The Mammalian Golgi Regulates Numb Signaling in Asymmetric Cell Division by Releasing ACBD3 during Mitosis

Intracellular traffic and polarity in brain development

Neurons forming the human brain are generated during embryonic development by neural stem and progenitor cells via a process called neurogenesis. A crucial feature contributing to neural stem cell morphological and functional heterogeneity is cell polarity, defined as asymmetric distribution of cellular components. Cell polarity is built and maintained thanks to the interplay between polarity proteins and polarity-generating organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the Golgi apparatus (GA). ER and GA affect the distribution of membrane components and work as a hub where glycans are added to nascent proteins and lipids. In the last decades our knowledge on the role of polarity in neural stem and progenitor cells have increased tremendously. However, the role of traffic and associated glycosylation in neural stem and progenitor cells is still relatively underexplored. In this review, we discuss the link between cell polarity, architecture, identity and intracellular traffic, and highlight how studies on neurons have shaped our knowledge and conceptual framework on traffic and polarity. We will then conclude by discussing how a group of rare diseases, called congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) offers the unique opportunity to study the contribution of traffic and glycosylation in the context of neurodevelopment.

Twinkle twinkle brittle star: the draft genome of Ophioderma brevispinum (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) as a resource for regeneration research

Background

Echinoderms are established models in experimental and developmental biology, however genomic resources are still lacking for many species. Here, we present the draft genome of Ophioderma brevispinum, an emerging model organism in the field of regenerative biology. This new genomic resource provides a reference for experimental studies of regenerative mechanisms.

Results

We report a de novo nuclear genome assembly for the brittle star O. brevispinum and annotation facilitated by the transcriptome assembly. The final assembly is 2.68 Gb in length and contains 146,703 predicted protein-coding gene models. We also report a mitochondrial genome for this species, which is 15,831 bp in length, and contains 13 protein-coding, 22 tRNAs, and 2 rRNAs genes, respectively. In addition, 29 genes of the Notch signaling pathway are identified to illustrate the practical utility of the assembly for studies of regeneration.

Conclusions

The sequenced and annotated genome of O. brevispinum presented here provides the first such resource for an ophiuroid model species. Considering the remarkable regenerative capacity of this species, this genome will be an essential resource in future research efforts on molecular mechanisms regulating regeneration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at (10.1186/s12864-022-08750-y).

ACBD3 Bioinformatic Analysis and Protein Expression in Breast Cancer Cells

ACBD3 overexpression has previously been found to correlate with worse prognosis for breast cancer patients and, as an incredibly diverse protein in both function and cellular localisation, ACBD3 may have a larger role in breast cancer than previously thought. This study further investigated ACBD3′s role in breast cancer. Bioinformatic databases were queried to characterise ACBD3 expression and mutation in breast cancer and to investigate how overexpression affects breast cancer patient outcomes. Immunohistochemistry was carried out to examine ACBD3 location within cells and tissue structures. ACBD3 was more highly expressed in breast cancer than in any other cancer or matched normal tissue, and expression over the median level resulted in reduced relapse-free, overall, and distant metastasis-free survival for breast cancer patients as a whole, with some differences observed between subtypes. IHC analysis found that ACBD3 levels varied based on hormone receptor status, indicating that ACBD3 could be a candidate biomarker for poor patient prognosis in breast cancer and may possibly be a biomarker for ER signal reprogramming of precancerous breast tissue.

Roles of acyl-CoA-binding proteins in plant reproduction

Acyl-CoA-binding proteins (ACBPs) constitute a well-conserved family of proteins in eukaryotes that are important in stress responses and development. Past studies have shown that ACBPs are involved in maintaining, transporting and protecting acyl-CoA esters during lipid biosynthesis in plants, mammals, and yeast. ACBPs show differential expression and various binding affinities for acyl-CoA esters. Hence, ACBPs can play a crucial part in maintaining lipid homeostasis. This review summarizes the functions of ACBPs during the stages of reproduction in plants and other organisms. A comprehensive understanding on the roles of ACBPs during plant reproduction may lead to opportunities in crop improvement in agriculture.

ACBD3 is up-regulated in gastric cancer and promotes cell cycle G1-to-S transition in an AKT-dependent manner

It has been reported that ACBD3 is closely related to the malignant process of cells, but its role in gastric cancer has not been elucidated. This study aims to investigate the expression and function of ACBD3 in human gastric cancer. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were selected to analyze mRNA levels of ACBD3 in gastric cancer tissues and normal gastric epithelial tissues. qPCR and Western blot were conducted to detect the expression of ACBD3 in two normal gastric epithelial cell lines and five gastric cancer cell lines which were cultured in our laboratory. To exclude differences in individual background between different patients, we further detected the expression of ACBD3 in 8 pairs of malignant/non-malignant clinical gastric tissues. Through the establishment of stable cells, in vitro cell experiments and in vivo xenotransplantation models in mice, the role of ACBD3 in the proliferation of gastric cancer cells has been further explored. AKT inhibitors were used to deeply explore the molecular regulation mechanism of ACBD3. The results showed that the elevated ACBD3 in gastric cancer tissue were positively correlated with the clinical grade and prognosis of gastric cancer. In terms of molecular function, we found that ACBD3 can enhance the production and growth of gastric cancer cells. At the same time, the activation of AKT kinase played an important role in ACBD3's promotion of G1-to-S transition. The experiments generally indicate that ACBD3 is expected to become a potential diagnostic molecule or therapeutic target for gastric cancer.

Brain-specific functions of the endocytic machinery

Endocytosis is an essential cellular process required for multiple physiological functions, including communication with the extracellular environment, nutrient uptake, and signaling by the cell surface receptors. In a broad sense, endocytosis is accomplished through either constitutive or ligand-induced invagination of the plasma membrane, which results in the formation of the plasma membrane-retrieved endocytic vesicles, which can either be sent for degradation to the lysosomes or recycled back to the PM. This additional function of endocytosis in membrane retrieval has been adopted by excitable cells, such as neurons, for membrane equilibrium maintenance at synapses. The last two decades were especially productive with respect to the identification of brain-specific functions of the endocytic machinery, which additionally include but not limited to regulation of neuronal differentiation and migration, maintenance of neuron morphology and synaptic plasticity, and prevention of neurotoxic aggregates spreading. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of brain-specific functions of endocytic machinery with a specific focus on three brain cell types, neuronal progenitor cells, neurons, and glial cells.

The regulation of cortical neurogenesis

The mammalian cerebral cortex is the pinnacle of brain evolution, reaching its maximum complexity in terms of neuron number, diversity and functional circuitry. The emergence of this outstanding complexity begins during embryonic development, when a limited number of neural stem and progenitor cells manage to generate myriads of neurons in the appropriate numbers, types and proportions, in a process called neurogenesis. Here we review the current knowledge on the regulation of cortical neurogenesis, beginning with a description of the types of progenitor cells and their lineage relationships. This is followed by a review of the determinants of neuron fate, the molecular and genetic regulatory mechanisms, and considerations on the evolution of cortical neurogenesis in vertebrates leading to humans. We finish with an overview on how dysregulation of neurogenesis is a leading cause of human brain malformations and functional disabilities.

ACBD3 is required for FAPP2 transferring glucosylceramide through maintaining the Golgi integrity

Glycosphingolipid (GSL) metabolism is involved in various physiological processes, including all major cell signaling pathways, and its dysregulation is linked to some diseases. The four-phosphate adaptor protein FAPP2-mediated glucosylceramide (GlcCer) transport for complex GSL synthesis has been studied extensively. However, the molecular machinery of FAPP2 as a GlcCer-transferring protein remains poorly defined. Here, we identify a Golgi-resident protein, acyl-coenzyme A binding domain containing 3 (ACBD3), as an interacting partner of FAPP2. We find that ACBD3 knockdown leads to dramatic Golgi fragmentation, which subsequently causes FAPP2 dispersal throughout the cytoplasm and a decreased localization at trans-Golgi network. The further quantitative lipidomic analysis indicates that ACBD3 knockdown triggers abnormal sphingolipid metabolism. Interestingly, the expression of siRNA-resistant full-length ACBD3 can rescue these defects caused by ACBD3 knockdown. These data reveal critical roles for ACBD3 in maintaining the integrity of Golgi morphology and cellular sphingolipid homeostasis and establish the importance of the integrated Golgi complex for the transfer of GlcCer and complex GSL synthesis.

NUMB enhances Notch signaling by repressing ubiquitination of NOTCH1 intracellular domain

The release and nuclear translocation of the intracellular domain of Notch receptor (NICD) is the prerequisite for Notch signaling-mediated transcriptional activation. NICD is subjected to various posttranslational modifications including ubiquitination. Here, we surprisingly found that NUMB proteins stabilize the intracellular domain of NOTCH1 receptor (N1ICD) by regulating the ubiquitin-proteasome machinery, which is independent of NUMB's role in modulating endocytosis. BAP1, a deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB), was further identified as a positive N1ICD regulator, and NUMB facilitates the association between N1ICD and BAP1 to stabilize N1ICD. Intriguingly, BAP1 stabilizes N1ICD independent of its DUB activity but relying on the BRCA1-inhibiting function. BAP1 strengthens Notch signaling and maintains stem-like properties of cortical neural progenitor cells. Thus, NUMB enhances Notch signaling by regulating the ubiquitinating activity of the BAP1-BRCA1 complex.

The diversity of ACBD proteins - From lipid binding to protein modulators and organelle tethers

Members of the large multigene family of acyl-CoA binding domain containing proteins (ACBDs) share a conserved motif required for binding of Coenzyme A esterified fatty acids of various chain length. These proteins are present in the three kingdoms of life, and despite their predicted roles in cellular lipid metabolism, knowledge about the precise functions of many ACBD proteins remains scarce. Interestingly, several ACBD proteins are now suggested to function at organelle contact sites, and are recognized as host interaction proteins for different pathogens including viruses and bacteria. Here, we present a thorough phylogenetic analysis of the ACBD family and discuss their structure and evolution. We summarize recent findings on the various functions of animal and fungal ACBDs with particular focus on peroxisomes, the role of ACBD proteins at organelle membranes, and their increasing recognition as targets for pathogens.

The overexpression of rice ACYL-CoA-BINDING PROTEIN2 increases grain size and bran oil content in transgenic rice

As Oryza sativa (rice) seeds represent food for over three billion people worldwide, the identification of genes that enhance grain size and composition is much desired. Past reports have indicated that Arabidopsis thaliana acyl-CoA-binding proteins (ACBPs) are important in seed development but did not affect seed size. Herein, rice OsACBP2 was demonstrated not only to play a role in seed development and germination, but also to influence grain size. OsACBP2 mRNA accumulated in embryos and endosperm of germinating seeds in qRT-PCR analysis, while β-glucuronidase (GUS) assays on OsACBP2pro::GUS rice transformants showed GUS expression in embryos, as well as the scutellum and aleurone layer of germinating seeds. Deletion analysis of the OsACBP2 5'-flanking region revealed five copies of the seed cis-element, Skn-I-like motif (-1486/-1482, -956/-952, -939/-935, -826/-822, and -766/-762), and the removal of any adversely affected expression in seeds, thereby providing a molecular basis for OsACBP2 expression in seeds. When OsACBP2 function was investigated using osacbp2 mutants and transgenic rice overexpressing OsACBP2 (OsACBP2-OE), osacbp2 was retarded in germination, while OsACBP2-OEs performed better than the wild-type and vector-transformed controls, in germination, seedling growth, grain size and grain weight. Transmission electron microscopy of OsACBP2-OE mature seeds revealed an accumulation of oil bodies in the scutellum cells, while confocal laser scanning microscopy indicated oil accumulation in OsACBP2-OE aleurone tissues. Correspondingly, OsACBP2-OE seeds showed gain in triacylglycerols and long-chain fatty acids over the vector-transformed control. As dietary rice bran contains beneficial bioactive components, OsACBP2 appears to be a promising candidate for enriching seed nutritional value.

Comparative Transcriptomics Analysis of Brassica napus L. during Seed Maturation Reveals Dynamic Changes in Gene Expression between Embryos and Seed Coats and Distinct Expression Profiles of Acyl-CoA-Binding Proteins for Lipid Accumulation

Production of vegetable oils is a vital agricultural resource and oilseed rape (Brassica napus) is the third most important oil crop globally. Although the regulation of lipid biosynthesis in oilseeds is still not fully defined, the acyl-CoA-binding proteins (ACBPs) have been reported to be involved in such metabolism, including oil accumulation, in several plant species. In this study, progressive changes in gene expression in embryos and seed coats at different stages of seed development were comprehensively investigated by transcriptomic analyses in B. napus, revealing dynamic changes in the expression of genes involved in lipid biosynthesis. We show that genes encoding BnACBP proteins show distinct changes in expression at different developmental stages of seed development and show markedly different expression between embryos and seed coats. Both isoforms of the ankyrin-repeat BnACBP2 increased during the oil accumulation period of embryo development. By contrast, the expression of the three most abundant isoforms of the small molecular mass BnACBP6 in embryos showed progressive reduction, despite having the highest overall expression level. In seed coats, BnACBP3, BnACBP4 and BnACBP5 expression remained constant during development, whereas the two major isoforms of BnACBP6 increased, contrasting with the data from embryos. We conclude that genes related to fatty acid and triacylglycerol biosynthesis showing dynamic expression changes may regulate the lipid distribution in embryos and seed coats of B. napus and that BnACBP2 and BnACBP6 are potentially important for oil accumulation.

Tyr198 is the Essential Autophosphorylation Site for STK16 Localization and Kinase Activity

STK16, reported as a Golgi localized serine/threonine kinase, has been shown to participate in multiple cellular processes, including the TGF-β signaling pathway, TGN protein secretion and sorting, as well as cell cycle and Golgi assembly regulation. However, the mechanisms of the regulation of its kinase activity remain underexplored. It was known that STK16 is autophosphorylated at Thr185, Ser197, and Tyr198 of the activation segment in its kinase domain. We found that STK16 localizes to the cell membrane and the Golgi throughout the cell cycle, but mutations in the auto-phosphorylation sites not only alter its subcellular localization but also affect its kinase activity. In particular, the Tyr198 mutation alone significantly reduced the kinase activity of STK16, abolished its Golgi and membrane localization, and affected the cell cycle progression. This study demonstrates that a single site autophosphorylation of STK16 could affect its localization and function, which provides insights into the molecular regulatory mechanism of STK16's kinase activity.

PDK1 Regulates Transition Period of Apical Progenitors to Basal Progenitors by Controlling Asymmetric Cell Division

The six-layered neocortex consists of diverse neuron subtypes. Deeper-layer neurons originate from apical progenitors (APs), while upper-layer neurons are mainly produced by basal progenitors (BPs), which are derivatives of APs. As development proceeds, an AP generates two daughter cells that comprise an AP and a deeper-layer neuron or a BP. How the transition of APs to BPs is spatiotemporally regulated is a fundamental question. Here, we report that conditional deletion of phoshpoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) in mouse developing cortex achieved by crossing Emx1Cre line with Pdk1fl/fl leads to a delayed transition of APs to BPs and subsequently causes an increased output of deeper-layer neurons. We demonstrate that PDK1 is involved in the modulation of the aPKC-Par3 complex and further regulates the asymmetric cell division (ACD). We also find Hes1, a downstream effecter of Notch signal pathway is obviously upregulated. Knockdown of Hes1 or treatment with Notch signal inhibitor DAPT recovers the ACD defect in the Pdk1 cKO. Thus, we have identified a novel function of PDK1 in controlling the transition of APs to BPs.

Acyl-CoA-Binding Domain-Containing 3 (ACBD3; PAP7; GCP60): A Multi-Functional Membrane Domain Organizer

Acyl-CoA-binding domain-containing 3 (ACBD3) is a multi-functional scaffolding protein, which has been associated with a diverse array of cellular functions, including steroidogenesis, embryogenesis, neurogenesis, Huntington’s disease (HD), membrane trafficking, and viral/bacterial proliferation in infected host cells. In this review, we aim to give a timely overview of recent findings on this protein, including its emerging role in membrane domain organization at the Golgi and the mitochondria. We hope that this review provides readers with useful insights on how ACBD3 may contribute to membrane domain organization along the secretory pathway and on the cytoplasmic surface of intracellular organelles, which influence many important physiological and pathophysiological processes in mammalian cells.

Golgipathies in Neurodevelopment: A New View of Old Defects

The Golgi apparatus (GA) is involved in a whole spectrum of activities, from lipid biosynthesis and membrane secretion to the posttranslational processing and trafficking of most proteins, the control of mitosis, cell polarity, migration and morphogenesis, and diverse processes such as apoptosis, autophagy, and the stress response. In keeping with its versatility, mutations in GA proteins lead to a number of different disorders, including syndromes with multisystem involvement. Intriguingly, however, > 40% of the GA-related genes known to be associated with disease affect the central or peripheral nervous system, highlighting the critical importance of the GA for neural function. We have previously proposed the term "Golgipathies" in relation to a group of disorders in which mutations in GA proteins or their molecular partners lead to consequences for brain development, in particular postnatal-onset microcephaly (POM), white-matter defects, and intellectual disability (ID). Here, taking into account the broader role of the GA in the nervous system, we refine and enlarge this emerging concept to include other disorders whose symptoms may be indicative of altered neurodevelopmental processes, from neurogenesis to neuronal migration and the secretory function critical for the maturation of postmitotic neurons and myelination.

Golgi Structure and Function in Health, Stress, and Diseases

The Golgi apparatus is a central intracellular membrane-bound organelle with key functions in trafficking, processing, and sorting of newly synthesized membrane and secretory proteins and lipids. To best perform these functions, Golgi membranes form a unique stacked structure. The Golgi structure is dynamic but tightly regulated; it undergoes rapid disassembly and reassembly during the cell cycle of mammalian cells and is disrupted under certain stress and pathological conditions. In the past decade, significant amount of effort has been made to reveal the molecular mechanisms that regulate the Golgi membrane architecture and function. Here we review the major discoveries in the mechanisms of Golgi structure formation, regulation, and alteration in relation to its functions in physiological and pathological conditions to further our understanding of Golgi structure and function in health and diseases.

Activity-Based Phosphatidylinositol Kinase Probes Detect Changes to Protein-Protein Interactions During Hepatitis C Virus Replication

Protein-protein interactions are integral to host-virus interactions and can contribute significantly to enzyme regulation by changing the localization of both host and viral enzymes within the cell, inducing conformational change relevant to enzyme activity or recruiting other additional proteins to form functional complexes. Identifying the interactors of active enzymes using an activity-based protein profiling probe has allowed us to characterize both normal enzyme activation mechanisms and the manner by which these mechanisms are hijacked and altered by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). Here, we report use of a novel activity-based probe, PIKBPyne, which labels phosphatidylinositol kinases (PIKs) in an activity-based manner, to investigate HCV-dependent changes in protein-protein interactions for PI4KB. Herein, we report the synthesis of new variations on PIKBPyne, compare their ability to label the interacting partners of PI4KB, and demonstrate the utility of our approach in characterizing virus-mediated changes to host function.

Overexpressed ACBD3 has prognostic value in human breast cancer and promotes the self-renewal potential of breast cancer cells by activating the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling pathway

Acyl-CoA binding domain containing 3 (ACBD3) is involved in the maintenance of Golgi structure and function through its interaction with the integral membrane protein. However, the clinical significance and biological role of ACBD3 in breast cancer remain unclear. Herein, we found that the mRNA and protein levels of ACBD3 were markedly up-regulated in breast cancer cells and tissues. Immunohistochemical analysis of breast cancer tissues demonstrated that ACBD3 overexpression was significantly associated with advanced clinicopathological features. Univariate and multivariate analysis indicated that ACBD3 overexpression correlates with poor prognosis in breast cancer. Furthermore, overexpressing ACBD3 promoted, while silencing ACBD3 inhibited, self-renewal and tumorigenesis in breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo respectively. Importantly, upregulating ACBD3 promoted the self-renewal and tumorigenesis of breast cancer cells via activating the Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, and the pro-self-renewal effect of ACBD3 in breast cancer was antagonized by the Wnt signaling inhibitor TCF4-siRNA and Lef1-siRNA.These findings indicate that ACBD3 may represent candidate therapeutic targets to enable the elimination of breast cancer stem cells, providing the preclinical proof-of-concept for the prevention and treatment of breast cancer.

Differential Routing of Mindbomb1 via Centriolar Satellites Regulates Asymmetric Divisions of Neural Progenitors

Unequal centrosome maturation correlates with asymmetric division in multiple cell types. Nevertheless, centrosomal fate determinants have yet to be identified. Here, we show that the Notch pathway regulator Mindbomb1 co-localizes asymmetrically with centriolar satellite proteins PCM1 and AZI1 at the daughter centriole in interphase. Remarkably, while PCM1 and AZI1 remain asymmetric during mitosis, Mindbomb1 is associated with either one or both spindle poles. Asymmetric Mindbomb1 correlates with neurogenic divisions and Mindbomb1 is inherited by the prospective neuron. By contrast, in proliferative divisions, a supplementary pool of Mindbomb1 associated with the Golgi apparatus in interphase is released during mitosis and compensates for Mindbomb1 centrosomal asymmetry. Finally, we show that preventing Mindbomb1 centrosomal association induces reciprocal Notch activation between sister cells and promotes symmetric divisions. Thus, we uncover a link between differential centrosome maturation and Notch signaling and reveal an unexpected compensatory mechanism involving the Golgi apparatus in restoring symmetry in proliferative divisions.

Structural insights and in vitro reconstitution of membrane targeting and activation of human PI4KB by the ACBD3 protein

Phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase beta (PI4KB) is one of four human PI4K enzymes that generate phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI4P), a minor but essential regulatory lipid found in all eukaryotic cells. To convert their lipid substrates, PI4Ks must be recruited to the correct membrane compartment. PI4KB is critical for the maintenance of the Golgi and trans Golgi network (TGN) PI4P pools, however, the actual targeting mechanism of PI4KB to the Golgi and TGN membranes is unknown. Here, we present an NMR structure of the complex of PI4KB and its interacting partner, Golgi adaptor protein acyl-coenzyme A binding domain containing protein 3 (ACBD3). We show that ACBD3 is capable of recruiting PI4KB to membranes both in vitro and in vivo, and that membrane recruitment of PI4KB by ACBD3 increases its enzymatic activity and that the ACBD3:PI4KB complex formation is essential for proper function of the Golgi.

Non-canonical features of the Golgi apparatus in bipolar epithelial neural stem cells

Apical radial glia (aRG), the stem cells in developing neocortex, are unique bipolar epithelial cells, extending an apical process to the ventricle and a basal process to the basal lamina. Here, we report novel features of the Golgi apparatus, a central organelle for cell polarity, in mouse aRGs. The Golgi was confined to the apical process but not associated with apical centrosome(s). In contrast, in aRG-derived, delaminating basal progenitors that lose apical polarity, the Golgi became pericentrosomal. The aRG Golgi underwent evolutionarily conserved, accordion-like compression and extension concomitant with cell cycle-dependent nuclear migration. Importantly, in line with endoplasmic reticulum but not Golgi being present in the aRG basal process, its plasma membrane contained glycans lacking Golgi processing, consistent with direct ER-to-cell surface membrane traffic. Our study reveals hitherto unknown complexity of neural stem cell polarity, differential Golgi contribution to their specific architecture, and fundamental Golgi re-organization upon cell fate change.

Association of NMT2 with the acyl-CoA carrier ACBD6 protects the N-myristoyltransferase reaction from palmitoyl-CoA

The covalent attachment of a 14-carbon aliphatic tail on a glycine residue of nascent translated peptide chains is catalyzed in human cells by two N-myristoyltransferase (NMT) enzymes using the rare myristoyl-CoA (C(14)-CoA) molecule as fatty acid donor. Although, NMT enzymes can only transfer a myristate group, they lack specificity for C(14)-CoA and can also bind the far more abundant palmitoyl-CoA (C(16)-CoA) molecule. We determined that the acyl-CoA binding protein, acyl-CoA binding domain (ACBD)6, stimulated the NMT reaction of NMT2. This stimulatory effect required interaction between ACBD6 and NMT2, and was enhanced by binding of ACBD6 to its ligand, C(18:2)-CoA. ACBD6 also interacted with the second human NMT enzyme, NMT1. The presence of ACBD6 prevented competition of the NMT reaction by C(16)-CoA. Mutants of ACBD6 that were either deficient in ligand binding to the N-terminal ACBD or unable to interact with NMT2 did not stimulate activity of NMT2, nor could they protect the enzyme from utilizing the competitor C(16)-CoA. These results indicate that ACBD6 can locally sequester C(16)-CoA and prevent its access to the enzyme binding site via interaction with NMT2. Thus, the ligand binding properties of the NMT/ACBD6 complex can explain how the NMT reaction can proceed in the presence of the very abundant competitive substrate, C(16)-CoA.

The Golgin Family of Coiled-Coil Tethering Proteins

The golgins are a family of predominantly coiled-coil proteins that are localized to the Golgi apparatus. Golgins are present in all eukaryotes, suggesting an evolutionary conserved function. Golgins are anchored to the Golgi membrane by their carboxy terminus and are predicted to adopt an extended conformation that projects into the surrounding cytoplasm. This arrangement is ideal for the capture or tethering of nearby membranes or cytoskeletal elements. Golgin-mediated tethering is thought to be important for vesicular traffic at the Golgi apparatus, the maintenance of Golgi architecture, as well as the positioning of the Golgi apparatus within cells. In addition to acting as tethers, some golgins can also sequester various factors at the Golgi membrane, allowing for the spatiotemporal regulation of downstream cellular functions. Although it is now established that golgins are membrane and cytoskeleton tethers, the mechanisms underlying tethering remain poorly defined. Moreover, the importance of golgin-mediated tethering in a physiological context remains to be fully explored. This review will describe our current understanding of golgin function, highlighting recent progress that has been made, and goes on to discuss outstanding questions and potential avenues for future research with regard to this family of conserved Golgi-associated proteins.

Cell Division Mode Change Mediates the Regulation of Cerebellar Granule Neurogenesis Controlled by the Sonic Hedgehog Signaling

Symmetric and asymmetric divisions are important for self-renewal and differentiation of stem cells during neurogenesis. Although cerebellar granule neurogenesis is controlled by sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling, whether and how this process is mediated by regulation of cell division modes have not been determined. Here, using time-lapse imaging and cell culture from neuronal progenitor-specific and differentiated neuron-specific reporter mouse lines (Math1-GFP and Dcx-DsRed) and Patched ± mice in which SHH signaling is activated, we find evidence for the existence of symmetric and asymmetric divisions that are closely associated with progenitor proliferation and differentiation. While activation of the SHH pathway enhances symmetric progenitor cell divisions, blockade of the SHH pathway reverses the cell division mode change in Math1-GFP; Dcx-DsRed; Patched ± mice by promoting asymmetric divisions or terminal neuronal symmetric divisions. Thus, cell division mode change mediates the regulation of cerebellar granule neurogenesis controlled by SHH signaling.

Ligand binding to the ACBD6 protein regulates the acyl-CoA transferase reactions in membranes

The binding determinants of the human acyl-CoA binding domain-containing protein (ACBD) 6 and its function in lipid renewal of membranes were investigated. ACBD6 binds acyl-CoAs of a chain length of 6 to 20 carbons. The stoichiometry of the association could not be fitted to a 1-to-1 model. Saturation of ACBD6 by C16:0-CoA required higher concentration than less abundant acyl-CoAs. In contrast to ACBD1 and ACBD3, ligand binding did not result in the dimerization of ACBD6. The presence of fatty acids affected the binding of C18:1-CoA to ACBD6, dependent on the length, the degree of unsaturation, and the stereoisomeric conformation of their aliphatic chain. ACBD1 and ACBD6 negatively affected the formation of phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine in the red blood cell membrane. The acylation rate of lysophosphatidylcholine into PC catalyzed by the red cell lysophosphatidylcholine-acyltransferase 1 protein was limited by the transfer of the acyl-CoA substrate from ACBD6 to the acyltransferase enzyme. These findings provide evidence that the binding properties of ACBD6 are adapted to prevent its constant saturation by the very abundant C16:0-CoA and protect membrane systems from the detergent nature of free acyl-CoAs by controlling their release to acyl-CoA-utilizing enzymes.

Cell Division Modes and Cleavage Planes of Neural Progenitors during Mammalian Cortical Development

During mammalian brain development, neural progenitor cells undergo symmetric proliferative divisions followed by asymmetric neurogenic divisions. The division mode of these self-renewing progenitors, together with the cell fate of their progeny, plays critical roles in determining the number of neurons and, ultimately, the size of the adult brain. In the past decade, remarkable progress has been made toward identifying various types of neuronal progenitors. Recent technological advances in live imaging and genetic manipulation have enabled us to link dynamic cell biological events to the molecular mechanisms that control the asymmetric divisions of self-renewing progenitors and have provided a fresh perspective on the modes of division of these progenitors. In addition, comparison of progenitor repertoires between species has provided insight into the expansion and the development of the complexity of the brain during mammalian evolution.

Acyl-CoA-binding domain containing 3 modulates NAD+ metabolism through activating poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1

NAD(+) plays essential roles in cellular energy homoeostasis and redox state, functioning as a cofactor along the glycolysis and citric acid cycle pathways. Recent discoveries indicated that, through the NAD(+)-consuming enzymes, this molecule may also be involved in many other cellular and biological outcomes such as chromatin remodelling, gene transcription, genomic integrity, cell division, calcium signalling, circadian clock and pluripotency. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) is such an enzyme and dysfunctional PARP1 has been linked with the onset and development of various human diseases, including cancer, aging, traumatic brain injury, atherosclerosis, diabetes and inflammation. In the present study, we showed that overexpressed acyl-CoA-binding domain containing 3 (ACBD3), a Golgi-bound protein, significantly reduced cellular NAD(+) content via enhancing PARP1's polymerase activity and enhancing auto-modification of the enzyme in a DNA damage-independent manner. We identified that extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 as well as de novo fatty acid biosynthesis pathways are involved in ACBD3-mediated activation of PARP1. Importantly, oxidative stress-induced PARP1 activation is greatly attenuated by knocking down the ACBD3 gene. Taken together, these findings suggest that ACBD3 has prominent impacts on cellular NAD(+) metabolism via regulating PARP1 activation-dependent auto-modification and thus cell metabolism and function.

Long-chain acyl-CoA esters in metabolism and signaling: Role of acyl-CoA binding proteins

Long-chain fatty acyl-CoA esters are key intermediates in numerous lipid metabolic pathways, and recognized as important cellular signaling molecules. The intracellular flux and regulatory properties of acyl-CoA esters have been proposed to be coordinated by acyl-CoA-binding domain containing proteins (ACBDs). The ACBDs, which comprise a highly conserved multigene family of intracellular lipid-binding proteins, are found in all eukaryotes and ubiquitously expressed in all metazoan tissues, with distinct expression patterns for individual ACBDs. The ACBDs are involved in numerous intracellular processes including fatty acid-, glycerolipid- and glycerophospholipid biosynthesis, β-oxidation, cellular differentiation and proliferation as well as in the regulation of numerous enzyme activities. Little is known about the specific roles of the ACBDs in the regulation of these processes, however, recent studies have gained further insights into their in vivo functions and provided further evidence for ACBD-specific functions in cellular signaling and lipid metabolic pathways. This review summarizes the structural and functional properties of the various ACBDs, with special emphasis on the function of ACBD1, commonly known as ACBP.

Remodeling of host phosphatidylcholine by Chlamydia acyltransferase is regulated by acyl-CoA binding protein ACBD6 associated with lipid droplets

The bacterial human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis invades cells as an infectious elementary body (EB). The EB is internalized into a vacuole that is hidden from the host defense mechanism, and is modified to sustain the development of the replicative reticulate body (RB). Inside this parasitophorous compartment, called the inclusion, the pathogen survives supported by an active exchange of nutrients and proteins with the host cell. We show that host lipids are scavenged and modified into bacterial-specific lipids by the action of a shared human-bacterial acylation mechanism. The bacterial acylating enzymes for the essential lipids 1-acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate and 1-acyl-sn-phosphatidylcholine were identified as CT453 and CT775, respectively. Bacterial CT775 was found to be associated with lipid droplets (LDs). During the development of C. trachomatis, the human acyl-CoA carrier hACBD6 was recruited to cytosolic LDs and translocated into the inclusion. hACBD6 protein modulated the activity of CT775 in an acyl-CoA dependent fashion and sustained the activity of the bacterial acyltransferase by buffering the concentration of acyl-CoAs. We propose that disruption of the binding activity of the acyl-CoA carrier might represent a new drug-target to prevent growth of C. trachomatis.

Acetylation of TUG protein promotes the accumulation of GLUT4 glucose transporters in an insulin-responsive intracellular compartment

Insulin causes the exocytic translocation of GLUT4 glucose transporters to stimulate glucose uptake in fat and muscle. Previous results support a model in which TUG traps GLUT4 in intracellular, insulin-responsive vesicles termed GLUT4 storage vesicles (GSVs). Insulin triggers TUG cleavage to release the GSVs; GLUT4 then recycles through endosomes during ongoing insulin exposure. The TUG C terminus binds a GSV anchoring site comprising Golgin-160 and possibly other proteins. Here, we report that the TUG C terminus is acetylated. The TUG C-terminal peptide bound the Golgin-160-associated protein, ACBD3 (acyl-CoA-binding domain-containing 3), and acetylation reduced binding of TUG to ACBD3 but not to Golgin-160. Mutation of the acetylated residues impaired insulin-responsive GLUT4 trafficking in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. ACBD3 overexpression enhanced the translocation of GSV cargos, GLUT4 and insulin-regulated aminopeptidase (IRAP), and ACBD3 was required for intracellular retention of these cargos in unstimulated cells. Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2), a NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase, bound TUG and deacetylated the TUG peptide. SIRT2 overexpression reduced TUG acetylation and redistributed GLUT4 and IRAP to the plasma membrane in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Mutation of the acetylated residues in TUG abrogated these effects. In mice, SIRT2 deletion increased TUG acetylation and proteolytic processing. During glucose tolerance tests, glucose disposal was enhanced in SIRT2 knock-out mice, compared with wild type controls, without any effect on insulin concentrations. Together, these data support a model in which TUG acetylation modulates its interaction with Golgi matrix proteins and is regulated by SIRT2. Moreover, acetylation of TUG enhances its function to trap GSVs within unstimulated cells and enhances insulin-stimulated glucose uptake.

OsCYP21-4, a novel Golgi-resident cyclophilin, increases oxidative stress tolerance in rice

OsCYP21-4 is a rice cyclophilin protein that binds to cyclosporine A, an immunosuppressant drug. CYP21-4s in Arabidopsis and rice were previously shown to function as mitochondrial cyclophilins, as determined by TargetP analysis. In the current study, we found that OsCYP21-4-GFP localized to the Golgi, rather than mitochondria, in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves, which was confirmed based on its co-localization with cis Golgi α-ManI-mCherry protein. OsCYP21-4 transcript levels increased in response to treatments with various abiotic stresses and the phytohormone abscisic acid, revealing its stress-responsiveness. CYP21-4 homologs do not possess key peptidyl prolyl cis/trans isomerase (PPIase) activity/cyclosporine A (CsA) binding residues, and recombinant OsCYP21-4 protein did not convert the synthetic substrate Suc-AAPF-pNA via cis- trans- isomerization in vitro. In addition, transgenic plants overexpressing OsCYP21-4 exhibited increased tolerance to salinity and hydrogen peroxide treatment, along with increased peroxidase activity. These results demonstrate that OsCYP21-4 is a novel Golgi-localized cyclophilin that plays a role in oxidative stress tolerance, possibly by regulating peroxidase activity.

The role of Notch and Hedgehog signaling pathways in pituitary development and pathogenesis of pituitary adenomas

Pituitary adenomas are usually benign tumors that cause symptoms by compression of surrounding structures or impaired hormone secretion. Treatment, whether surgical or medical depends, on the tumor subtype and degree of compression; however, a significant proportion of patients do not achieve optimal control of mass effects or hormonal hypersecretion. Unraveling the pathogenesis of pituitary adenomas is a critical step in the quest for new subcellular treatment targets that will decrease morbidity and mortality related to these tumors. A large diversity of pathogenetic mechanisms has been described so far including deregulation of cell cycle, molecular pathways and angiogenesis. Major signaling pathways such as Notch, Wnt and Hedgehog, which are mainly active in the early phase of pituitary organogenesis and are essential for the development of somatotrophs, lactotrophs thyrotrophs and corticotrophs, have been implicated in the pathogenesis of pituitary adenomas. In this review we present novel data regarding the role of Notch and Hedgehog regulatory networks in pituitary development and pathogenesis of pituitary adenomas.

Golgi defects enhance APP amyloidogenic processing in Alzheimer's disease

Increased amyloid beta (Aβ) production by sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the β- and γ-secretases contributes to the etiological basis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This process requires APP and the secretases to be in the same subcellular compartments, such as the endosomes. Since all membrane organelles in the endomembrane system are kinetically and functionally linked, any defects in the trafficking and sorting machinery would be expected to change the functional properties of the whole system. The Golgi is a primary organelle for protein trafficking, sorting and modifications, and Golgi defects have been reported in AD. Here we hypothesize that Golgi fragmentation in AD accelerates APP trafficking and Aβ production. Furthermore, Golgi defects may perturb the proper trafficking and processing of many essential neuronal proteins, resulting in compromised neuronal function. Therefore, molecular tools that can restore Golgi structure and function could prove useful as potential drugs for AD treatment.

Numb-dependent integration of pre-TCR and p53 function in T-cell precursor development

Numb asymmetrically segregates at mitosis to control cell fate choices during development. Numb inheritance specifies progenitor over differentiated cell fates, and, paradoxically, also promotes neuronal differentiation, thus indicating that the role of Numb may change during development. Here we report that Numb nuclear localization is restricted to early thymocyte precursors, whereas timed appearance of pre-T-cell receptor (pre-TCR) and activation of protein kinase Cθ promote phosphorylation-dependent Numb nuclear exclusion. Notably, nuclear localization of Numb in early thymocyte precursors favors p53 nuclear stabilization, whereas pre-TCR-dependent Numb nuclear exclusion promotes the p53 downmodulation essential for further differentiation. Accordingly, the persistence of Numb in the nucleus impairs the differentiation and promotes precursor cell death. This study reveals a novel regulatory mechanism for Numb function based on its nucleus–cytosol shuttling, coupling the different roles of Numb with different stages of T-cell development.

Asymmetric cell division of stem cells in the lung and other systems

New insights have been added to identification, behavior and cellular properties of embryonic and tissue-specific stem cells over the last few years. The modes of stem cell division, asymmetric vs. symmetric, are tightly regulated during development and regeneration. The proper choice of a stem cell to divide asymmetrically or symmetrically has great consequences for development and disease because inappropriate asymmetric division disrupts organ morphogenesis, whereas uncontrolled symmetric division induces tumorigenesis. Therefore, understanding the behavior of lung stem cells could identify innovative solutions for restoring normal morphogenesis and/or regeneration of different organs. In this concise review, we describe recent studies in our laboratory about the mode of division of lung epithelial stem cells. We also compare asymmetric cell division (ACD) in the lung stem cells with other tissues in different organisms.

The cell biology of neurogenesis: toward an understanding of the development and evolution of the neocortex

Neural stem and progenitor cells have a central role in the development and evolution of the mammalian neocortex. In this review, we first provide a set of criteria to classify the various types of cortical stem and progenitor cells. We then discuss the issue of cell polarity, as well as specific subcellular features of these cells that are relevant for their modes of division and daughter cell fate. In addition, cortical stem and progenitor cell behavior is placed into a tissue context, with consideration of extracellular signals and cell-cell interactions. Finally, the differences across species regarding cortical stem and progenitor cells are dissected to gain insight into key developmental and evolutionary mechanisms underlying neocortex expansion.

On the Genesis of Neuroblastoma and Glioma

As the emergence of cancer is most frequent in proliferating tissues, replication errors are considered to be at the base of this disease. This review concentrates mainly on two neural cancers, neuroblastoma and glioma, with completely different backgrounds that are well documented with respect to their ontogeny. Although clinical data on other cancers of the nervous system are available, usually little can be said about their origins. Neuroblastoma is initiated in the embryo at a moment when the nervous system (NS) is in full expansion and occasionally genomic damage can lead to neoplasia. Glioma, to the contrary, occurs in the adult brain supposed to be mostly in a postmitotic state. According to current consensus, neural stem cells located in the subventricular zone (SVZ) in the adult are thought to accumulate enough genomic mutations to diverge on a carcinogenic course leading to diverse forms of glioma. After weighing the pros and cons of this current hypothesis in this review, it will be argued that this may be improbable, yielding to the original old concept of glial origin of glioma.

Expression and function of NUMB in odontogenesis

NUMB is a multifunctional protein implicated to function in self-renewal and differentiation of progenitors in several tissues. To characterize the transcripts and to analyze the expression pattern of NUMB in odontogenesis, we isolated 2 full-length clones for NUMB from mouse dental pulp mRNA. One novel sequence contained 200 bp insertion in the phosphotyrosine binding domain (PTB). Confocal microscopy analysis showed strong NUMB expression in human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSC) and preameloblasts. Western blot analysis indicated that NUMB isoforms were differentially expressed in various dental tissues. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that in postnatal mouse tooth germs, NUMB was differentially expressed in the preameloblasts, odontoblasts, cervical loop region, and in the dental pulp stem cells during development. Interestingly, overexpression of NUMB in HAT-7, a preameloblast cell line, had dramatic antagonizing effects on the protein expression level of activated Notch 1. Further analysis of the Notch signaling pathway showed that NUMB significantly downregulates sonic hedgehog (Shh) expression in preameloblasts. Therefore, we propose that NUMB maintains ameloblast progenitor phenotype at the cervical loop by downregulating the activated Notch1 protein and thereby inhibiting the mRNA expression of Shh.

Numb is required for the production of terminal asymmetric cell divisions in the developing mouse retina

In the developing nervous system, cell diversification depends on the ability of neural progenitor cells to divide asymmetrically to generate daughter cells that acquire different identities. While much work has recently focused on the mechanisms controlling self-renewing asymmetric divisions producing a differentiating daughter and a progenitor, little is known about mechanisms regulating how distinct differentiating cell types are produced at terminal divisions. Here we study the role of the endocytic adaptor protein Numb in the developing mouse retina. Using clonal numb inactivation in retinal progenitor cells (RPCs), we show that Numb is required for normal cell-cycle progression at early stages, but is dispensable for the production of self-renewing asymmetric cell divisions. At late stages, however, Numb is no longer required for cell-cycle progression, but is critical for the production of terminal asymmetric cell divisions. In the absence of Numb, asymmetric terminal divisions that generate a photoreceptor and a non-photoreceptor cell are decreased in favor of symmetric terminal divisions generating two photoreceptors. Using live imaging in retinal explants, we show that a Numb fusion protein is asymmetrically inherited by the daughter cells of some late RPC divisions. Together with our finding that Numb antagonizes Notch signaling in late-stage RPCs, and that blocking Notch signaling in late RPCs almost completely abolishes the generation of terminal asymmetric divisions, these results suggest a model in which asymmetric inheritance of Numb in sister cells of terminal divisions might create unequal Notch activity, which in turn drives the production of terminal asymmetric divisions.

DSCAM contributes to dendrite arborization and spine formation in the developing cerebral cortex

Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule, or DSCAM, has been implicated in many neurodevelopmental processes including axon guidance, dendrite arborization, and synapse formation. Here we show that DSCAM plays an important role in regulating the morphogenesis of cortical pyramidal neurons in the mouse. We report that DSCAM expression is developmentally regulated and localizes to synaptic plasma membranes during a time of robust cortical dendrite arborization and spine formation. Analysis of mice that carry a spontaneous mutation in DSCAM (DSCAM(del17)) revealed gross morphological changes in brain size and shape in addition to subtle changes in cortical organization, volume, and lamination. Early postnatal mutant mice displayed a transient decrease in cortical thickness, but these reductions could not be attributed to changes in neuron production or cell death. DSCAM(del17) mutants showed temporary impairments in the branching of layer V pyramidal neuron dendrites at P10 and P17 that recovered to normal by adulthood. Defects in DSCAM(del17) dendrite branching correlated with a temporal increase in apical branch spine density and lasting changes in spine morphology. At P15 and P42, mutant mice displayed a decrease in the percentage of large, stable spines and an increase in the percentage of small, immature spines. Together, our findings suggest that DSCAM contributes to pyramidal neuron morphogenesis by regulating dendrite arborization and spine formation during cortical circuit development.

Signaling at the Golgi during mitosis

The Golgi complex of mammalian cells is composed of interconnected stacks of flattened cisternae that form a continuous membrane system in the pericentriolar region of the cell. At the onset of mitosis, this so-called Golgi ribbon is converted into small tubular-vesicular clusters in a tightly regulated fragmentation process, which leads to a temporary loss of the physical Golgi-centrosome proximity. Mitotic Golgi breakdown is required for Golgi partitioning into the two daughter cells, cell cycle progression and may contribute to the dispersal of Golgi-associated signaling molecules. Here, we review our current understanding of the mechanisms that control mitotic Golgi reorganization, its biological significance, and assays that are used to study this process.

Maturation and activity of sterol regulatory element binding protein 1 is inhibited by acyl-CoA binding domain containing 3

Imbalance of lipid metabolism has been linked with pathogenesis of a variety of human pathological conditions such as diabetes, obesity, cancer and neurodegeneration. Sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) are the master transcription factors controlling the homeostasis of fatty acids and cholesterol in the body. Transcription, expression, and activity of SREBPs are regulated by various nutritional, hormonal or stressful stimuli, yet the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in these adaptative responses remains elusive. In the present study, we found that overexpressed acyl-CoA binding domain containing 3 (ACBD3), a Golgi-associated protein, dramatically inhibited SREBP1-sensitive promoter activity of fatty acid synthase (FASN). Moreover, lipid deprivation-stimulated SREBP1 maturation was significantly attenuated by ACBD3. With cell fractionation, gene knockdown and immunoprecipitation assays, it was showed that ACBD3 blocked intracellular maturation of SREBP1 probably through directly binding with the lipid regulator rather than disrupted SREBP1-SCAP-Insig1 interaction. Further investigation revealed that acyl-CoA domain-containing N-terminal sequence of ACBD3 contributed to its inhibitory effects on the production of nuclear SREBP1. In addition, mRNA and protein levels of FASN and de novo palmitate biosynthesis were remarkably reduced in cells overexpressed with ACBD3. These findings suggest that ACBD3 plays an essential role in maintaining lipid homeostasis via regulating SREBP1's processing pathway and thus impacting cellular lipogenesis.

Neocortical neurogenesis and neuronal migration

The neocortex, the evolutionarily newest part of the cerebral cortex, controls nearly all aspects of behavior, including perception, language, and decision making. It contains an immense number of neurons that can be broadly divided into two groups, excitatory neurons and inhibitory interneurons. These neurons are predominantly produced through extensive progenitor cell divisions during the embryonic stages. Moreover, they are not randomly dispersed, but spatially organized into horizontal layers that are essential for neocortex function. The formation of this laminar structure requires exquisite control of neuronal migration from their birthplace to their final destination. Extensive research over the past decade has greatly advanced our understanding of the production and migration of both excitatory neurons and inhibitory interneurons in the developing neocortex. In this review, we aim to give an overview on the molecular and cellular processes of neocortical neurogenesis and neuronal migration.

Endocytosis and control of Notch signaling

The Notch signaling pathway controls patterning and cell fate decisions during development in metazoans, and is associated with human diseases such as cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) and certain cancers. Studies over the last several years have revealed sophisticated regulation of both the membrane-bound Notch receptor and its ligands by vesicle trafficking. This is perhaps most evident in neural progenitor cells in Drosophila, which divide asymmetrically to segregate Numb, an endocytic adaptor protein that acts as a Notch pathway inhibitor, to one daughter cell. Here, we discuss recent findings addressing how receptor and ligand trafficking to specific membrane compartments control activation of the Notch pathway in asymmetrically dividing cells and other tissues.

Transcriptome analysis of the ependymal barrier during murine neurocysticercosis

BACKGROUND

Central nervous system (CNS) barriers play a pivotal role in the protection and homeostasis of the CNS by enabling the exchange of metabolites while restricting the entry of xenobiotics, blood cells and blood-borne macromolecules. While the blood-brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (CSF) control the interface between the blood and CNS, the ependyma acts as a barrier between the CSF and parenchyma, and regulates hydrocephalic pressure and metabolic toxicity. Neurocysticercosis (NCC) is an infection of the CNS caused by the metacestode (larva) of Taenia solium and a major cause of acquired epilepsy worldwide. The common clinical manifestations of NCC are seizures, hydrocephalus and symptoms due to increased intracranial pressure. The majority of the associated pathogenesis is attributed to the immune response against the parasite. The properties of the CNS barriers, including the ependyma, are affected during infection, resulting in disrupted homeostasis and infiltration of leukocytes, which correlates with the pathology and disease symptoms of NCC patients.

RESULTS

In order to characterize the role of the ependymal barrier in the immunopathogenesis of NCC, we isolated ependymal cells using laser capture microdissection from mice infected or mock-infected with the closely related parasite Mesocestoides corti, and analyzed the genes that were differentially expressed using microarray analysis. The expression of 382 genes was altered. Immune response-related genes were verified by real-time RT-PCR. Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software was used to analyze the biological significance of the differentially expressed genes, and revealed that genes known to participate in innate immune responses, antigen presentation and leukocyte infiltration were affected along with the genes involved in carbohydrate, lipid and small molecule biochemistry. Further, MHC class II molecules and chemokines, including CCL12, were found to be upregulated at the protein level using immunofluorescence microscopy. This is important, because these molecules are members of the most significant pathways by IPA analyses.

CONCLUSION

Thus, our study indicates that ependymal cells actively express immune mediators and likely contribute to the observed immunopathogenesis during infection. Of particular interest is the major upregulation of antigen presentation pathway-related genes and chemokines/cytokines. This could explain how the ependyma is a prominent source of leukocyte infiltration into ventricles through the disrupted ependymal lining by way of pial vessels present in the internal leptomeninges in murine NCC.

Searching for cellular partners of hantaviral nonstructural protein NSs: Y2H screening of mouse cDNA library and analysis of cellular interactome

Hantaviruses (Bunyaviridae) are negative-strand RNA viruses with a tripartite genome. The small (S) segment encodes the nucleocapsid protein and, in some hantaviruses, also the nonstructural protein (NSs). The aim of this study was to find potential cellular partners for the hantaviral NSs protein. Toward this aim, yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) screening of mouse cDNA library was performed followed by a search for potential NSs protein counterparts via analyzing a cellular interactome. The resulting interaction network was shown to form logical, clustered structures. Furthermore, several potential binding partners for the NSs protein, for instance ACBD3, were identified and, to prove the principle, interaction between NSs and ACBD3 proteins was demonstrated biochemically.

Endocytosis and signaling: cell logistics shape the eukaryotic cell plan

Our understanding of endocytosis has evolved remarkably in little more than a decade. This is the result not only of advances in our knowledge of its molecular and biological workings, but also of a true paradigm shift in our understanding of what really constitutes endocytosis and of its role in homeostasis. Although endocytosis was initially discovered and studied as a relatively simple process to transport molecules across the plasma membrane, it was subsequently found to be inextricably linked with almost all aspects of cellular signaling. This led to the notion that endocytosis is actually the master organizer of cellular signaling, providing the cell with understandable messages that have been resolved in space and time. In essence, endocytosis provides the communications and supply routes (the logistics) of the cell. Although this may seem revolutionary, it is still likely to be only a small part of the entire story. A wealth of new evidence is uncovering the surprisingly pervasive nature of endocytosis in essentially all aspects of cellular regulation. In addition, many newly discovered functions of endocytic proteins are not immediately interpretable within the classical view of endocytosis. A possible framework, to rationalize all this new knowledge, requires us to "upgrade" our vision of endocytosis. By combining the analysis of biochemical, biological, and evolutionary evidence, we propose herein that endocytosis constitutes one of the major enabling conditions that in the history of life permitted the development of a higher level of organization, leading to the actuation of the eukaryotic cell plan.

Asymmetric segregation and self-renewal of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells with endocytic Ap2a2

The stem cell–intrinsic model of self-renewal via asymmetric cell division (ACD) posits that fate determinants be partitioned unequally between daughter cells to either activate or suppress the stemness state. ACD is a purported mechanism by which hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) self-renew, but definitive evidence for this cellular process remains open to conjecture. To address this issue, we chose 73 candidate genes that function within the cell polarity network to identify potential determinants that may concomitantly alter HSC fate while also exhibiting asymmetric segregation at cell division. Initial gene-expression profiles of polarity candidates showed high and differential expression in both HSCs and leukemia stem cells. Altered HSC fate was assessed by our established in vitro to in vivo screen on a subcohort of candidate polarity genes, which revealed 6 novel positive regulators of HSC function: Ap2a2, Gpsm2, Tmod1, Kif3a, Racgap1, and Ccnb1. Interestingly, live-cell videomicroscopy of the endocytic protein AP2A2 shows instances of asymmetric segregation during HSC/progenitor cell cytokinesis. These results contribute further evidence that ACD is functional in HSC self-renewal, suggest a role for Ap2a2 in HSC activity, and provide a unique opportunity to prospectively analyze progeny from HSC asymmetric divisions.