Iron chelating agents for the treatment of iron overload

Synergistic Anti-Ferroptosis with a Minimalistic, Peroxide-Triggered Carbon Monoxide Donor for Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease, with current treatments primarily focusing on improving dopaminergic activity, providing symptomatic relief but failing to halt disease progression. Ferroptosis drives PD pathogenesis and is a potential therapeutic target. Herein, we introduce a novel peroxide-activated carbon monoxide (CO) donor, PCOD, featuring a streamlined structure designed to potentially enhance blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration and optimize therapeutic outcomes. PCOD releases CO upon activation by nucleophilic peroxides, e.g., ONOO- and H2O2. This mechanism provides a potent strategy against ferroptosis: first, scavenging peroxides that generate oxidative radicals involved in ferroptosis, and second, CO is proposed to inhibit Fenton chemistry through coordination to Fe2+. In MPTP-treated mice, PCOD prevents dopaminergic neuron loss in the substantia nigra and alleviates PD symptoms. This peroxide-triggered CO release offers a promising and innovative strategy to combat ferroptosis and neurodegeneration in PD.

Structural analysis and bioavailability study of low-molecular-weight chondroitin sulfate‑iron complexes prepared by photocatalysis-Fenton reaction

Increasing studies focus on depolymerization of chondroitin sulfate (CS) to enhance its biological activities. In the present study, low-molecular-weight chondroitin sulfate (LMWCS)‑iron complexes were obtained by photocatalysis-Fenton reaction. After degradation with the optimal condition of 0.25 % (w/v) TiO2, 10 mM FeSO4, and 400 mM H2O2 for 0, 15, and 60 min, the average relative molecular weights of CS were reduced to 4.77, 2.47, and 1.21 kDa, respectively. Electron paramagnetic resonance and free radical capture test identified •OH, •O2-, and h+ in the photocatalysis-Fenton system, among them h+ was the major contributor for CS degradation. The structures of degradation products were analyzed by UV, CD, XRD, SEM-EDS, and NMR, and the results indicated that CS chelated iron with its carboxyl and sulfate groups, leading to changes in conformation and microtopography. Then 10 oligosaccharides were identified in the degradation products using HPLC-MSn and the depolymerization mechanism was proposed. Furthermore, iron release was observed in simulated gastrointestinal digestion of LMWCS‑iron complexes. Notably, the everted gut sac experiment demonstrated that LMWCS‑iron complex possessed 3.75 times higher iron absorption than FeSO4 (p < 0.01) and 12.60 times higher CS absorption than original CS (p < 0.0001). In addition, LMWCS‑iron exhibited stronger in vitro antioxidant activity than CS.

Bifunctional octadentate pseudopeptides as Zirconium-89 chelators for immuno-PET applications

BACKGROUND

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a highly sensitive method that provides fine resolution images, useful in the field of clinical diagnostics. In this context, Zirconium-89 (89Zr)-based imaging agents have represented a great challenge in molecular imaging with immuno-PET, which employs antibodies (mAbs) as biological vectors. Indeed, immuno-PET requires radionuclides that can be attached to the mAb to provide stable in vivo conjugates, and for this purpose, the radioactive element should have a decay half-life compatible with the time needed for the biodistribution of the immunoglobulin. In this regard, 89Zr is an ideal radioisotope for immuno-PET because its half-life perfectly matches the in vivo pharmacokinetics of mAbs.

RESULTS

The main objective of this work was the design and synthesis of a series of bifunctional octadentate pseudopeptides able to generate stable 89Zr complexes. To achieve this, here we investigated hydroxamate, N-methylhydroxamate and catecholate chelating moieties in complexing radioactive zirconium. N-methylhydroxamate proved to be the most effective 89Zr-chelating group. Furthermore, the increased flexibility and hydrophilicity obtained by using polyoxyethylene groups spacing the hydroxamate units led to chelators capable of rapidly forming (15 min) stable and water-soluble complexes with 89Zr under mild reaction conditions (aqueous environment, room temperature, and physiological pH) that are mandatory for complexation reactions involving biomolecules. Additionally, we report challenge experiments with the competitor ligand EDTA and metal ions such as Fe3+, Zn2+ and Cu2+. In all examined conditions, the chelators demonstrated stability against transmetallation. Finally, a maleimide moiety was introduced to apply one of the most promising ligands in bioconjugation reactions through Thiol-Michael chemistry.

CONCLUSION

Combining solid phase and solution synthesis techniques, we identified novel 89Zr-chelating molecules with a peptide scaffold. The adopted chemical design allowed modulation of molecular flexibility, hydrophilicity, as well as the decoration with different zirconium chelating groups. Best results in terms of 89Zr-chelating properties were achieved with the N-methyl hydroxamate moiety. The Zirconium complexes obtained with the most effective compounds were water-soluble, stable to transmetallation, and resistant to peptidases for at least 6 days. Further studies are needed to assess the potential of this novel class of molecules as Zirconium-chelating agents for in vivo applications.

Multipurpose Iron-Chelating Ligands Inspired by Bioavailable Molecules

Because of their capacity to bind metals, metal chelators are primarily employed for therapeutic purposes, but they can also find applications as colorimetric reagents and cleaning solutions as well as in soil remediation, electroplating, waste treatment, and so on. For instance, iron-chelation therapy, which is used to treat iron-overload disorders, involves removing excess iron from the blood through the use of particular molecules, like deferoxamine, that have the ability to chelate the metal. The creation of bioinspired and biodegradable chelating agents is a crucial objective that draws inspiration from natural products. In this context, starting from bioavailable molecules such as maltol and pyrogallol, new molecules have been synthetized and characterized by potentiometry, infrared spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. Finally, the ability of these to bind iron has been investigated, and the stability constants of ferric complexes are measured using spectrophotometry. These compounds offer intriguing scaffolds for an innovative class of versatile, multipurpose chelating agents.

New Deferric Amine Compounds Efficiently Chelate Excess Iron to Treat Iron Overload Disorders and to Prevent Ferroptosis

Excess iron accumulation occurs in organs of patients with certain genetic disorders or after repeated transfusions. No physiological mechanism is available to excrete excess iron and iron overload to promote lipid peroxidation to induce ferroptosis, thus iron chelation becomes critical for preventing ion toxicity in these patients. To date, several iron chelators have been approved for iron chelation therapy, such as deferiprone and deferoxamine, but the current iron chelators suffer from significant limitations. In this context, new agents are continuously sought. Here, a library of new deferric amine compounds (DFAs) with adjustable skeleton and flexibility is synthesized by adopting the beneficial properties of conventional chelators. After careful evaluations, compound DFA1 is found to have greater efficacy in binding iron through two molecular oxygens in the phenolic hydroxyl group and the nitrogen atom in the amine with a 2:1 stoichiometry. This compound remarkably ameliorates iron overload in diverse murine models through both oral and intravenous administration, including hemochromatosis, high iron diet-induced, and iron dextran-stimulated iron accumulation. Strikingly, this compound is found to suppress iron-induced ferroptosis by modulating the intracellular signaling that drives lipid peroxidation. This study opens a new approach for the development of iron chelators to treat iron overload.

Safety and efficacy of a novel iron chelator (HBED; (N,N'-Di(2-hydroxybenzyl)ethylenediamine-N,N'-diacetic acid)) in equine (Equus caballus) as a model for black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

While iron overload disorder (IOD) and related disease states are not considered a common occurrence in domestic equids, these issues appear prevalent in black rhinoceroses under human care. In addressing IOD in black rhinos, altering dietary iron absorption and excretion may be the most globally practical approach. A main option for treatment used across other species such as humans, is chelation therapy using iron‐specific synthetic compounds. As horses may serve as an appropriate digestive model for the endangered rhinoceros, we evaluated the potential use of the oral iron chelator N,N‐bis(2‐hydroxybenzyl)ethylenediamine‐N,N‐diacetic acid (HBED) in horses for safety and efficacy prior to testing in black rhinoceros. Health and iron digestibility and dynamics were assessed in horses (n = 6) before, and after treatment with HBED (50 mg/kg body weight) for 8 days using a crossover design with serum, faecal and urine collection. A preliminary pharmacokinetic trial was also performed but no trace of HBED was found in serially sampled plasma through 8 h post‐oral dosing. HBED increased urinary iron output in horses compared to control by 0.7% of total iron intake (p < 0.01), for an average of 27 mg urinary iron/day, similar to human chelation goals. Blood chemistry, blood cell counts and overall wellness were not affected by treatment. As healthy horses are able to regulate iron absorption, the lack of change in iron balance is unsurprising. Short‐term HBED administration appeared to be safely tolerated by horses, therefore it was anticipated it would also be safe to administer to black rhinos for the management of iron overload.

Diversity in the Interaction of Amino Acid- and Peptide-Based Hydroxamic Acids with Some Platinum Group Metals in Solution

Complexes that incorporate both ligand(s) and metal(s) exhibiting cytotoxic activity can especially be interesting to develop multifunctional drug molecules with desired activities. In this review, the limited number of solution results collected in our laboratory on the complexes of Pd(II) and two other platinum group metals—the half-sandwich type, [(η⁶-p-cym)Ru(H₂O)₃]²⁺, and [(η⁵-Cp*)Rh(H₂O)₃]²⁺—with hydroxamic acid derivatives of three amino acids, two imidazole analogues, and four small peptides are summarized and evaluated. Unlike the limited number of coordination sites of these metal ions (four and three for Pd(II) and the organometallic cations, respectively), the ligands discussed here offer a relatively high number of donor atoms as well as variation in their position within the ligands, resulting in a large versatility of the likely coordination modes. The review, besides presenting the solution equilibrium results, also discusses the main factors, such as (N,N) versus (O,O) chelate; size of chelate; amino-N versus imidazole-N; primary versus secondary hydroxamic function; differences between hydrolytic ability of the metal ions studied; and hydrolysis of the coordinated peptide hydroxamic acids in their Pd(II) complexes, which all determine the coordination modes present in the complexes formed in measurable concentrations in these systems. The options for the quantitative evaluation of metal binding effectivity and selectivity of the various ligands and the comparison with each other by using solution equilibrium data are also discussed.

Toxicity of the iron siderophore mycobactin J in mouse macrophages: Evidence for a hypoxia response

Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis, is an obligate intracellular pathogen that lives within the phagosome of macrophages. Here we demonstrate that the siderophore mycobactin J, produced by the closely related intracellular pathogen Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, is toxic to murine macrophage cells. Its median lethal dose, 10 μM, is lower than that of the iron chelators desferrioxamine B and TrenCAM, an enterobactin analog. To determine the source of this toxicity, we conducted microarray, ELISA, and metabolite profiling experiments. The primary response is hypoxia-like, which implies iron starvation as the underlying cause of the toxicity. This observation is consistent with our recent finding that mycobactin J is a stronger iron chelator than had been inferred from previous studies. Mycobactin J is known to partition into cell membranes and hydrophobic organelles indicating that enhanced membrane penetration is also a likely factor. Thus, mycobactin J is shown to be toxic, eliciting a hypoxia-like response under physiological conditions.

Recent Advances in Hydrogen Peroxide Responsive Organoborons for Biological and Biomedical Applications

Hydrogen peroxide is the most stable reactive oxygen species generated endogenously, participating in numerous physiological processes and abnormal pathological conditions. Mounting evidence suggests that a higher level of H₂ O₂ exists in various disease conditions. Thus, H₂ O₂ functions as an ideal target for site-specific bioimaging and therapeutic targeting. The unique reactivity of organoborons with H₂ O₂ provides a method for developing chemoselective molecules for biological and biomedical applications. This review highlights the design and application of boron-derived molecules for H₂ O₂ detection, and the utility of boron moieties toward masking reactive compounds leading to the development of metal prochelators and prodrugs for selectively delivering an active species at the target sites with elevated H₂ O₂ levels. Additionally, the emergence of H₂ O₂ -responsive theranostic agents consisting of both therapeutic and diagnostic moieties in one integrated system are discussed. The purpose of this review is to provide a better understanding of the role of boron-derived molecules toward biological and pharmacological applications.

Destructive effect of iron overload in brain tissue of albino rats: Ameliorative role of silver immobilized organo-modified casein nanocomposite as co-treating agent with Deferasirox

BACKGROUND

Iron (Fe) is one of the most essential trace elements in the body that play crucial role in organisms' survival, however, excess deposition of it puts patients at higher risk of iron overload and tissue injury through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), elevation of oxidative stress, development of endocrine disorders among which hypogonadism, and increased incidence of cells damage in vital organs. As deferasirox (DFX) is an approved Fe chelator drug, its inability to cross blood brain barrier (BBB) remains a definite obstacle against its use as Fe chelator in the brain. Lately, attention to nanoparticles usage in researches has been widely grown since their role in improving drug therapeutic effects and scavenging free radicals make them good candidates as chelating and antioxidant agents.

AIMS

Herein, after induction of iron overload, organo-modified casein immobilized silver nanocomposite (Ag@Tr-CA) was designed and explored as combined therapy with DFX drug to develop its penetrating efficiency toward BBB and its Fe chelating affinity. Moreover, to distinguish the advanced antioxidant character as well as the beneficial impact of it on lowering brain's oxidative stress. Meanwhile, its capability in regulating serum pituitary hormones such as follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), prolactin (PRL), and testosterone (T), ameliorating DNA damage, and improving brain's histopathological alterations was also assessed.

METHODS

The physicochemical characteristics of Ag@Tr-CA was carried out using X-ray powder diffractometry (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), dynamic light scattering (DLS), field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM), and high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HR-TEM) analyses. Effect of iron overload and subsequent treatment with DFX + Ag@Tr-CA on brain of adult male albino rats were evaluated using colorimetric methods to determine brain Fe concentration and brain oxidative stress biomarkers. Assessment of serum Fe indices and serum pituitary hormones (FSH, LH, PRL) and T were estimated by ELISA technique. Determination of DNA damage in cerebral cortex cells was accomplished using the alkaline version of comet assay, while detection of brain's histopathological alterations was performed by examination of H&E sections under light microscope.

RESULTS

The physicochemical characteristics of Ag@Tr-CA showing the proficiency of Ag nanoparticles (∼35 nm) in creating highly-ordered negatively charged micro-sized casein particles (∼450 μm). After induction of iron overload, DFX + Ag@Tr-CA combination efficiently down brain Fe concentration, brain oxidative stress markers, and DNA damage in cerebral cortex cells linked with improvements in brain histopathological alterations. Comparing DFX therapeutic action alone to its combination to whether Ag@Tr-CA or Tr-CA (organo-modified cross-linked casein nanoparticles) as co-treating agents revealed no significant effect on serum Fe indices, FSH, LH, PRL, and T against iron overload disease.

CONCLUSION

The present results showed that combination of Ag@Tr-CA nanocomposite with DFX makes it a promising co-treating agent against iron overload through improving the physiological, molecular, and histological structure of the brain in iron overloaded rats.

The effect of the flavonol rutin on serum and liver iron content in a genetic mouse model of iron overload

The flavonol rutin has been shown to possess antioxidant and iron chelating properties in vitro and in vivo. These dual properties are beneficial as therapeutic options to reduce iron accumulation and the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) resultant from excess free iron. The effect of rutin on iron metabolism has been limited to studies performed in wildtype mice either injected or fed high-iron diets. The effect of rutin on iron overload caused by genetic dysregulation of iron homoeostasis has not yet been investigated. In the present study we examined the effect of rutin treatment on tissue iron loading in a genetic mouse model of iron overload, which mirrors the iron loading associated with Type 3 hereditary haemochromatosis patients who have a defect in Transferrin Receptor 2 (TFR2). Male TFR2 knockout (KO) mice were administered rutin via oral gavage for 21 continuous days. Following treatment, iron levels in serum, liver, duodenum and spleen were assessed. In addition, hepatic ferritin protein levels were determined by Western blotting, and expression of iron homoeostasis genes by quantitative real-time PCR. Rutin treatment resulted in a significant reduction in hepatic ferritin protein expression and serum transferrin saturation. In addition, trends towards decreased iron levels in the liver and serum, and increased serum unsaturated iron binding capacity were observed. This is the first study to explore the utility of rutin as a potential iron chelator and therapeutic in an animal model of genetic iron overload.

A Novel Centrosymmetric Fe(III) Complex with Anionic Bis-pyrazolyl-s-triazine Ligand; Synthesis, Structural Investigations and Antimicrobial Evaluations

Reaction of 2,4-bis(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-6-methoxy-1,3,5-triazine (MBPT) pincer ligand with FeCl3 in acidic medium (1:1 v/v) afforded the [Fe(BPT)Cl2(CH3OH)] complex of the hydrolyzed monobasic ligand: 4,6-bis(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2(1H)-one (HBPT). In this complex, the Fe(III) ion is hexacoordinated with one anionic pincer ligand unit (BPT−1), two chloride ions, and one coordinated methanol molecule. It crystallized in the monoclinic crystal system and centrosymmetric P21/c space group with Z = 2 and unit cell parameters of a = 7.309(2) Å, b = 25.461(8) Å, c = 9.918(3) Å and β = 102.646(7)°. The structure of this complex is stabilized by C–H…Cl intramolecular hydrogen bonding interactions with donor acceptor distances ranging from 3.577(3)–3.609(3) Å while its supramolecular structure is controlled by intermolecular O–H…O, O–H…N, and C–H…Cl hydrogen bonding interactions. Hirshfeld analysis of molecular packing indicates that the percentages of the Cl…H, C…O, O…H, C…C, H…C, and N…H contacts are 21.1, 1.7, 10.2, 2.1, 8.6, and 10.4%, respectively. The nature and relative strength of the different coordination interactions in the [Fe(BPT)Cl2(CH3OH)] complex are discussed based on atoms in molecules theory. Antimicrobial evaluations indicated that the [Fe(BPT)Cl2(CH3OH)] complex showed moderate antibacterial and antifungal activities compared to amoxicillin and ampicillin antibiotics as standard drugs.

Deferoxamine B: A Natural, Excellent and Versatile Metal Chelator

Deferoxamine B is an outstanding molecule which has been widely studied in the past decade for its ability to bind iron and many other metal ions. The versatility of this metal chelator makes it suitable for a number of medicinal and analytical applications, from the well-known iron chelation therapy to the most recent use in sensor devices. The three bidentate hydroxamic functional groups of deferoxamine B are the centerpiece of its metal binding ability, which allows the formation of stable complexes with many transition, lanthanoid and actinoid metal ions. In addition to the ferric ion, in fact, more than 20 different metal complexes of deferoxamine b have been characterized in terms of their chemical speciation in solution. In addition, the availability of a terminal amino group, most often not involved in complexation, opens the way to deferoxamine B modification and functionalization. This review aims to collect and summarize the available data concerning the complex-formation equilibria in solutions of deferoxamine B with different metal ions. A general overview of the progress of its applications over the past decade is also discussed, including the treatment of iron overload-associated diseases, its clinical use against cancer and neurodegenerative disorders and its role as a diagnostic tool.

Selective colorimetric sensing of deferoxamine with 4-mercaptophenol- and mercaptoacetic acid-functionalized gold nanoparticles via Fe(iii) chelation

The multidentate deferoxamine ligand can selectively aggregate the Fe(iii)-attached AuNPs@(4MP–MAA) colorimetric nanoprobe, whereas other bidentate iron chelators cannot bridge the nanoparticles.

Fe(III) Complexes Based on Mono- and Bis-pyrazolyl-s-triazine Ligands: Synthesis, Molecular Structure, Hirshfeld, and Antimicrobial Evaluations

The self-assembly of iron(III) chloride with three pyrazolyl-s-triazine ligands, namely 2,4-bis(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-6-(piperidin-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazine (^PipBPT), 4-(4,6-bis(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)morpholine (^MorphBPT), and 4,4’-(6-(3,5-dimethyl-1H-pyrazol-1-yl)-1,3,5-triazine-2,4-diyl)dimorpholine (^bisMorphPT) afforded [Fe(^PipBPT)Cl₂][FeCl₄] (1), [Fe(^MorphBPT)Cl₂][FeCl₄] (2), and [H(^bisMorphPT)][FeCl₄]. ^bisMorphPT.2H₂O (3), respectively, in good yield. In complexes 1 and 2, the Fe(III) is pentacoordinated with three Fe-N interactions from the pincer ligand and two coordinated chloride anions in the inner sphere, and FeCl₄¯ in the outer sphere. Complex 3 is comprised of one protonated ligand as cationic part, one FeCl₄¯ anion, and one neutral ^bisMorphPT molecule in addition to two crystallized water molecules. Analysis of molecular packing using Hirshfeld calculations indicated that H…H and Cl…H are the most important in the molecular packing. They comprised 40.1% and 37.4%, respectively in 1 and 32.4% and 37.8%, respectively in 2. Complex 1 exhibited the most bioactivity against the tested microbes while 3 had the lowest bioactivity. The ^bisMorphPT and ^MorphBPT were inactive towards the tested microbes while ^PipBPT was active. As a whole, the Fe(III) complexes have enhanced antibacterial and antifungal activities as compared to the free ligands.

DFO@EVOH and 3,4-HP@EVOH: Towards New Polymeric Sorbents for Iron(III)

The paper presents the synthesis and preliminary characterization of two novel solid-phase sorbents for iron(III), resulting from the functionalization of ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (EVOH) with deferoxamine, DFO (DFO@EVOH), and a novel tripodal 3-hydroxy-4-pyridinone, named 3,4-HP (3,4-HP@EVOH). DFO and 3,4-HP have been covalently bonded to EVOH, using carbonyldiimidazole as a coupling agent. Before their use as Fe(III) sorbents, they were warm-pressed to obtain a thin film. Polymers have been characterized by conventional physico-chemical techniques; furthermore, the sorption properties towards Fe(III) were investigated. The physico-chemical characterization of the new solid-state devices demonstrates the effective linkage of the two receptors on the polymeric support. Despite a relatively low sorption capacity for both materials, the stoichiometry and the complexation constants of Fe(III)/DFO@EVOH and Fe(III)/3,4-HP@EVOH are in pretty good agreement with those obtained for the same ligands in aqueous solutions.

The N-terminal domain of Helicobacter pylori's Hpn protein: The role of multiple histidine residues

Helicobacter pylori is a gram-negative bacterium with gastric localization that can cause many gastrointestinal disorders. Its survival in the host environment strictly requires an efficient regulation of its metal homeostasis, in particular of Ni(II) ions, crucial for the synthesis of some essential enzymes. Hpn is a protein of 60 amino acids, 47% of which are histidines, expressed by H. pylori and avid for nickel, characterized by the presence of an ATCUN (Amino Terminal Cu(II)- and Ni(II)-binding) motif and by two further histidine residues which can act as additional metal anchoring sites. We decided to deepen the following aspects: (i) understanding the role of each histidine in the coordination of metal ions; (ii) comparing the binding affinities for Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II) ions, which are potentially competing metals in vivo; (iii) understanding the Hpn ability of forming ternary and poly-nuclear complexes. For these purposes, we synthesized the Hpn N-terminal "wild-type" sequence (MAHHEEQHG-Am) and the following peptide analogues: MAAHEEQHG-Am, MAHAEEQHG-Am, MAHHEEQAG-Am and MAHAEEQAG-Am. Our results highlight that the histidines in position 4 and 8 lead to the formation of Cu(II) binuclear complexes. The ATCUN motif is by far the most efficient binding site for Cu(II) and Ni(II), while macrochelate Zn(II) complexes are formed thanks to the presence of several suitable anchoring sites (His and Glu). The metal binding affinities follow the order Zn(II) < Ni(II) < < Cu(II). In solutions containing equimolar amount of wild-type ligand, Cu(II) and Ni(II), the major species above pH 5.5 are hetero-binuclear complexes.

Practical Management of Iron Overload Disorder (IOD) in Black Rhinoceros (BR; Diceros bicornis)

Simple Summary

Black rhinoceros under human care are predisposed to Iron Overload Disorder that is unlike the hereditary condition seen in humans. We aim to address the black rhino caretaker community at multiple perspectives (keeper, curator, veterinarian, nutritionist, veterinary technician, and researcher) to describe approaches to Iron Overload Disorder in black rhinos and share learnings. This report includes sections on (1) background on how iron functions in comparative species and how Iron Overload Disorder appears to work in black rhinos, (2) practical recommendations for known diagnostics, (3) a brief review of current investigations on inflammatory and other potential biomarkers, (4) nutrition knowledge and advice as prevention, and (5) an overview of treatment options including information on chelation and details on performing large volume voluntary phlebotomy. The aim is to use evidence to support the successful management of this disorder to ensure optimal animal health, welfare, and longevity for a sustainable black rhinoceros population.

Abstract

Critically endangered black rhinoceros (BR) under human care are predisposed to non-hemochromatosis Iron Overload Disorder (IOD). Over the last 30 years, BR have been documented with diseases that have either been induced by or exacerbated by IOD, prompting significant efforts to investigate and address this disorder. IOD is a multi-factorial chronic disease process requiring an evidence-based and integrative long-term approach. While research continues to elucidate the complexities of iron absorption, metabolism, and dysregulation in this species, preventive treatments are recommended and explained herein. The aim of this report is to highlight the accumulated evidence in nutrition, clinical medicine, and behavioral husbandry supporting the successful management of this disorder to ensure optimal animal health, welfare, and longevity for a sustainable black rhinoceros population.

Hydroxypyridinone-Based Iron Chelators with Broad-Ranging Biological Activities

Iron plays an essential role in all living cells because of its unique chemical properties. It is also the most abundant trace element in mammals. However, when iron is present in excess or inappropriately located, it becomes toxic. Excess iron can become involved in free radical formation, resulting in oxidative stress and cellular damage. Iron chelators are used to treat serious pathological disorders associated with systemic iron overload. Hydroxypyridinones stand out for their outstanding chelation properties, including high selectivity for Fe³⁺ in the biological environment, ease of derivatization, and good biocompatibility. Herein, we overview the potential for multifunctional hydroxypyridinone-based chelators to be used as therapeutic agents against a wide range of diseases associated either with systemic or local elevated iron levels.

A DFT study on the metal ion selectivity of deferiprone complexes

In this work, systematic density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed to study the interactions of various metal ions (Al³⁺, Fe³⁺, Co²⁺, Ni²⁺, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺) and the clinically useful chelating agent called deferiprone (DFP) at the M05-2X/6-31G(d) level of theory. The thermodynamic parameters of metal-deferiprone complexes were determined in water. Based on the obtained data, the theoretical binding energy trend is as follows: Al³⁺ > Fe³⁺ > Cu²⁺ > Ni²⁺ > Co²⁺ > Zn²⁺, confirming that [Al(DFP)₃] has the most interaction energy. Moreover, Natural bond orbital analysis was employed to determine and analyze the natural charges on different atoms and charge transfer between the metal ions and ligands (oxygen atoms) as well as the interaction energy (E(2)) values. The calculated value of ƩE(2) (donor-acceptor interaction energy) for [Al(DFP)₃] complex is higher than other complexes, which is according to energy analysis. To confirm the type of effective interactions and bonding properties in the water, the quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM) analysis was applied. QTAIM analysis confirmed that the strongest M - O bond is found in the [Al(DFP)₃] complex. The calculated topological properties at the bond critical points, such as the ratio of the kinetic energy density to the potential energy density, -G(r)/V(r), electronic energy density, H(r), confirm that M - O bonds in the Al-deferiprone complex are non-covalent, while in other complexes, they are electrostatic and partially covalent.

Characterization of the promiscuous N-acyl CoA transferase, LgoC, in legonoxamine biosynthesis

More than 500 siderophores are known to date, but only three were identified to be aryl-containing hydroxamate siderophores, legonoxamines A and B from Streptomyces sp. MA37, and aryl ferrioxamine 2 from Micrococcus luteus KLE1011.

Proton-assisted air oxidation mechanisms of iron(ii) bis-thiosemicarbazone complexes at physiological pH: a kinetico-mechanistic study

The kinetics of oxidation of different biologically-active Fe^II bis-thiosemicarbazone complexes in water has been monitored at varying dioxygen concentration, temperature, pressure, and pH. The oxidation reactions observed can be resolved as a single-step process, producing the expected ferric complex, with rates increasing with decreasing pH. From the pH-dependence of the observed rate constants, a rate law with two terms can be derived, one of them being independent of the acid concentration and the other term showing a saturation behaviour with respect to [H⁺]. These results indicate the existence of two parallel pathways for oxidation: the acid-independent pathway is only operative for the complexes with ligands bearing terminal, non-coordinated, unsubstituted amines, whereas the term with a [H⁺]-limiting kinetic behaviour is observed for all the complexes and indicates that the reacting species has to be protonated prior to the oxidation step. From the data collected, the rate law and the thermal and pressure activation parameters have been used to interpret the operating reaction mechanisms. Given the fact that the empirical trends rule out an outer-sphere oxidation process, DFT calculations have been carried out to explain the results and suggest the likely formation, under steady-state very low concentration conditions, of Fe^III superoxo and hydroperoxo intermediates.

The interaction of aluminum with catecholamine-based neurotransmitters: can the formation of these species be considered a potential risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases?

The potential neurotoxic role of Al(iii) and its proposed link with the insurgence of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) have attracted increasing interest towards the determination of the nature of bioligands that are propitious to interact with aluminum. Among them, catecholamine-based neurotransmitters have been proposed to be sensitive to the presence of this non-essential metal ion in the brain. In the present work, we characterize several aluminum-catecholamine complexes in various stoichiometries, determining their structure and thermodynamics of formation. For this purpose, we apply a recently validated computational protocol with results that show a remarkably good agreement with the available experimental data. In particular, we employ Density Functional Theory (DFT) in conjunction with continuum solvation models to calculate complexation energies of aluminum for a set of four important catecholamines: l-DOPA, dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline. In addition, by means of the Quantum Theory of Atoms in Molecules (QTAIM) and Energy Decomposition Analysis (EDA) we assessed the nature of the Al-ligand interactions, finding mainly ionic bonds with an important degree of covalent character. Our results point at the possibility of the formation of aluminum-catecholamine complexes with favorable formation energies, even when proton/aluminum competition is taken into account. Indeed, we found that these catecholamines are better aluminum binders than catechol at physiological pH, because of the electron withdrawing effect of the positively-charged amine that decreases their deprotonation penalty with respect to catechol. However, overall, our results show that, in an open biological environment, the formation of Al-catecholamine complexes is not thermodynamically competitive when compared with the formation of other aluminum species in solution such as Al-hydroxide, or when considering other endogenous/exogenous Al(iii) ligands such as citrate, deferiprone and EDTA. In summary, we rule out the possibility, suggested by some authors, that the formation of Al-catecholamine complexes in solution might be behind some of the toxic roles attributed to aluminum in the brain. An up-to-date view of the catecholamine biosynthesis pathway with sites of aluminum interference (according to the current literature) is presented. Alternative mechanisms that might explain the deleterious effects of this metal on the catecholamine route are thoroughly discussed, and new hypotheses that should be investigated in future are proposed.

Speciation Studies of Bifunctional 3-Hydroxy-4-Pyridinone Ligands in the Presence of Zn2+ at Different Ionic Strengths and Temperatures

The acid–base properties of two bifunctional 3-hydroxy-4-pyridinone ligands and their chelating capacity towards Zn²⁺, an essential bio-metal cation, were investigated in NaCl aqueous solutions by potentiometric, UV-Vis spectrophotometric, and ¹H NMR spectroscopic titrations, carried out at 0.15 ≤ I/mol ⁻¹ ≤ 1.00 and 288.15 ≤ T/K ≤ 310.15. A study at I = 0.15 mol L⁻¹ and T = 298.15 K was also performed for other three Zn²⁺/L^z− systems, with ligands belonging to the same family of compounds. The processing of experimental data allowed the determination of protonation and stability constants, which showed accordance with the data obtained from the different analytical techniques used, and with those reported in the literature for the same class of compounds. ESI-MS spectrometric measurements provided support for the formation of the different Zn²⁺/ligand species, while computational molecular simulations allowed information to be gained on the metal–ligand coordination. The dependence on ionic strength and the temperature of equilibrium constants were investigated by means of the extended Debye–Hückel model, the classical specific ion interaction theory, and the van’t Hoff equations, respectively.

Electronic spectroscopic characterization of the formation of iron(III) metal complexes: The 8-HydroxyQuinoline as ligand case study

Synthetic siderophores derivated from 8-HydroxyQuinoline (HQ) present various biological and pharmacological activities, such as anti-neurodegenerative or anti-oxydative. However, their affinity towards iron(III) seems to depend on the position (i.e., 7 or 2) of the HQ substitution by an electron withdrawing group. Two ester-derivatives of HQ at 2- and 7-position are synthesized and their respective iron-complexation is characterized by a joined experimental and theoretical work. By investigating the stability of all the possible accessible spin states of the iron(III) complexes at density-functional theory (DFT) level, we demonstrate that the high-spin (HS) state is the most stable one, and leads to a UV/vis absorption spectrum in perfect match with experiments. From this DFT protocol, and in agreement with the experimental results, we show that the ester functionalization of HQ in 2-position weakens the formation of the iron(III) complex while its substitution in 7-position allows a salicylate coordination of the metal very close to the ideal octahedral environment.

Bioinorganic chemistry of calcitermin - the picklock of its antimicrobial activity

Calcitermin, an antimicrobial peptide from the fluid of the human airways, is a well-conserved, 15 amino acid C-terminal cleavage fragment of calgranulin C (VAIALKAAHYHTHKE), which is active under acidic pH conditions (pH 5.4). In an attempt to understand the impact of the coordination of Zn(ii) and Cu(ii) on the biological activity of calcitermin, we mutated each of the histidines with an alanine and studied the thermodynamics, binding mode and antimicrobial activity of wild type calcitermin and its H9A, H11A and H13A mutants and their Zn(ii) and Cu(ii) complexes. Both metals strongly enhance the antimicrobial activity of calcitermin-like peptides, although the link between the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values and the stability, charge or structure of the complexes is not so obvious. As expected, the increase in the number of histidines makes the coordination of both metals more effective. There is no preferred Cu(ii) binding site in calcitermin: the stabilities of the Cu(ii)-H9A and Cu(ii)-H13A complexes are almost identical, while the Cu(ii)-H11A complex (in which two histidines are separated by three amino acids and only one His residue is involved in binding) is less stable. On the other hand, the higher stability of the Zn(ii)-H13A complex with respect to those formed by H9A and H11A suggests a pivotal role of His9 and His11 in Zn(ii) complexation. Impressive MIC breakpoints were obtained, similar and lower than those for commonly used antimicrobial agents that treat Candida albicans (Zn(ii) and Cu(ii) complexes of WT calcitermin and H9A, as well as H9A alone), Enterococcus faecalis (H11A, H13A and their metal complexes) and Staphylococcus aureus (H13A and its complexes).

Tales of the Unexpected: The Case of Zirconium(IV) Complexes with Desferrioxamine

The Zr⁴⁺ complexes with desferrioxamine (H₃DFO) and its derivatives are the only ⁸⁹Zr-based imaging agents for proton emission tomography (PET) that have been used so far in clinical trials. Nevertheless, a complete speciation of the Zr⁴⁺/H₃DFO system in solution has never been performed and the stability constants of the relevant complexes are still unknown. Here we report, for the first time, the speciation of this system in water, performed by potentiometric titrations, and the determination of the stability constants of all complexes formed in the pH range 2.5–11.5. Surprisingly, although desferrioxamine gives rise to very stable 1:1 complexes with Zr⁴⁺ (logK = 36.14 for Zr⁴⁺ + DFO³⁻ = [ZrDFO]⁺), 2:2 and 2:3 ones are also formed in solution. Depending on the conditions, these binuclear complexes can be main species in solution. These results were corroborated by small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and MALDI mass spectrometry analyses of complex solutions. Information on complex structures was obtained by means of density functional theory (DFT) calculations.

Therapeutic Macromolecular Iron Chelators

Iron is a key element for every single living process. On a fundamental level, targeting iron is a valuable approach for the treatment of disorders caused by iron overload. Utilizing iron chelators as therapeutic agents has received expanding consideration in chelation therapy. Approved low molecular weight (MW) iron chelators to treat iron overload may experience short half-lives and toxicities prompting moderately high adverse effects. In recent years, polymeric/macromolecular iron chelators have received attention as therapeutic agents. Polymeric iron chelators show unique pharmaceutical properties that are different to their conventional small molecule counterparts. These polymeric iron chelators possess longer plasma half-lives and reduced toxicities, thus exhibiting a significant supplement to currently using low MW iron chelator therapy. In this review, we have briefly discussed polymeric iron chelators and factors to be considered when designing clinically valuable iron chelators. We have also discussed applications of polymeric iron chelators in the diseases caused by iron overload associated with transfusional hemosiderosis, neurodegenerative disorders, malaria and cancer. With this, research findings for new polymeric iron chelators are also covered.

Iron and redox cycling. Do's and don'ts

A major form of toxicity arises from the ability of iron to redox cycle, that is, to accept an electron from a reducing compound and to pass it on to H₂O₂ (the Fenton reaction). In order to do so, iron must be suitably complexed to avoid formation of Fe₂O₃. The ligands determine the electrode potential; this information should be known before experiments are carried out. Only one-electron transfer reactions are likely to be significant; thus two-electron potentials should not be used to determine whether an iron(III) complex can be reduced or oxidized. Ascorbate is the relevant reducing agent in blood serum, which means that iron toxicity in this compartment arises from the ascorbate-driven Fenton reaction. In the cytosol, an iron(II)-glutathione complex is likely to be the low-molecular weight iron complex involved in toxicity. When physiologically relevant concentrations are used the window of redox opportunity ranges from +0.1 V to +0.9 V. The electrode potential for non-transferrin-bound iron in the form of iron citrate is close to 0 V and the reduction of iron(III) citrate by ascorbate is slow. The clinically utilised chelators desferrioxamine, deferiprone and deferasirox in each case render iron complexes with large negative electrode potentials, thus being effective in preventing iron redox cycling and the associated toxicity resulting from such activity. There is still uncertainty about the product of the Fenton reaction, HO^• or FeO²⁺.

Solvation effect and binding of rhaponticin with iron: a spectroscopic and DFT/TDDFT study

In this article, both experimental and computational methods are employed to investigate the photophysics of rhaponticin (RH). The bathochromic shift was observed in absorption and fluorescence spectra with increasing solvent polarity, which implied that the charge transition of RH involved was π → π*. The results showed that RH possess strong intramolecular charge transfer (ICT), and the most important parameter to characterize the photophysical behavior of RH is the intermolecular hydrogen bonding ability of the solvent. The hydrogen bonding effect occurred at the localized electron-acceptor oxygen at the glycoside bond. Density functional theory (DFT) and time dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) were used to obtain the most stable structure, electronic excitation energy, dipole moments and charge distribution. The result was found to be 2.23 and 3.67 D in ground state and excited state respectively. Fluorescence quenching of RH owing to the photoinduced electron transfer (PET) is facilitated in alkaline media. The pK_a value of RH was 6.39, which defined RH as a highly efficient “off–on” switcher. The effect of different metal ions on the fluorescence spectra of RH was also investigated, and the fluorescence quenching of RH depended on the nature of ions. The best performance was accomplished for binding with the Fe³⁺ ion. The interactions of RH with the Fe³⁺ ion were studied by FT-IR and HPLC, and the binding parameter was calculated by the Stern–Volmer equation. The results obtained reveal the binding activity of RH can make this a candidate as a good source of new agents for thalassemic patients.

In this article, both experimental and computational methods are employed to investigate the photophysics of rhaponticin (RH).

An impedimetric biosensor for DNA damage detection and study of the protective effect of deferoxamine against DNA damage

The detection and inhibition of DNA damage are of great importance in the prevention and treatment of diseases. Developing a simple and sensitive tool for this purpose would be a chance to monitor the DNA damage and could be helpful in introducing some drugs which can prevent this phenomenon. Here, we report a novel and sensitive electrochemical biosensor based on DNA/Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) modified screen printed gold electrode (DNA/AuNPs/SPGE) to investigate the DNA damage process and also to study the protective behavior of deferoxamine (DFO). The proposed biosensor was fabricated by electrodeposition of AuNPs onto SPGE, followed by chemical immobilisation of thiol-terminated DNA. Cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have been used to characterise this biosensor. Hydroxyl radical (OH), which is generated during the Fenton reaction, is responsible for the induced damage to DNA. EIS technique was applied to monitor the DNA damage, and the increase in charge transfer resistance (R_ct) following the DNA damage, was considered as an indicator. Furthermore, the ability of the electrochemical screening system was proved by the investigation of the antioxidant effect of DFO in prohibiting the DNA damage.

A new tripodal-3-hydroxy-4-pyridinone for iron and aluminium sequestration: synthesis, complexation and in vivo studies

A new highly efficient tris-hydroxypyridinone chelator for iron and aluminum, with promising capacity as a potential metal decorporation agent.

Looking at new ligands for chelation therapy

Four kojic acid derivatives were synthesized, and their chelation properties toward Fe³⁺, Al³⁺, Cu²⁺, and Zn²⁺ metal ions were evaluated and discussed.

Tuning the affinity of catechols and salicylic acids towards Al(iii): characterization of Al–chelator interactions

Aluminum is a non-essential element in the human body with unclear harmful effects; therefore, the design and tuning of new and efficient Al(iii) chelating agents is a subject of paramount importance nowadays.

Chemical features of in use and in progress chelators for iron overload

An excessive amount of iron may become extremely toxic both for its ability to generate reactive oxygen species, and for the lack of regulatory mechanisms for iron excretion in humans. Chelation therapy has been introduced in clinical practice in the 1970's to defend thalassemia patients from the effects of iron overload and it has dramatically changed both life expectancy and quality of life. The disadvantages of the drugs in clinical use make the research for new, more suitable iron chelating agents, urgent. This review defines the requirements of an iron chelator, then points out the principal chemical features of the iron chelators in use. Finally, a survey on the last ten years of the literature relative to iron chelators is done, and the most interesting ligands are presented, with particular emphasis to those that reached clinical trials.