Phototransduction motifs and variations

Comparative transcriptomic analysis primarily explores the molecular mechanism of compound eye formation in Neocaridina denticulata sinensis

Compound eyes formation in decapod crustaceans occurs after the nauplius stage. However, the key genes and regulatory mechanisms of compound eye development during crustacean embryonic development have not yet been clarified. In this study, RNA-seq was used to investigate the gene expression profiles of Neocaridina denticulata sinensis from nauplius to zoea stage. Based on RNA-seq data analysis, the phototransduction and insect hormone biosynthesis pathways were enriched, and molting-related neuropeptides were highly expressed. There was strong cell proliferation in the embryo prior to compound eye development. The formation of the visual system and the hormonal regulation of hatching were the dominant biological events during compound eye development. The functional analysis of DEGs across all four developmental stages showed that cuticle formation, muscle growth and the establishment of immune system occurred from nauplius to zoea stage. Key genes related to eye development were discovered, including those involved in the determination and differentiation of the eye field, eye-color formation, and visual signal transduction. In conclusion, the results increase the understanding of the molecular mechanism of eye formation in crustacean embryonic stage.

Circadian-independent light regulation of mammalian metabolism

The daily light-dark cycle is a key zeitgeber (time cue) for entraining an organism's biological clock, whereby light sensing by retinal photoreceptors, particularly intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, stimulates the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, a central pacemaker that in turn orchestrates the rhythm of peripheral metabolic activities. Non-rhythmic effects of light on metabolism have also been long known, and their transduction mechanisms are only beginning to unfold. Here, we summarize emerging evidence that, in mammals, light exposure or deprivation profoundly affects glucose homeostasis, thermogenesis and other metabolic activities in a clock-independent manner. Such light regulation could involve melanopsin-based, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell-initiated brain circuits via the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus and other nuclei, or direct stimulation of opsins expressed in the hypothalamus, adipose tissue, blood vessels and skin to regulate sympathetic tone, lipolysis, glucose uptake, mitochondrial activation, thermogenesis, food intake, blood pressure and melanogenesis. These photic signalling events may coordinate with circadian-based mechanisms to maintain metabolic homeostasis, with dysregulation of this system underlying metabolic diseases caused by aberrant light exposure, such as environmental night light and shift work.

Retinoid Synthesis Regulation by Retinal Cells in Health and Disease

Vision starts in retinal photoreceptors when specialized proteins (opsins) sense photons via their covalently bonded vitamin A derivative 11cis retinaldehyde (11cis-RAL). The reaction of non-enzymatic aldehydes with amino groups lacks specificity, and the reaction products may trigger cell damage. However, the reduced synthesis of 11cis-RAL results in photoreceptor demise and suggests the need for careful control over 11cis-RAL handling by retinal cells. This perspective focuses on retinoid(s) synthesis, their control in the adult retina, and their role during retina development. It also explores the potential importance of 9cis vitamin A derivatives in regulating retinoid synthesis and their impact on photoreceptor development and survival. Additionally, recent advancements suggesting the pivotal nature of retinoid synthesis regulation for cone cell viability are discussed.

Eye proteome of Drosophila melanogaster

Drosophila melanogaster is a popular model organism to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that underlie the structure and function of the eye as well as the causes of retinopathies, aging, light-induced damage, or dietary deficiencies. Large-scale screens have isolated genes whose mutation causes morphological and functional ocular defects, which led to the discovery of key components of the phototransduction cascade. However, the proteome of the Drosophila eye is poorly characterized. Here, we used GeLC-MS/MS to quantify 3516 proteins, including the absolute (molar) quantities of 43 proteins in the eye of adult male Drosophila reared on standard laboratory food. This work provides a generic and expandable resource for further genetic, pharmacological, and dietary studies.

Opsin mutants alter host plant selection by color vision in the nocturnal invasive pest Tuta absoluta

In insects, vision is crucial in finding host plants, but its role in nocturnal insects is largely unknown. Vision involves responses to specific spectra of photon wavelengths and opsins plays an important role in this process. Long-wavelength sensitive opsin (LW opsin) and blue-sensitive opsin (BL opsin) are main visual opsin proteins and play important in behavior regulation.We used CRISPR/Cas9 technology to mutate the long-wavelength-sensitive and blue wavelength-sensitive genes and explored the role of vision in the nocturnal invasive pest Tuta absoluta. Light wave experiments revealed that LW2(-/-) and BL(-/-) mutants showed abnormal wavelength tropism. Both LW2 and BL mutations affected the preference of T. absoluta for the green environment. Mutations in LW2 and BL are necessary to inhibit visual attraction. The elimination of LW2 and BL affected the preference of leaf moths for green plants, and mutations in both induced a preference in moths for white plants. Behavioral changes resulting from LW2(-/-) and BL(-/-) mutants were not affected by sense of smell, further supporting the regulatory role of vision in insect behavior. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to reveal that vision, not smell, plays an important role in the host-seeking behavior of nocturnal insects at night, of which LW2 and BL opsins are key regulatory factors. These study findings will drive the development of the "vision-ecology" theory.

Phototactic preference and its genetic basis in the planulae of the colonial Hydrozoan Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus

Background

Marine organisms with sessile adults commonly possess motile larval stages that make settlement decisions based on integrating environmental sensory cues. Phototaxis, the movement toward or away from light, is a common behavioral characteristic of aquatic and marine metazoan larvae, and of algae, protists, and fungi. In cnidarians, behavioral genomic investigations of motile planulae larvae have been conducted in anthozoans (corals and sea anemones) and scyphozoans (true jellyfish), but such studies are presently lacking in hydrozoans. Here, we examined the behavioral genomics of phototaxis in planulae of the hydrozoan Hydractinia symbiolongicarpus.

Results

A behavioral phototaxis study of day 3 planulae indicated preferential phototaxis to green (523 nm) and blue (470 nm) wavelengths of light, but not red (625 nm) wavelengths. A developmental transcriptome study where planula larvae were collected from four developmental time points for RNA-seq revealed that many genes critical to the physiology and development of ciliary photosensory systems are dynamically expressed in planula development and correspond to the expression of phototactic behavior. Microscopical investigations using immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization demonstrated that several transcripts with predicted function in photoreceptors, including cnidops class opsin, CNG ion channel, and CRX-like transcription factor, localize to ciliated bipolar sensory neurons of the aboral sensory neural plexus, which is associated with the direction of phototaxis and the site of settlement.

Conclusions

The phototactic preference displayed by planulae is consistent with the shallow sandy marine habitats they experience in nature. Our genomic investigations add further evidence of similarities between cnidops-mediated photoreceptors of hydrozoans and other cnidarians and ciliary photoreceptors as found in the eyes of humans and other bilaterians, suggesting aspects of their shared evolutionary history.

Eyeless razor clam Sinonovacula constricta discriminates light spectra through opsins to guide Ca2+ and cAMP signaling pathways

Phototransduction is based on opsins that drive distinct types of Gα cascades. Although nonvisual photosensitivity has long been known in marine bivalves, the underlying molecular basis and phototransduction mechanism are poorly understood. Here, we introduced the eyeless razor clam Sinonovacula constricta as a model to clarify this issue. First, we showed that S. constricta was highly diverse in opsin family members, with a significant expansion in xenopsins. Second, the expression of putative S. constricta opsins was highly temporal-spatio specific, indicating their potential roles in S. constricta development and its peripheral photosensitivity. Third, by cloning four S. constricta opsins with relatively higher expression (Sc_opsin1, 5, 7, and 12), we found that they exhibited different expression levels in response to different light environments. Moreover, we demonstrated that these opsins (excluding Sc_opsin7) couple with Gαq and Gαi cascades to mediate the light-dependent Ca2+ (Sc_opsin1 and 5) and cAMP (Sc_opsin12) signaling pathways. The results indicated that Sc_opsin1 and 5 belonged to Gq-opsins, Sc_opsin12 belonged to Gi-opsins, while Sc_opsin7 might act as a photo-isomerase. Furthermore, we found that the phototransduction function of S. constricta Gq-opsins was dependent on the lysine at the seventh transmembrane domain, and greatly influenced by the external light spectra in a complementary way. Thus, a synergistic photosensitive system mediated by opsins might exist in S. constricta to rapidly respond to the transient or subtle changes of the external light environment. Collectively, our findings provide valuable insights into the evolution of opsins in marine bivalves and their potential functions in nonvisual photosensitivity.

Diurnal and circadian regulation of opsin-like transcripts in the eyeless cnidarian Hydra

Opsins play a key role in the ability to sense light both in image-forming vision and in non-visual photoreception (NVP). These modalities, in most animal phyla, share the photoreceptor protein: an opsin-based protein binding a light-sensitive chromophore by a lysine (Lys) residue. So far, visual and non-visual opsins have been discovered throughout the Metazoa phyla, including the photoresponsive Hydra, an eyeless cnidarian considered the evolutionary sister species to bilaterians. To verify whether light influences and modulates opsin gene expression in Hydra, we utilized four expression sequence tags, similar to two classic opsins (SW rhodopsin and SW blue-sensitive opsin) and two non-visual opsins (melanopsin and peropsin), in investigating the expression patterns during both diurnal and circadian time, by means of a quantitative RT-PCR. The expression levels of all four genes fluctuated along the light hours of diurnal cycle with respect to the darkness one and, in constant dark condition of the circadian cycle, they increased. The monophasic behavior in the L12:D12 cycle turned into a triphasic expression profile during the continuous darkness condition. Consequently, while the diurnal opsin-like expression revealed a close dependence on light hours, the highest transcript levels were found in darkness, leading us to novel hypothesis that in Hydra, an "internal" biological rhythm autonomously supplies the opsins expression during the circadian time. In conclusion, in Hydra, both diurnal and circadian rhythms apparently regulate the expression of the so-called visual and non-visual opsins, as already demonstrated in higher invertebrate and vertebrate species. Our data confirm that Hydra is a suitable model for studying ancestral precursor of both visual and NVP, providing useful hints on the evolution of visual and photosensory systems.

Coexistence within one cell of microvillous and ciliary phototransductions across M1- through M6-IpRGCs

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) serve as primary photoceptors by expressing the photopigment, melanopsin, and also as retinal relay neurons for rod and cone signals en route to the brain, in both cases for the purpose of non-image vision as well as aspects of image vision. So far, six subtypes of ipRGCs (M1 through M6) have been characterized. Regarding their phototransduction mechanisms, we have previously found that, unconventionally, rhabdomeric (microvillous) and ciliary signaling motifs co-exist within a given M1-, M2-, and M4-ipRGC, with the first mechanism involving PLCβ4 and TRPC6,7 channels and the second involving cAMP and HCN channels. We have now examined M3-, M5-, and M6-cells and found that each cell likewise uses both signaling pathways for phototransduction, despite differences in the percentage representation by each pathway in a given ipRGC subtype for bright-flash responses (and saturated except for M6-cells). Generally, M3- and M5-cells show responses quite similar in kinetics to M2-responses, and M6-cell responses resemble broadly those of M1-cells although much lower in absolute sensitivity and amplitude. Therefore, similar to rod and cone subtypes in image vision, ipRGC subtypes possess the same phototransduction mechanism(s) even though they do not show microvilli or cilia morphologically.

Structural basis of properties, mechanisms, and channelopathy of cyclic nucleotide-gated channels

Recent years have seen an outpouring of atomic or near atomic resolution structures of cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels, captured in closed, transition, pre-open, partially open, and fully open states. These structures provide unprecedented molecular insights into the activation, assembly, architecture, regulation, and channelopathy of CNG channels, as well as mechanistic explanations for CNG channel biophysical and pharmacological properties. This article summarizes recent advances in CNG channel structural biology, describes key structural features and elements, and illuminates a detailed conformational landscape of activation by cyclic nucleotides. The review also correlates structures with findings and properties delineated in functional studies, including nonselective monovalent cation selectivity, Ca2+ permeation and block, block by L-cis-diltiazem, location of the activation gate, lack of voltage-dependent gating, and modulation by lipids and calmodulin. A perspective on future research is also offered.

The many faces of SIRT6 in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium

Sirtuin 6 (SIRT6) is a member of the mammalian sirtuin family of NAD+-dependent protein deacylases, homologues of the yeast silent information regulator 2 (Sir2). SIRT6 has remarkably diverse functions and plays a key role in a variety of biological processes for maintaining cellular and organismal homeostasis. In this review, our primary aim is to summarize recent progress in understanding SIRT6's functions in the retina and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), with the hope of further drawing interests in SIRT6 to increase efforts in exploring the therapeutic potential of this unique protein in the vision field. Before describing SIRT6's role in the eye, we first discuss SIRT6's general functions in a wide range of biological contexts. SIRT6 plays an important role in gene silencing, metabolism, DNA repair, antioxidant defense, inflammation, aging and longevity, early development, and stress response. In addition, recent studies have revealed SIRT6's role in macrophage polarization and mitochondrial homeostasis. Despite being initially understudied in the context of the eye, recent efforts have begun to elucidate the critical functions of SIRT6 in the retina and RPE. In the retina, SIRT6 is essential for adult retinal function, regulates energy metabolism by suppressing glycolysis that affects photoreceptor cell survival, protects retinal ganglion cells from oxidative stress, and plays a role in Müller cells during early neurodegenerative events in diabetic retinopathy. In the RPE, SIRT6 activates autophagy in culture and protects against oxidative stress in mice. Taken together, this review demonstrates that better understanding of SIRT6's functions and their mechanisms, both in and out of the context of the eye, holds great promise for the development of SIRT6-targeted strategies for prevention and treatment of blinding eye diseases.

A single photoreceptor splits perception and entrainment by cotransmission

Vision enables both image-forming perception, driven by a contrast-based pathway, and unconscious non-image-forming circadian photoentrainment, driven by an irradiance-based pathway1,2. Although two distinct photoreceptor populations are specialized for each visual task3-6, image-forming photoreceptors can additionally contribute to photoentrainment of the circadian clock in different species7-15. However, it is unknown how the image-forming photoreceptor pathway can functionally implement the segregation of irradiance signals required for circadian photoentrainment from contrast signals required for image perception. Here we report that the Drosophila R8 photoreceptor separates image-forming and irradiance signals by co-transmitting two neurotransmitters, histamine and acetylcholine. This segregation is further established postsynaptically by histamine-receptor-expressing unicolumnar retinotopic neurons and acetylcholine-receptor-expressing multicolumnar integration neurons. The acetylcholine transmission from R8 photoreceptors is sustained by an autocrine negative feedback of the cotransmitted histamine during the light phase of light-dark cycles. At the behavioural level, elimination of histamine and acetylcholine transmission impairs R8-driven motion detection and circadian photoentrainment, respectively. Thus, a single type of photoreceptor can achieve the dichotomy of visual perception and circadian photoentrainment as early as the first visual synapses, revealing a simple yet robust mechanism to segregate and translate distinct sensory features into different animal behaviours.

Active Components of Leontopodium alpinum Callus Culture Extract for Blue Light Damage in Human Foreskin Fibroblasts

Leontopodium alpinum is a source of raw material for food additives and skin health. The purpose of this study was to investigate the application of Leontopodium alpinum callus culture extract (LACCE) to prevent blue light damage to the skin. We screened and identified the blue light-damage-protecting activities and mechanisms of ten components of LACCE, including chlorogenic acid (A), isoquercitrin (B), isochlorogenic acid A (C), cynaroside (D), syringin (E), isochlorogenic acid (F), cynarin (G), rutin (H), leontopodic acid A (I), and leontopodic acid B (J), using a novel blue light-induced human foreskin fibroblast (HFF-1) cell injury model. The study examined the cytotoxicity of ten ingredients using the cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, and selecting concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 μM for experiments with a cell viability above 65%. We explored the effects and mechanisms of action of these LACCE components in response to blue light injury using Western blotting and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. We also measured ROS secretion and Ca2+ influx. Our study revealed that leontopodic acid A effectively boosted COI-1 expression, hindered MMP-1 expression, curbed ROS and Ca2+ endocytosis, and reduced OPN3 expression. These results provide theoretical support for the development of new raw materials for the pharmaceutical and skincare industries.

Establishing Functional Retina in a Dish: Progress and Promises of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Based Retinal Neuron Differentiation

The human eye plays a critical role in vision perception, but various retinal degenerative diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), glaucoma, and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) can lead to vision loss or blindness. Although progress has been made in understanding retinal development and in clinical research, current treatments remain inadequate for curing or reversing these degenerative conditions. Animal models have limited relevance to humans, and obtaining human eye tissue samples is challenging due to ethical and legal considerations. Consequently, researchers have turned to stem cell-based approaches, specifically induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), to generate distinct retinal cell populations and develop cell replacement therapies. iPSCs offer a novel platform for studying the key stages of human retinogenesis and disease-specific mechanisms. Stem cell technology has facilitated the production of diverse retinal cell types, including retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and photoreceptors, and the development of retinal organoids has emerged as a valuable in vitro tool for investigating retinal neuron differentiation and modeling retinal diseases. This review focuses on the protocols, culture conditions, and techniques employed in differentiating retinal neurons from iPSCs. Furthermore, it emphasizes the significance of molecular and functional validation of the differentiated cells.

A short story on how chromophore is hydrolyzed from rhodopsin for recycling

The photocycle of visual opsins is essential to maintain the light sensitivity of the retina. The early physical observations of the rhodopsin photocycle by Böll and Kühne in the 1870s inspired over a century's worth of investigations on rhodopsin biochemistry. A single photon isomerizes the Schiff-base linked 11-cis-retinylidene chromophore of rhodopsin, converting it to the all-trans agonist to elicit phototransduction through photoactivated rhodopsin (Rho*). Schiff base hydrolysis of the agonist is a key step in the photocycle, not only diminishing ongoing phototransduction but also allowing for entry and binding of fresh 11-cis chromophore to regenerate the rhodopsin pigment and maintain light sensitivity. Many challenges have been encountered in measuring the rate of this hydrolysis, but recent advancements have facilitated studies of the hydrolysis within the native membrane environment of rhodopsin. These techniques can now be applied to study hydrolysis of agonist in other opsin proteins that mediate phototransduction or chromophore turnover. In this review, we discuss the progress that has been made in characterizing the rhodopsin photocycle and the journey to characterize the hydrolysis of its all-trans-retinylidene agonist.

Ultrafast Transient Absorption Spectra and Kinetics of Rod and Cone Visual Pigments

Rods and cones are the photoreceptor cells containing the visual pigment proteins that initiate visual phototransduction following the absorption of a photon. Photon absorption induces the photochemical transformation of a visual pigment, which results in the sequential formation of distinct photo-intermediate species on the femtosecond to millisecond timescales, whereupon a visual electrical signal is generated and transmitted to the brain. Time-resolved spectroscopic studies of the rod and cone photo-intermediaries enable the detailed understanding of initial events in vision, namely the key differences that underlie the functionally distinct scotopic (rod) and photopic (cone) visual systems. In this paper, we review our recent ultrafast (picoseconds to milliseconds) transient absorption studies of rod and cone visual pigments with a detailed comparison of the transient molecular spectra and kinetics of their respective photo-intermediaries. Key results include the characterization of the porphyropsin (carp fish rhodopsin) and human green-cone opsin photobleaching sequences, which show significant spectral and kinetic differences when compared against that of bovine rhodopsin. These results altogether reveal a rather strong interplay between the visual pigment structure and its corresponding photobleaching sequence, and relevant outstanding questions that will be further investigated through a forthcoming study of the human blue-cone visual pigment are discussed.

Contribution of TRPC3-mediated Ca2+ entry to taste transduction

The current concept of taste transduction implicates the TASR/PLCβ2/IP₃R3/TRPM5 axis in mediating chemo-electrical coupling in taste cells of the type II. While generation of IP₃ has been verified as an obligatory step, DAG appears to be a byproduct of PIP₂ cleavage by PLCβ2. Here, we provide evidence that DAG-signaling could play a significant and not yet recognized role in taste transduction. In particular, we found that DAG-gated channels are functional in type II cells but not in type I and type III cells. The DAG-gated current presumably constitutes a fraction of the generator current triggered by taste stimulation in type II cells. Bitter stimuli and DAG analogs produced Ca²⁺ transients in type II cells, which were greatly decreased at low bath Ca²⁺, indicating their dependence on Ca²⁺ influx. Among DAG-gated channels, transcripts solely for TRPC3 were detected in the taste tissue, thus implicating this channel in mediating DAG-regulated Ca²⁺ entry. Release of the afferent neurotransmitter ATP from CV papillae was monitored online by using the luciferin/luciferase method and Ussing-like chamber. It was shown that ATP secretion initiated by bitter stimuli and DAG analogs strongly depended on mucosal Ca²⁺. Based on the overall findings, we speculate that in taste transduction, IP₃-driven Ca²⁺ release is transient and mainly responsible for rapid activation of Ca²⁺-gated TRPM5 channels, thus forming the initial phase of receptor potential. DAG-regulated Ca²⁺ entry through apically situated TRPC3 channels extends the primary Ca²⁺ signal and preserves TRPM5 activity, providing a needful prolongation of the receptor potential.

Vitamin A deficiency compromises the barrier function of the retinal pigment epithelium

A major cause for childhood blindness worldwide is attributed to nutritional vitamin A deficiency. Surprisingly, the molecular basis of the ensuing retinal degeneration has not been well defined. Abundant expression of the retinoid transporter STRA6 in the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and homeostatic blood levels of retinol-binding protein delay vitamin A deprivation of the mouse eyes. Hence, genetic dissection of STRA6 makes mice susceptible to nutritional manipulation of ocular retinoid status. We performed RNA-seq analyses and complemented the data with tests of visual physiology, ocular morphology, and retinoid biochemistry to compare eyes with different vitamin A status. Mild ocular vitamin A deficiency decreased transcripts of photoreceptor transduction pathway-related genes and increased transcripts of oxidative stress pathways. The response was associated with impaired visual sensitivity and an accumulation of fluorescent debris in the retina. Severe vitamin A deficiency did not only impair visual perception but also decreased transcripts of genes encoding cell adhesion and cellular junction proteins. This response altered cell morphology, resulted in significant changes in transport pathways of small molecules, and compromised the barrier function of the RPE. Together, our analyses characterize the molecular events underlying nutritional blindness in a novel mouse model and indicate that breakdown of the outer blood-retinal barrier contributes to retinal degeneration and photoreceptor cell death in severe vitamin A deficiency.

Analysis of electromagnetic response of cells and lipid membranes using a model-free method

Electromagnetic radiation (EMR) is omnipresent on earth and may interact with the biological systems in diverse manners. But the scope and nature of such interactions remain poorly understood. In this study, we have measured the permittivity of cells and lipid membranes over the EMR frequency range of 20 Hz to 4.35 × 10¹⁰ Hz. To identify EMR frequencies that display physically intuitive permittivity features, we have developed a model-free method that relies on a potassium chloride reference solution of direct-current (DC) conductivity equal to that of the target sample. The dielectric constant, which reflects the capacity to store energy, displays a characteristic peak at 10⁵-10⁶ Hz. The dielectric loss factor, which represents EMR absorption, is markedly enhanced at 10⁷-10⁹ Hz. The fine characteristic features are influenced by the size and composition of these membraned structures. Mechanical disruption results in abrogation of these characteristic features. Enhanced energy storage at 10⁵-10⁶ Hz and energy absorption at 10⁷-10⁹ Hz may affect certain membrane activity relevant to cellular function.

Molecular encoding of stimulus features in a single sensory neuron type enables neuronal and behavioral plasticity

Neurons modify their transcriptomes in response to an animal's experience. How specific experiences are transduced to modulate gene expression and precisely tune neuronal functions are not fully defined. Here, we describe the molecular profile of a thermosensory neuron pair in C. elegans experiencing different temperature stimuli. We find that distinct salient features of the temperature stimulus, including its duration, magnitude of change, and absolute value, are encoded in the gene expression program in this single neuron type, and we identify a novel transmembrane protein and a transcription factor whose specific transcriptional dynamics are essential to drive neuronal, behavioral, and developmental plasticity. Expression changes are driven by broadly expressed activity-dependent transcription factors and corresponding cis-regulatory elements that nevertheless direct neuron- and stimulus-specific gene expression programs. Our results indicate that coupling of defined stimulus characteristics to the gene regulatory logic in individual specialized neuron types can customize neuronal properties to drive precise behavioral adaptation.

Eye proteome of Drosophila melanogaster

The Drosophila melanogaster eye is a popular model to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that underlie the structure and function of the eye as well as the causes of retinopathies. For instance, the Drosophila eye has been used to investigate the impacts of ageing and environmental stresses such as light-induced damage or dietary deficiencies. Moreover, large-scale screens have isolated genes whose mutation causes morphological and functional ocular defects, which includes key components of the phototransduction cascade. However, the proteome of the Drosophila eye is poorly characterized. Here, we used GeLC-MS/MS to quantify 3516 proteins he adult Drosophila melanogaster eye and provide a generic and expandable resource for further genetic, pharmacological, and dietary studies.

Opsin 3 mediates UVA-induced keratinocyte supranuclear melanin cap formation

Solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation-induced DNA damage is a major risk factor for skin cancer development. UV-induced redistribution of melanin near keratinocyte nuclei leads to the formation of a supranuclear cap, which acts as a natural sunscreen and protects DNA by absorbing and scattering UV radiation. However, the mechanism underlying the intracellular movement of melanin in nuclear capping is poorly understood. In this study, we found that OPN3 is an important photoreceptor in human epidermal keratinocytes and is critical for UVA-mediated supranuclear cap formation. OPN3 mediates supranuclear cap formation via the calcium-dependent G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway and ultimately upregulates Dync1i1 and DCTN1 expression in human epidermal keratinocytes via activating calcium/CaMKII, CREB, and Akt signal transduction. Together, these results clarify the role of OPN3 in regulating melanin cap formation in human epidermal keratinocytes, greatly expanding our understanding of the phototransduction mechanisms involved in physiological function in skin keratinocytes.

Convergent evolution of animal and microbial rhodopsins

Rhodopsins, a family of photoreceptive membrane proteins, contain retinal as a chromophore and were firstly identified as reddish pigments from frog retina in 1876. Since then, rhodopsin-like proteins have been identified mainly from animal eyes. In 1971, a rhodopsin-like pigment was discovered from the archaeon Halobacterium salinarum and named bacteriorhodopsin. While it was believed that rhodopsin- and bacteriorhodopsin-like proteins were expressed only in animal eyes and archaea, respectively, before the 1990s, a variety of rhodopsin-like proteins (called animal rhodopsins or opsins) and bacteriorhodopsin-like proteins (called microbial rhodopsins) have been progressively identified from various tissues of animals and microorganisms, respectively. Here, we comprehensively introduce the research conducted on animal and microbial rhodopsins. Recent analysis has revealed that the two rhodopsin families have common molecular properties, such as the protein structure (i.e., 7-transmembrane structure), retinal structure (i.e., binding ability to cis- and trans-retinal), color sensitivity (i.e., UV- and visible-light sensitivities), and photoreaction (i.e., triggering structural changes by light and heat), more than what was expected at the early stages of rhodopsin research. Contrastingly, their molecular functions are distinctively different (e.g., G protein-coupled receptors and photoisomerases for animal rhodopsins and ion transporters and phototaxis sensors for microbial rhodopsins). Therefore, based on their similarities and dissimilarities, we propose that animal and microbial rhodopsins have convergently evolved from their distinctive origins as multi-colored retinal-binding membrane proteins whose activities are regulated by light and heat but independently evolved for different molecular and physiological functions in the cognate organism.

Structural view of G protein-coupled receptor signaling in the retinal rod outer segment

Visual phototransduction is the most extensively studied G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling pathway because of its quantifiable stimulus, non-redundancy of genes, and immense importance in vision. We summarize recent discoveries that have advanced our understanding of rod outer segment (ROS) morphology and the pathological basis of retinal diseases. We have combined recently published cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) data on the ROS with structural knowledge on individual proteins to define the precise spatial limitations under which phototransduction occurs. Although hypothetical, the reconstruction of the rod phototransduction system highlights the potential roles of phosphodiesterase 6 (PDE6) and guanylate cyclases (GCs) in maintaining the spacing between ROS discs, suggesting a plausible mechanism by which intrinsic optical signals are generated in the retina.

Molecular encoding of stimulus features in a single sensory neuron type enables neuronal and behavioral plasticity

Neurons modify their transcriptomes in response to an animal’s experience. How specific experiences are transduced to modulate gene expression and precisely tune neuronal functions are not fully defined. Here, we describe the molecular profile of a thermosensory neuron pair in C. elegans experiencing different temperature stimuli. We find that distinct salient features of the temperature stimulus including its duration, magnitude of change, and absolute value are encoded in the gene expression program in this single neuron, and identify a novel transmembrane protein and a transcription factor whose specific transcriptional dynamics are essential to drive neuronal, behavioral, and developmental plasticity. Expression changes are driven by broadly expressed activity-dependent transcription factors and corresponding cis -regulatory elements that nevertheless direct neuron- and stimulus-specific gene expression programs. Our results indicate that coupling of defined stimulus characteristics to the gene regulatory logic in individual specialized neuron types can customize neuronal properties to drive precise behavioral adaptation.

An LW-Opsin Mutation Changes the Gene Expression of the Phototransduction Pathway: A Cryptochrome1 Mutation Enhances the Phototaxis of Male Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae)

Plutella xylostella is a typical phototactic pest. LW-opsin contributes to the phototaxis of P. xylostella, but the expression changes of other genes in the phototransduction pathway caused by the mutation of LW-opsin remain unknown. In the study, the head transcriptomes of male G88 and LW-opsin mutants were compared. A GO-function annotation showed that DEGs mainly belonged to the categories of molecular functions, biological processes, and cell composition. Additionally, a KEGG-pathway analysis suggested that DEGs were significantly enriched in some classical pathways, such as the phototransduction-fly and vitamin digestion and absorption pathways. The mRNA expressions of genes in the phototransduction-fly pathway, such as Gq, ninaC, and rdgC were significantly up-regulated, and trp, trpl, inaD, cry1, ninaA and arr1 were significantly down-regulated. The expression trends of nine DEGs in the phototransduction pathway confirmed by a RT-qPCR were consistent with transcriptomic data. In addition, the influence of a cry1 mutation on the phototaxis of P. xylostella was examined, and the results showed that the male cry1 mutant exhibited higher phototactic rates to UV and blue lights than the male G88. Our results indicated that the LW-opsin mutation changed the expression of genes in the phototransduction pathway, and the mutation of cry1 enhanced the phototaxis of a P. xylostella male, providing a basis for further investigation on the phototransduction pathway in P. xylostella.

Extracellular vesicles in the retina - putative roles in physiology and disease

The retina encompasses a network of neurons, glia and epithelial and vascular endothelia cells, all coordinating visual function. Traditionally, molecular information exchange in this tissue was thought to be orchestrated by synapses and gap junctions. Recent findings have revealed that many cell types are able to package and share molecular information via extracellular vesicles (EVs) and the technological advancements in visualisation and tracking of these delicate nanostructures has shown that the role of EVs in cell communication is pleiotropic. EVs are released under physiological conditions by many cells but they are also released during various disease stages, potentially reflecting the health status of the cells in their cargo. Little is known about the physiological role of EV release in the retina. However, administration of exogenous EVs in vivo after injury suggest a neurotrophic role, whilst photoreceptor transplantation in early stages of retina degeneration, EVs may facilitate interactions between photoreceptors and Müller glia cells. In this review, we consider some of the proposed roles for EVs in retinal physiology and discuss current evidence regarding their potential impact on ocular therapies via gene or cell replacement strategies and direct intraocular administration in the diseased eye.

Unusual phototransduction via cross-motif signaling from Gq to adenylyl cyclase in intrinsically photosensitive retinalganglion cells

Nonimage-forming vision in mammals is mediated primarily by melanopsin (OPN4)-expressing, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs). In mouse M1-ipRGCs, melanopsin predominantly activates, via Gα_q,11,14, phospholipase C-β4 to open transient receptor 6 (TRPC6) and TRPC7 channels. In M2- and M4-ipRGCs, however, a prominent phototransduction mechanism involves the opening of hyperpolarization- and cyclic nucleotide-gated channels via cyclic nucleotide, although the upstream steps remain uncertain. We report here experiments, primarily on M4-ipRGCs, with photo-uncaging of cyclic nucleotides and virally expressed CNGA2 channels to conclude that the second messenger is cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) - very surprising considering that cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is used in almost all cyclic nucleotide-mediated phototransduction mechanisms across the animal kingdom. We further found that the upstream G protein is likewise G_q, which via its Gβγ subunits directly activates adenylyl cyclase (AC). Our findings are a demonstration in a native cell of a cross-motif GPCR signaling pathway from G_q directly to AC with a specific function.

Protein-protein complexes can undermine ultrasensitivity-dependent biological adaptation

Robust perfect adaptation (RPA) is a ubiquitously observed signalling response across all scales of biological organization. A major class of network architectures that drive RPA in complex networks is the Opposer module-a feedback-regulated network into which specialized integral-computing 'opposer node(s)' are embedded. Although ultrasensitivity-generating chemical reactions have long been considered a possible mechanism for such adaptation-conferring opposer nodes, this hypothesis has relied on simplified Michaelian models, which neglect the presence of protein-protein complexes. Here we develop complex-complete models of interlinked covalent-modification cycles with embedded ultrasensitivity, explicitly capturing all molecular interactions and protein complexes. Strikingly, we demonstrate that the presence of protein-protein complexes thwarts the network's capacity for RPA in any 'free' active protein form, conferring RPA capacity instead on the concentration of a larger protein pool consisting of two distinct forms of a single protein. We further show that the presence of enzyme-substrate complexes, even at comparatively low concentrations, play a crucial and previously unrecognized role in controlling the RPA response-significantly reducing the range of network inputs for which RPA can obtain, and imposing greater parametric requirements on the RPA response. These surprising results raise fundamental new questions as to the biochemical requirements for adaptation-conferring Opposer modules within complex cellular networks.

Design Principles Underlying Robust Adaptation of Complex Biochemical Networks

Biochemical networks are often characterized by tremendous complexity-both in terms of the sheer number of interacting molecules ("nodes") and in terms of the varied and incompletely understood interactions among these molecules ("interconnections" or "edges"). Strikingly, the vast and intricate networks of interacting proteins that exist within each living cell have the capacity to perform remarkably robustly, and reproducibly, despite significant variations in concentrations of the interacting components from one cell to the next and despite mutability over time of biochemical parameters. Here we consider the ubiquitously observed and fundamentally important signalling response known as robust perfect adaptation (RPA). We have recently shown that all RPA-capable networks, even the most complex ones, must satisfy an extremely rigid set of design principles, and are modular, being decomposable into just two types of network building-blocks-opposer modules and balancer modules. Here we present an overview of the design principles that characterize all RPA-capable network topologies through a detailed examination of a collection of simple examples. We also introduce a diagrammatic method for studying the potential of a network to exhibit RPA, which may be applied without a detailed knowledge of the complex mathematical principles governing RPA.

Deep Diversity: Extensive Variation in the Components of Complex Visual Systems across Animals

Understanding the molecular underpinnings of the evolution of complex (multi-part) systems is a fundamental topic in biology. One unanswered question is to what the extent do similar or different genes and regulatory interactions underlie similar complex systems across species? Animal eyes and phototransduction (light detection) are outstanding systems to investigate this question because some of the genetics underlying these traits are well characterized in model organisms. However, comparative studies using non-model organisms are also necessary to understand the diversity and evolution of these traits. Here, we compare the characteristics of photoreceptor cells, opsins, and phototransduction cascades in diverse taxa, with a particular focus on cnidarians. In contrast to the common theme of deep homology, whereby similar traits develop mainly using homologous genes, comparisons of visual systems, especially in non-model organisms, are beginning to highlight a "deep diversity" of underlying components, illustrating how variation can underlie similar complex systems across taxa. Although using candidate genes from model organisms across diversity was a good starting point to understand the evolution of complex systems, unbiased genome-wide comparisons and subsequent functional validation will be necessary to uncover unique genes that comprise the complex systems of non-model groups to better understand biodiversity and its evolution.

Expression of a homologue of a vertebrate non-visual opsin Opn3 in the insect photoreceptors

Insect vision starts with light absorption by visual pigments based on opsins that drive Gq-type G protein-mediated phototransduction. Since Drosophila, the most studied insect in vision research, has only Gq-coupled opsins, the Gq-mediated phototransduction has been solely focused on insect vision for decades. However, genome projects on mosquitos uncovered non-canonical insect opsin genes, members of the Opn3 or c-opsin group composed of vertebrate and invertebrate non-visual opsins. Here, we report that a homologue of Opn3, MosOpn3 (Asop12) is expressed in eyes of a mosquito Anopheles stephensi. In situ hybridization analysis revealed that MosOpn3 is expressed in dorsal and ventral ommatidia, in which only R7 photoreceptor cells express MosOpn3. We also found that Asop9, a Gq-coupled visual opsin, exhibited co-localization with MosOpn3. Spectroscopic analysis revealed that Asop9 forms a blue-sensitive opsin-based pigment. Thus, the Gi/Go-coupled opsin MosOpn3, which forms a green-sensitive pigment, is co-localized with Asop9, a Gq-coupled opsin that forms a blue-sensitive visual pigment. Since these two opsin-based pigments trigger different phototransduction cascades, the R7 photoreceptors could generate complex photoresponses to blue to green light.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Understanding colour vision: molecular, physiological, neuronal and behavioural studies in arthropods’.

Endocannabinoids produced in photoreceptor cells in response to light activate Drosophila TRP channels

Drosophila phototransduction is a model for signaling cascades that culminate in the activation of transient receptor potential (TRP) cation channels. TRP and TRPL are the canonical TRP (TRPC) channels that are regulated by light stimulation of rhodopsin and engagement of Gαq and phospholipase Cβ (PLC). Lipid metabolite(s) generated downstream of PLC are essential for the activation of the TRPC channels in photoreceptor cells. We sought to identify the key lipids produced subsequent to PLC stimulation that contribute to channel activation. Here, using genetics, lipid analysis, and Ca2+ imaging, we found that light increased the amount of an abundant endocannabinoid, 2-linoleoyl glycerol (2-LG), in vivo. The increase in 2-LG amounts depended on the PLC and diacylglycerol lipase encoded by norpA and inaE, respectively. This endocannabinoid facilitated TRPC-dependent Ca2+ influx in a heterologous expression system and in dissociated ommatidia from compound eyes. Moreover, 2-LG and mechanical stimulation cooperatively activated TRPC channels in ommatidia. We propose that 2-LG is a physiologically relevant endocannabinoid that activates TRPC channels in photoreceptor cells.

Heliorhodopsin binds and regulates glutamine synthetase activity

Photoreceptors are light-sensitive proteins found in various organisms that respond to light and relay signals into the cells. Heliorhodopsin, a retinal-binding membrane protein, has been recently discovered, however its function remains unknown. Herein, we investigated the relationship between Actinobacteria bacterium IMCC26103 heliorhodopsin (AbHeR) and an adjacent glutamine synthetase (AbGS) in the same operon. We demonstrate that AbHeR binds to AbGS and regulates AbGS activity. More specifically, the dissociation constant (K_d) value of the binding between AbHeR and AbGS is 6.06 μM. Moreover, the absence of positively charged residues within the intracellular loop of AbHeR impacted K_d value as they serve as critical binding sites for AbGS. We also confirm that AbHeR up-regulates the biosynthetic enzyme activity of AbGS both in vitro and in vivo in the presence of light. GS is a key enzyme involved in nitrogen assimilation that catalyzes the conversion of glutamate and ammonia to glutamine. Hence, the interaction between AbHeR and AbGS may be critical for nitrogen assimilation in Actinobacteria bacterium IMCC26103 as it survives in low-nutrient environments. Overall, the findings of our study describe, for the first time, to the best of our knowledge, a novel function of heliorhodopsin as a regulatory rhodopsin with the capacity to bind and regulate enzyme activity required for nitrogen assimilation.

A study of heliorhodopsin, an actinobacterial photoreceptor of unknown function, reveals that it interacts with glutamine synthetase, an enzyme involved in nitrogen assimilation, and regulates its activity in the presence of light, highlighting the diverse functions of rhodopsins in different organisms.

Homeostatic plasticity in the retina

Vision begins in the retina, whose intricate neural circuits extract salient features of the environment from the light entering our eyes. Neurodegenerative diseases of the retina (e.g., inherited retinal degenerations, age-related macular degeneration, and glaucoma) impair vision and cause blindness in a growing number of people worldwide. Increasing evidence indicates that homeostatic plasticity (i.e., the drive of a neural system to stabilize its function) can, in principle, preserve retinal function in the face of major perturbations, including neurodegeneration. Here, we review the circumstances and events that trigger homeostatic plasticity in the retina during development, sensory experience, and disease. We discuss the diverse mechanisms that cooperate to compensate and the set points and outcomes that homeostatic retinal plasticity stabilizes. Finally, we summarize the opportunities and challenges for unlocking the therapeutic potential of homeostatic plasticity. Homeostatic plasticity is fundamental to understanding retinal development and function and could be an important tool in the fight to preserve and restore vision.

madd-4 plays a critical role in light against Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus is a notorious invasive species, causing extensive losses to pine ecosystems globally. Previous studies had shown that the development of B. xylophilus was seriously suppressed by light. However, the mechanism involved in the inhibition is unknown. Here, it is the first report that Bxy-madd-4 is a light-regulated gene, plays a potential role in B. xylophilus in responding to the blue light. Transcriptome sequencing revealed that the expression level of Bxy-madd-4 declined by 86.39% under blue light. The reverse transcription quantitative real-time PCR results were in accord with the transcriptome sequencing, confirming the expression level of Bxy-madd-4 was suppressed by blue light. Bxy-madd-4 promoter::mCherry reporter constructed in Caenorhabditis elegans were utilized to mimic the spatiotemporal expression patterns of Bxy-madd-4. Bxy-madd-4A promoter activity had a strong continuity throughout all development stages in C. elegans. Further RNA interference indicated that only 36.8% of the Bxy-madd-4 dsRNA treated embryos were hatched. Moreover, 71.6% of the hatched nematodes were abnormal, such as particles on the body surface and concave tissues. Our findings contribute towards a better understanding of the mechanism of light against the destructive invasive nematode, providing a promising hint for control of the destructive invasive nematode.

Convergent evolutionary counterion displacement of bilaterian opsins in ciliary cells

Opsins are universal photoreceptive proteins in animals. Vertebrate rhodopsin in ciliary photoreceptor cells photo-converts to a metastable active state to regulate cyclic nucleotide signaling. This active state cannot photo-convert back to the dark state, and thus vertebrate rhodopsin is categorized as a mono-stable opsin. By contrast, mollusk and arthropod rhodopsins in rhabdomeric photoreceptor cells photo-convert to a stable active state to stimulate IP3/calcium signaling. This active state can photo-convert back to the dark state, and thus these rhodopsins are categorized as bistable opsins. Moreover, the negatively charged counterion position crucial for the visible light sensitivity is different between vertebrate rhodopsin (Glu113) and mollusk and arthropod rhodopsins (Glu181). This can be explained by an evolutionary scenario where vertebrate rhodopsin newly acquired Glu113 as a counterion, which is thought to have led to higher signaling efficiency of vertebrate rhodopsin. However, the detailed evolutionary steps which led to the higher efficiency in vertebrate rhodopsin still remain unknown. Here, we analyzed the xenopsin group, which is phylogenetically distinct from vertebrate rhodopsin and functions in protostome ciliary cells. Xenopsins are blue-sensitive bistable opsins that regulate cAMP signaling. We found that a bistable xenopsin of Leptochiton asellus had Glu113 as a counterion but did not exhibit elevated signaling efficiency. Therefore, our results show that vertebrate rhodopsin and L. asellus xenopsin regulate cyclic nucleotide signaling in ciliary cells and displaced the counterion position from Glu181 to Glu113 via convergent evolution, whereas subsequently only vertebrate rhodopsin elevated its signaling efficiency by acquiring the mono-stable property.

Vitamin A Deficiency Alters the Phototransduction Machinery and Distinct Non-Vision-Specific Pathways in the Drosophila Eye Proteome

The requirement of vitamin A for the synthesis of the visual chromophore and the light-sensing pigments has been studied in vertebrate and invertebrate model organisms. To identify the molecular mechanisms that orchestrate the ocular response to vitamin A deprivation, we took advantage of the fact that Drosophila melanogaster predominantly requires vitamin A for vision, but not for development or survival. We analyzed the impacts of vitamin A deficiency on the morphology, the lipidome, and the proteome of the Drosophila eye. We found that chronic vitamin A deprivation damaged the light-sensing compartments and caused a dramatic loss of visual pigments, but also decreased the molar abundance of most phototransduction proteins that amplify and transduce the visual signal. Unexpectedly, vitamin A deficiency also decreased the abundances of specific subunits of mitochondrial TCA cycle and respiratory chain components but increased the levels of cuticle- and lens-related proteins. In contrast, we found no apparent effects of vitamin A deficiency on the ocular lipidome. In summary, chronic vitamin A deficiency decreases the levels of most components of the visual signaling pathway, but also affects molecular pathways that are not vision-specific and whose mechanistic connection to vitamin A remains to be elucidated.

A neuropsin-based optogenetic tool for precise control of Gq signaling

G_q-coupled receptors regulate numerous physiological processes by activating enzymes and inducing intracellular Ca²⁺ signals. There is a strong need for an optogenetic tool that enables powerful experimental control over G_q signaling. Here, we present chicken opsin 5 (cOpn5) as the long sought-after, single-component optogenetic tool that mediates ultra-sensitive optical control of intracellular G_q signaling with high temporal and spatial resolution. Expressing cOpn5 in HEK 293T cells and primary mouse astrocytes enables blue light-triggered, G_q-dependent Ca²⁺ release from intracellular stores and protein kinase C activation. Strong Ca²⁺ transients were evoked by brief light pulses of merely 10 ms duration and at 3 orders lower light intensity of that for common optogenetic tools. Photostimulation of cOpn5-expressing cells at the subcellular and single-cell levels generated fast intracellular Ca²⁺ transition, thus demonstrating the high spatial precision of cOpn5 optogenetics. The cOpn5-mediated optogenetics could also be applied to activate neurons and control animal behavior in a circuit-dependent manner. cOpn5 optogenetics may find broad applications in studying the mechanisms and functional relevance of G_q signaling in both non-excitable cells and excitable cells in all major organ systems.

Effects of Epigenetic Modification of PGC-1α by a Chemical Chaperon on Mitochondria Biogenesis and Visual Function in Retinitis Pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a hereditary blinding disease characterized by gradual photoreceptor death, which lacks a definitive treatment. Here, we demonstrated the effect of 4-phenylbutyric acid (PBA), a chemical chaperon that can suppress endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, in P23H mutant rhodopsin knock-in RP models. In the RP models, constant PBA treatment led to the retention of a greater number of photoreceptors, preserving the inner segment (IS), a mitochondrial- and ER-rich part of the photoreceptors. Electroretinography showed that PBA treatment preserved photoreceptor function. At the early point, ER-associated degradation markers, xbp1s, vcp, and derl1, mitochondrial kinetic-related markers, fis1, lc3, and mfn1 and mfn2, as well as key mitochondrial regulators, pgc-1α and tfam, were upregulated in the retina of the models treated with PBA. In vitro analyses showed that PBA upregulated pgc-1α and tfam transcription, leading to an increase in the mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c oxidase activity, and ATP levels. Histone acetylation of the PGC-1α promoter was increased by PBA, indicating that PBA affected the mitochondrial condition through epigenetic changes. Our findings constituted proof of concept for the treatment of ER stress-related RP using PBA and revealed PBA’s neuroprotective effects, paving the way for its future clinical application.

Expression of Retinal G Protein-Coupled Receptor, a Member of the Opsin Family, in Human Skin Cells and Its Mediation of the Cellular Functions of Keratinocytes

Background: Photoreceptive proteins play critical physiological roles in human skin cells. The retinal G protein-coupled receptor (RGR) is a photoisomerase in the human retina, but its expression and cellular functions in human skin cells have not been reported.

Objectives: We aimed to detect RGR expression in various skin cells and evaluate its regulation of the cellular functions of keratinocytes.

Methods: The expression, distribution, and subcellular location of the RGR in normal human epidermal keratinocytes and cells with pathological conditions including psoriasis, seborrheic keratosis, and squamous cell carcinoma were determined using microscopic tools (immunohistochemical staining, immunofluorescence staining, and immunoelectron microscopy) and Western blotting (WB). The protein levels of the RGR in primary human melanocytes, keratinocytes, and fibroblasts isolated from the neonatal foreskin were measured by WB. The expression and subcellular localization of the RGR in these cells were detected by immunofluorescence staining under a fluorescence microscope and laser scanning confocal microscope. Additionally, the levels of RGR expression in normal keratinocytes exposed to ultraviolet (UV)-A or total ultraviolet radiation (UVR) in the presence or absence of all-trans-retinal were measured by WB. Furthermore, the effects of the RGR on human keratinocyte functions including proliferation, migration, and apoptosis were evaluated using the Cell Counting Kit 8, wound healing, and Transwell assays after reducing the RGR mRNA level in keratinocytes using small interfering RNA technology.

Results: The RGR was primarily located in the epidermal basal and spinous layers and skin appendages. Its expression increased in psoriatic lesions, seborrheic keratosis, and squamous cell carcinoma. Confocal microscopy showed that the RGR was located in the cell membrane and nucleus of keratinocytes, melanocytes, and fibroblasts. Keratinocytes had a higher expression of the RGR than melanocytes and fibroblasts, as well as nuclear expression, according to nuclear/cytoplasmic fractionation. Colloidal gold immunoelectron microscopy technology further confirmed that the RGR is mainly located in the nucleoplasm and mitochondria and is scattered in the cytoplasm and other organelles in the epidermal keratinocytes. Notably, RGR knockdown in keratinocytes led to the inhibition of cell proliferation and migration, augmenting cell apoptosis.

Conclusions: This study is the first to demonstrate the presence of RGR in the human skin. Our findings indicate that the RGR may play a critical role in the physiological function of epidermal keratinocytes.

The Molecular Mechanism of Retina Light Injury Focusing on Damage from Short Wavelength Light

Natural visible light is an electromagnetic wave composed of a spectrum of monochromatic wavelengths, each with a characteristic color. Photons are the basic units of light, and their wavelength correlates to the energy of light; short-wavelength photons carry high energy. The retina is a fragile neuronal tissue that senses light and generates visual signals conducted to the brain. However, excessive and intensive light exposure will cause retinal light damage. Within the visible spectrum, short-wavelength light, such as blue light, carries higher energy, and thus the retinal injury, is more significant when exposed to these wavelengths. The damage mechanism triggered by different short-wavelength light varies due to photons carrying different energy and being absorbed by different photosensitive molecules in the retinal neurons. However, photooxidation might be a common molecular step to initiate cell death. Herein, we summarize the historical understanding of light, the key molecular steps related to retinal light injury, and the death pathways of photoreceptors to further decipher the molecular mechanism of retinal light injury and explore potential neuroprotective strategies.

High-speed imaging of light-induced photoreceptor microsaccades in compound eyes

Inside compound eyes, photoreceptors contract to light changes, sharpening retinal images of the moving world in time. Current methods to measure these so-called photoreceptor microsaccades in living insects are spatially limited and technically challenging. Here, we present goniometric high-speed deep pseudopupil (GHS-DPP) microscopy to assess how the rhabdomeric insect photoreceptors and their microsaccades are organised across the compound eyes. This method enables non-invasive rhabdomere orientation mapping, whilst their microsaccades can be locally light-activated, revealing the eyes' underlying active sampling motifs. By comparing the microsaccades in wild-type Drosophila's open rhabdom eyes to spam-mutant eyes, reverted to an ancestral fused rhabdom state, and honeybee's fused rhabdom eyes, we show how different eye types sample light information. These results show different ways compound eyes initiate the conversion of spatial light patterns in the environment into temporal neural signals and highlight how this active sampling can evolve with insects' visual needs.

Creation of photocyclic vertebrate rhodopsin by single amino acid substitution

Opsins are universal photoreceptive proteins in animals and can be classified into three types based on their photoreaction properties. Upon light irradiation, vertebrate rhodopsin forms a metastable active state, which cannot revert back to the original dark state via either photoreaction or thermal reaction. By contrast, after photoreception, most opsins form a stable active state which can photoconvert back to the dark state. Moreover, we recently found a novel type of opsins whose activity is regulated by photocycling. However, the molecular mechanism underlying this diversification of opsins remains unknown. In this study, we showed that vertebrate rhodopsin acquired the photocyclic and photoreversible properties upon introduction of a single mutation at position 188. This revealed that the residue at position 188 contributes to the diversification of photoreaction properties of opsins by its regulation of the recovery from the active state to the original dark state.

Structure of the human cone photoreceptor cyclic nucleotide-gated channel

Cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels transduce light-induced chemical signals into electrical signals in retinal cone and rod photoreceptors. Structures of native CNG channels, which are heterotetramers formed by CNGA and CNGB subunits, have not been obtained. In the present study, we report a high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy structure of the human cone CNG channel in the apo closed state. The channel contains three CNGA3 and one CNGB3 subunits. Arg403 in the pore helix of CNGB3 projects into an asymmetric selectivity filter and forms hydrogen bonds with two pore-lining backbone carbonyl oxygens. Arg442 in S6 of CNGB3 protrudes into and occludes the pore below the hydrophobic cavity gate previously observed in homotetrameric CNGA channels. It is interesting that Arg403Gln is a disease mutation, and Arg442 is replaced by glutamine in some animal species with dichromatic or monochromatic vision. These and other unique structural features and the disease link conferred by CNGB3 indicate a critical role of CNGB3 in shaping cone photoresponses.

Carotenoid modifying enzymes in metazoans

Carotenoids constitute an essential dietary component of animals and other non-carotenogenic species which use these pigments in both their modified and unmodified forms. Animals utilize uncleaved carotenoids to mitigate light damage and oxidative stress and to signal fitness and health. Carotenoids also serve as precursors of apocarotenoids including retinol, and its retinoid metabolites, which carry out essential functions in animals by forming the visual chromophore 11-cis-retinaldehyde. Retinoids, such as all-trans-retinoic acid, can also act as ligands of nuclear hormone receptors. The fact that enzymes and biochemical pathways responsible for the metabolism of carotenoids in animals bear resemblance to the ones in plants and other carotenogenic species suggests an evolutionary relationship. We will explore some of the modes of transmission of carotenoid genes from carotenogenic species to metazoans. This apparent relationship has been successfully exploited in the past to identify and characterize new carotenoid and retinoid modifying enzymes. We will review approaches used to identify putative animal carotenoid enzymes, and we will describe methods used to functionally validate and analyze the biochemistry of carotenoid modifying enzymes encoded by animals.