010; 114:6284-97. [DOI: 10.1021/jp100850n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexey L. Kaledin
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Zhuangqun Huang
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Qiushi Yin
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Emma L. Dunphy
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Edwin C. Constable
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Catherine E. Housecroft
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Yurii V. Geletii
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Tianquan Lian
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Craig L. Hill
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Djamaladdin G. Musaev
- Cherry L. Emerson Center for Scientific Computation and Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, and Department of Chemistry, University of Basel, CH 4056, Basel, Switzerland
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