Methylation-dependent and -independent genomic targeting principles of the MBD protein family

MBD2 regulates the progression and chemoresistance of cholangiocarcinoma through interaction with WDR5

BACKGROUND

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a highly malignant, rapidly progressing tumor of the bile duct. Owing to its chemoresistance, it always has an extremely poor prognosis. Therefore, detailed elucidation of the mechanisms of chemoresistance and identification of therapeutic targets are still needed.

METHODS

We analyzed the expression of MBD2 (Methyl-CpG-binding domain 2) in CCA and normal bile duct tissues using the public database and immunohistochemistry (IHC). The roles of MBD2 in CCA cell proliferation, migration, and chemoresistance ability were validated through CCK-8, plate cloning assay, wound healing assays and xenograft mouse model. In addition, we constructed a primary CCA mouse model to further confirm the effect of MBD2. RNA-seq and co-IP-MS were used to identify the mechanisms by how MBD2 leads to chemoresistance.

RESULTS

MBD2 was upregulated in CCA. It promoted the proliferation, migration and chemoresistance of CCA cells. Mechanistically, MBD2 directly interacted with WDR5, bound to the promoter of ABCB1, promoted the trimethylation of H3K4 in this region through KMT2A, and activated the expression of ABCB1. Knocking down WDR5 or KMT2A blocked the transcriptional activation of ABCB1 by MBD2. The molecular inhibitor MM-102 targeted the interaction of WDR5 with KMT2A. MM-102 inhibited the expression of ABCB1 in CCA cells and decreased the chemoresistance of CCA to cisplatin.

CONCLUSION

MBD2 promotes the progression and chemoresistance of CCA through interactions with WDR5. MM-102 can effectively block this process and increase the sensitivity of CCA to cisplatin.

Mechanistic model for epigenetic maintenance by methyl-CpG-binding domain proteins

DNA methylation is a fundamental element of epigenetic regulation that is governed by the MBD protein superfamily, a group of "readers" that share a highly conserved methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) and mediate chromatin remodeler recruitment, transcription regulation, and coordination of DNA and histone modification. Previous work has characterized the binding affinity and sequence selectivity of MBD-containing proteins toward palindromes of 5-methylcytosine (5mC) containing 5mCpG dinucleotides, often referred to as single symmetrically methylated CpG sites. However, little is known about how MBD binding is influenced by the prototypical local clustering of methylated CpG sites and the presence of DNA structural motifs encountered, e.g., during DNA replication and transcription. Here, we use Single-Molecule Kinetics through Equilibrium Poisson Sampling (SiMKEPS) to measure precise binding and dissociation rate constants of the MBD of human protein MBD1 to DNAs with varying patterns of multiple methylated CpG sites and diverse structural motifs. MBD binding is promoted by two major properties of its DNA substrates: 1) tandem (consecutive) symmetrically methylated CpG sites in double-stranded DNA and secondary structures in single-stranded DNA; and 2) DNA forks. Based on our findings, we propose a mechanistic model for how MBD proteins contribute to epigenetic boundary maintenance between transcriptionally silenced and active genome regions.

Epigenetic control of metabolic identity across cell types

Constraint-based network modelling is a powerful tool for analysing cellular metabolism at genomic scale. Here, we conducted an integrative analysis of metabolic networks reconstructed from RNA-seq data with paired epigenomic data from the EpiATLAS resource of the International Human Epigenome Consortium (IHEC). Applying a state-of-the-art contextualisation algorithm, we reconstructed metabolic networks across 1,555 samples corresponding to 58 tissues and cell types. Analysis of these networks revealed the distribution of metabolic functionalities across human cell types and provides a compendium of human metabolic activity. This integrative approach allowed us to define, across tissues and cell types, i) reactions that fulfil the basic metabolic processes (core metabolism), and ii) cell type-specific functions (unique metabolism), that shape the metabolic identity of a cell or a tissue. Integration with EpiATLAS-derived cell type-specific gene-level chromatin states and enhancer-gene interactions identified enhancers, transcription factors, and key nodes controlling core and unique metabolism. Transport and first reactions of pathways were enriched for high expression, active chromatin state, and Polycomb-mediated repression in cell types where pathways are inactive, suggesting that key nodes are targets of repression. This integrative analysis forms the basis for identifying regulation points that control metabolic identity in human cells.

GET: a foundation model of transcription across human cell types

Transcriptional regulation, involving the complex interplay between regulatory sequences and proteins, directs all biological processes. Computational models of transcription lack generalizability to accurately extrapolate in unseen cell types and conditions. Here, we introduce GET, an interpretable foundation model designed to uncover regulatory grammars across 213 human fetal and adult cell types. Relying exclusively on chromatin accessibility data and sequence information, GET achieves experimental-level accuracy in predicting gene expression even in previously unseen cell types. GET showcases remarkable adaptability across new sequencing platforms and assays, enabling regulatory inference across a broad range of cell types and conditions, and uncovering universal and cell type specific transcription factor interaction networks. We evaluated its performance on prediction of regulatory activity, inference of regulatory elements and regulators, and identification of physical interactions between transcription factors. Specifically, we show GET outperforms current models in predicting lentivirus-based massive parallel reporter assay readout with reduced input data. In fetal erythroblasts, we identify distal (>1Mbp) regulatory regions that were missed by previous models. In B cells, we identified a lymphocyte-specific transcription factor-transcription factor interaction that explains the functional significance of a leukemia-risk predisposing germline mutation. In sum, we provide a generalizable and accurate model for transcription together with catalogs of gene regulation and transcription factor interactions, all with cell type specificity.

MECP2 directly interacts with RNA polymerase II to modulate transcription in human neurons

Mutations in the methyl-DNA-binding protein MECP2 cause the neurodevelopmental disorder Rett syndrome (RTT). How MECP2 contributes to transcriptional regulation in normal and disease states is unresolved; it has been reported to be an activator and a repressor. We describe here the first integrated CUT&Tag, transcriptome, and proteome analyses using human neurons with wild-type (WT) and mutant MECP2 molecules. MECP2 occupies CpG-rich promoter-proximal regions in over four thousand genes in human neurons, including a plethora of autism risk genes, together with RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II). MECP2 directly interacts with RNA Pol II, and genes occupied by both proteins showed reduced expression in neurons with MECP2 patient mutations. We conclude that MECP2 acts as a positive cofactor for RNA Pol II gene expression at many neuronal genes that harbor CpG islands in promoter-proximal regions and that RTT is due, in part, to the loss of gene activity of these genes in neurons.

Uncovering the molecular interactions underlying MBD2 and MBD3 phase separation

Chromatin organization controls DNA's accessibility to regulatory factors to influence gene expression. Heterochromatin, or transcriptionally silent chromatin enriched in methylated DNA and methylated histone tails, self-assembles through multivalent interactions with its associated proteins into a condensed, but dynamic state. Liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) of key heterochromatin regulators, such as heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1), plays an essential role in heterochromatin assembly and function. Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2), the most studied member of the methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) family of proteins, has been recently shown to undergo LLPS in the absence and presence of methylated DNA. These studies provide a new mechanistic framework for understanding the role of methylated DNA and its readers in heterochromatin formation. However, the details of the molecular interactions by which other MBD family members undergo LLPS to mediate genome organization and transcriptional regulation are not fully understood. Here, we focus on two MBD proteins, MBD2 and MBD3, that have distinct but interdependent roles in gene regulation. Using an integrated computational and experimental approach, we uncover the homotypic and heterotypic interactions governing MBD2 and MBD3 phase separation and DNA's influence on this process. We show that despite sharing the highest sequence identity and structural homology among all the MBD protein family members, MBD2 and MBD3 exhibit differing residue patterns resulting in distinct phase separation mechanisms. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of MBD protein condensation offers insights into the higher-order, LLPS-mediated organization of heterochromatin.

Methyl-CpG binding domain protein 2 (Mbd2) drives breast cancer progression through the modulation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition

Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2 (Mbd2), a reader of DNA methylation, has been implicated in different types of malignancies, including breast cancer. However, the exact role of Mbd2 in various stages of breast cancer growth and progression in vivo has not been determined. To test whether Mbd2 plays a causal role in mammary tumor growth and metastasis, we performed genetic knockout (KO) of Mbd2 in MMTV-PyMT transgenic mice and compared mammary tumor progression kinetics between the wild-type (PyMT-Mbd2+/+) and KO (PyMT-Mbd2-/-) groups. Our results demonstrated that deletion of Mbd2 in PyMT mice impedes primary tumor growth and lung metastasis at the experimental endpoint (postnatal week 20). Transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of primary tumors revealed that Mbd2 deletion abrogates the expression of several key determinants involved in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, such as neural cadherin (N-cadherin) and osteopontin. Importantly, loss of the Mbd2 gene impairs the activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway, which is required for PyMT-mediated oncogenic transformation, growth, and survival of breast tumor cells. Taken together, the results of this study provide a rationale for further development of epigenetic therapies targeting Mbd2 to inhibit the progression of breast cancer.

Role of histone H3K4 methyltransferase in regulating Monascus pigments production by red light-coupled magnetic field

Light, magnetic field, and methylation affected the growth and secondary metabolism of fungi. The regulation effect of the three factors on the growth and Monascus pigments (MPs) synthesis of Monascus purpureus was investigated in this study. 5-azacytidine (5-AzaC), DNA methylation inhibitor, was used to treat M. purpureus (wild-type, WT). Twenty micromolar 5-AzaC significantly promoted the growth, development, and MPs yield. Moreover, 250 lux red light and red light coupled magnetic field (RLCMF) significantly promoted the biomass. For WT, red light, and RLCMF significantly promoted MPs yield. But compared with red light treatment, only 0.2 mT RLCMF promoted the alcohol-soluble MPs yield. For histone H3K4 methyltransferase complex subunit Ash2 gene knockout strain (ΔAsh2), only 0.2 mT RLCMF significantly promoted water-soluble MPs yield. Yet red light, 1.0 and 0.2 mT RLCMF significantly promoted alcohol-soluble MPs yield. This indicated that methylation affected the MPs biosynthesis. Red light and weaker MF had a synergistic effect on the growth and MPs synthesis of ΔAsh2. This result was further confirmed by the expression of related genes. Therefore, histone H3K4 methyltransferase was involved in the regulation of the growth, development, and MPs synthesis of M. purpureus by the RLCMF.

Methyl-CpG binding domain (MBD)2/3 specifically recognizes and binds to the genomic mCpG site with a β-sheet in the MBD to affect embryonic development in Bombyx mori

Methyl-CpG (mCpG) binding domain (MBD) proteins especially bind with methylated DNA, and are involved in many important biological processes; however, the binding mechanism between insect MBD2/3 and mCpG remains unclear. In this study, we identified 2 isoforms of the MBD2/3 gene in Bombyx mori, MBD2/3-S and MBD2/3-L. Binding analysis of MBD2/3-L, MBD2/3-S, and 7 mutant MBD2/3-L proteins deficient in β1-β6 or α1 in the MBD showed that β2-β3-turns in the β-sheet of the MBD are necessary for the formation of the MBD2/3-mCpG complex; furthermore, other secondary structures, namely, β4-β6 and an α-helix, play a role in stabilizing the β-sheet structure to ensure that the MBD is able to bind mCpG. In addition, sequence alignment and binding analyses of different insect MBD2/3s indicated that insect MBD2/3s have an intact and conserved MBD that binds to the mCpG of target genes. Furthermore, MBD2/3 RNA interference results showed that MBD2/3-L plays a role in regulating B. mori embryonic development, similar to that of DNA methylation; however, MBD2/3-S without β4-β6 and α-helix does not alter embryonic development. These results suggest that MBD2/3-L recognizes and binds to mCpG through the intact β-sheet structure in its MBD, thus ensuring silkworm embryonic development.

Epigenetic Regulation of Fibroblasts and Crosstalk between Cardiomyocytes and Non-Myocyte Cells in Cardiac Fibrosis

Epigenetic mechanisms and cell crosstalk have been shown to play important roles in the initiation and progression of cardiac fibrosis. This review article aims to provide a thorough overview of the epigenetic mechanisms involved in fibroblast regulation. During fibrosis, fibroblast epigenetic regulation encompasses a multitude of mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone acetylation and methylation, and chromatin remodeling. These mechanisms regulate the phenotype of fibroblasts and the extracellular matrix composition by modulating gene expression, thereby orchestrating the progression of cardiac fibrosis. Moreover, cardiac fibrosis disrupts normal cardiac function by imposing myocardial mechanical stress and compromising cardiac electrical conduction. This review article also delves into the intricate crosstalk between cardiomyocytes and non-cardiomyocytes in the heart. A comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms governing epigenetic regulation and cell crosstalk in cardiac fibrosis is critical for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. Further research is warranted to unravel the precise molecular mechanisms underpinning these processes and to identify potential therapeutic targets.

ZMYM2 is essential for methylation of germline genes and active transposons in embryonic development

ZMYM2 is a transcriptional repressor whose role in development is largely unexplored. We found that Zmym2-/- mice show embryonic lethality by E10.5. Molecular characterization of Zmym2-/- embryos revealed two distinct defects. First, they fail to undergo DNA methylation and silencing of germline gene promoters, resulting in widespread upregulation of germline genes. Second, they fail to methylate and silence the evolutionarily youngest and most active LINE element subclasses in mice. Zmym2-/- embryos show ubiquitous overexpression of LINE-1 protein as well as aberrant expression of transposon-gene fusion transcripts. ZMYM2 homes to sites of PRC1.6 and TRIM28 complex binding, mediating repression of germline genes and transposons respectively. In the absence of ZMYM2, hypermethylation of histone 3 lysine 4 occurs at target sites, creating a chromatin landscape unfavourable for establishment of DNA methylation. ZMYM2-/- human embryonic stem cells also show aberrant upregulation and demethylation of young LINE elements, indicating a conserved role in repression of active transposons. ZMYM2 is thus an important new factor in DNA methylation patterning in early embryonic development.

Methyl-CpG binding domain 2 (Mbd2) is an epigenetic regulator of autism-risk genes and cognition

The Methyl-CpG-Binding Domain Protein family has been implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. The Methyl-CpG-binding domain 2 (Mbd2) binds methylated DNA and was shown to play an important role in cancer and immunity. Some evidence linked this protein to neurodevelopment. However, its exact role in neurodevelopment and brain function is mostly unknown. Here we show that Mbd2-deficiency in mice (Mbd2-/-) results in deficits in cognitive, social and emotional functions. Mbd2 binds regulatory DNA regions of neuronal genes in the hippocampus and loss of Mbd2 alters the expression of hundreds of genes with a robust down-regulation of neuronal gene pathways. Further, a genome-wide DNA methylation analysis found an altered DNA methylation pattern in regulatory DNA regions of neuronal genes in Mbd2-/- mice. Differentially expressed genes significantly overlap with gene-expression changes observed in brains of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) individuals. Notably, downregulated genes are significantly enriched for human ortholog ASD risk genes. Observed hippocampal morphological abnormalities were similar to those found in individuals with ASD and ASD rodent models. Hippocampal Mbd2 knockdown partially recapitulates the behavioral phenotypes observed in Mbd2-/- mice. These findings suggest that Mbd2 is a novel epigenetic regulator of genes that are associated with ASD in humans. Mbd2 loss causes behavioral alterations that resemble those found in ASD individuals.

Dissecting the roles of MBD2 isoforms and domains in regulating NuRD complex function during cellular differentiation

The Nucleosome Remodeling and Deacetylation (NuRD) complex is a crucial regulator of cellular differentiation. Two members of the Methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) protein family, MBD2 and MBD3, are known to be integral, but mutually exclusive subunits of the NuRD complex. Several MBD2 and MBD3 isoforms are present in mammalian cells, resulting in distinct MBD-NuRD complexes. Whether these different complexes serve distinct functional activities during differentiation is not fully explored. Based on the essential role of MBD3 in lineage commitment, we systematically investigated a diverse set of MBD2 and MBD3 variants for their potential to rescue the differentiation block observed for mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) lacking MBD3. While MBD3 is indeed crucial for ESC differentiation to neuronal cells, it functions independently of its MBD domain. We further identify that MBD2 isoforms can replace MBD3 during lineage commitment, however with different potential. Full-length MBD2a only partially rescues the differentiation block, while MBD2b, an isoform lacking an N-terminal GR-rich repeat, fully rescues the Mbd3 KO phenotype. In case of MBD2a, we further show that removing the methylated DNA binding capacity or the GR-rich repeat enables full redundancy to MBD3, highlighting the synergistic requirements for these domains in diversifying NuRD complex function.

Aberrant DNA Methylation, Expression, and Occurrence of Transcript Variants of the ABC Transporter ABCA7 in Breast Cancer

The ABC transporter ABCA7 has been found to be aberrantly expressed in a variety of cancer types, including breast cancer. We searched for specific epigenetic and genetic alterations and alternative splicing variants of ABCA7 in breast cancer and investigated whether these alterations are associated with ABCA7 expression. By analyzing tumor tissues from breast cancer patients, we found CpGs at the exon 5-intron 5 boundary aberrantly methylated in a molecular subtype-specific manner. The detection of altered DNA methylation in tumor-adjacent tissues suggests epigenetic field cancerization. In breast cancer cell lines, DNA methylation levels of CpGs in promoter-exon 1, intron 1, and at the exon 5-intron 5 boundary were not correlated with ABCA7 mRNA levels. By qPCR involving intron-specific and intron-flanking primers, we identified intron-containing ABCA7 mRNA transcripts. The occurrence of intron-containing transcripts was neither molecular subtype-specific nor directly correlated with DNA methylation at the respective exon-intron boundaries. Treatment of breast cancer cell lines MCF-7, BT-474, SK-BR3, and MDA-MB-231 with doxorubicin or paclitaxel for 72 h resulted in altered ABCA7 intron levels. Shotgun proteomics revealed that an increase in intron-containing transcripts was associated with significant dysregulation of splicing factors linked to alternative splicing.

iGEM as a human iPS cell-based global epigenetic modulation detection assay provides throughput characterization of chemicals affecting DNA methylation

Chemical-induced dysregulation of DNA methylation during the fetal period is known to contribute to developmental disorders or increase the risk of certain diseases later in life. In this study, we developed an iGEM (iPS cell-based global epigenetic modulation) detection assay using human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells that express a fluorescently labeled methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD), which enables a high-throughput screening of epigenetic teratogens/mutagens. 135 chemicals with known cardiotoxicity and carcinogenicity were categorized according to the MBD signal intensity, which reflects the degree of nuclear spatial distribution/concentration of DNA methylation. Further biological characterization through machine-learning analysis that integrated genome-wide DNA methylation, gene expression profiling, and knowledge-based pathway analysis revealed that chemicals with hyperactive MBD signals strongly associated their effects on DNA methylation and expression of genes involved in cell cycle and development. These results demonstrated that our MBD-based integrated analytical system is a powerful framework for detecting epigenetic compounds and providing mechanism insights of pharmaceutical development for sustainable human health.

Endocannabinoid system and epigenetics in spermatogenesis and testicular cancer

In mammals, male germ cell development starts during fetal life and is carried out in postnatal life with the formation of sperms. Spermatogenesis is the complex and highly orderly process during which a group of germ stem cells is set at birth, starts to differentiate at puberty. It proceeds through several stages: proliferation, differentiation, and morphogenesis and it is strictly regulated by a complex network of hormonal, autocrine and paracrine factors and it is associated with a unique epigenetic program. Altered epigenetic mechanisms or inability to respond to these factors can impair the correct process of germ development leading to reproductive disorders and/or testicular germ cell cancer. Among factors regulating spermatogenesis an emerging role is played by the endocannabinoid system (ECS). ECS is a complex system comprising endogenous cannabinoids (eCBs), their synthetic and degrading enzymes, and cannabinoid receptors. Mammalian male germ cells have a complete and active ECS which is modulated during spermatogenesis and that crucially regulates processes such as germ cell differentiation and sperm functions. Recently, cannabinoid receptor signaling has been reported to induce epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation, histone modifications and miRNA expression. Epigenetic modifications may also affect the expression and function of ECS elements, highlighting the establishment of a complex mutual interaction. Here, we describe the developmental origin and differentiation of male germ cells and testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs) focusing on the interplay between ECS and epigenetic mechanisms involved in these processes.

Epigenetics as a versatile regulator of fibrosis

Fibrosis, a process caused by excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM), is a common cause and outcome of organ failure and even death. Researchers have made many efforts to understand the mechanism of fibrogenesis and to develop therapeutic strategies; yet, the outcome remains unsatisfactory. In recent years, advances in epigenetics, including chromatin remodeling, histone modification, DNA methylation, and noncoding RNA (ncRNA), have provided more insights into the fibrotic process and have suggested the possibility of novel therapy for organ fibrosis. In this review, we summarize the current research on the epigenetic mechanisms involved in organ fibrosis and their possible clinical applications.

Epi-miRNAs: Modern mediators of methylation status in human cancers

Methylation of the fundamental macromolecules, DNA/RNA, and proteins, is remarkably abundant, evolutionarily conserved, and functionally significant in cellular homeostasis and normal tissue/organism development. Disrupted methylation imprinting is strongly linked to loss of the physiological equilibrium and numerous human pathologies, and most importantly to carcinogenesis, tumor heterogeneity, and cancer progression. Mounting recent evidence has documented the active implication of miRNAs in the orchestration of the multicomponent cellular methylation machineries and the deregulation of methylation profile in the epigenetic, epitranscriptomic, and epiproteomic levels during cancer onset and progression. The elucidation of such regulatory networks between the miRNome and the cellular methylation machineries has led to the emergence of a novel subclass of miRNAs, namely "epi-miRNAs" or "epi-miRs." Herein, we have summarized the existing knowledge on the functional role of epi-miRs in the methylation dynamic landscape of human cancers and their clinical utility in modern cancer diagnostics and tailored therapeutics. This article is categorized under: RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in Disease.

MBD5 regulates NMDA receptor expression and seizures by inhibiting Stat1 transcription

Epilepsy is considered to result from an imbalance between excitation and inhibition of the central nervous system. Pathogenic mutations in the methyl-CpG binding domain protein 5 gene (MBD5) are known to cause epilepsy. However, the function and mechanism of MBD5 in epilepsy remain elusive. Here, we found that MBD5 was mainly localized in the pyramidal cells and granular cells of mouse hippocampus, and its expression was increased in the brain tissues of mouse models of epilepsy. Exogenous overexpression of MBD5 inhibited the transcription of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 gene (Stat1), resulting in increased expression of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) subunit 1 (GluN1), 2A (GluN2A) and 2B (GluN2B), leading to aggravation of the epileptic behaviour phenotype in mice. The epileptic behavioural phenotype was alleviated by overexpression of STAT1 which reduced the expression of NMDARs, and by the NMDAR antagonist memantine. These results indicate that MBD5 accumulation affects seizures through STAT1-mediated inhibition of NMDAR expression in mice. Collectively, our findings suggest that the MBD5-STAT1-NMDAR pathway may be a new pathway that regulates the epileptic behavioural phenotype and may represent a new treatment target.

Systematic identification of factors involved in the silencing of germline genes in mouse embryonic stem cells

In mammals, many germline genes are epigenetically repressed to prevent their illegitimate expression in somatic cells. To advance our understanding of the mechanisms restricting the expression of germline genes, we analyzed their chromatin signature and performed a CRISPR-Cas9 knock-out screen for genes involved in germline gene repression using a Dazl-GFP reporter system in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). We show that the repression of germline genes mainly depends on the polycomb complex PRC1.6 and DNA methylation, which function additively in mESCs. Furthermore, we validated novel genes involved in the repression of germline genes and characterized three of them: Usp7, Shfm1 (also known as Sem1) and Erh. Inactivation of Usp7, Shfm1 or Erh led to the upregulation of germline genes, as well as retrotransposons for Shfm1, in mESCs. Mechanistically, USP7 interacts with PRC1.6 components, promotes PRC1.6 stability and presence at germline genes, and facilitates DNA methylation deposition at germline gene promoters for long term repression. Our study provides a global view of the mechanisms and novel factors required for silencing germline genes in embryonic stem cells.

DNA methylation profile of lip tissue from congenital nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate patients by whole-genome bisulfite sequencing

Congenital nonsyndromic cleft lip and palate (NSCLP) is one of the most common malformations worldwide. DNA methylation has been implicated in many diseases. However, its involvement in lip tissue from NSCLP is not well understood. This study aimed to investigate the role of dysregulated DNA methylation in NSCLP. DNA methylation profile was determined in eight injured and five self-normal lip tissue samples from children with NSCLP by whole-genome bisulfite sequencing. A total of 2,711 differentially methylated regions (DMRs), corresponding to 1,231 genes were identified. Given the important role of promoter methylation in regulating gene expression, the promoter DMR-related genes were considered. Bioinformatics analysis demonstrated that some of them showed potential associations with NSCLP. Therefore, the well-known NSCLP susceptibility gene, GLI family zinc finger 2 (GLI2) with an unknown role in its DNA methylation in NSCLP, was selected for further analysis. The promoter hypomethylation and higher mRNA expression level of GLI2 were observed in injured lip tissues by verification in additional samples. Moreover, dual luciferase reporter assay indicated that promoter hypermethylation of GLI2 inhibited its transcription. Overall, this study suggested that abnormal DNA methylation in lip tissue may be correlated with the pathogenesis of congenital NSCLP.

ZFP462 safeguards neural lineage specification by targeting G9A/GLP-mediated heterochromatin to silence enhancers

ZNF462 haploinsufficiency is linked to Weiss-Kruszka syndrome, a genetic disorder characterized by neurodevelopmental defects, including autism. Though conserved in vertebrates and essential for embryonic development, the molecular functions of ZNF462 remain unclear. We identified its murine homologue ZFP462 in a screen for mediators of epigenetic gene silencing. Here we show that ZFP462 safeguards neural lineage specification of mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) by targeting the H3K9-specific histone methyltransferase complex G9A/GLP to silence meso-endodermal genes. ZFP462 binds to transposable elements that are potential enhancers harbouring pluripotency and meso-endoderm transcription factor binding sites. Recruiting G9A/GLP, ZFP462 seeds heterochromatin, restricting transcription factor binding. Loss of ZFP462 in ESCs results in increased chromatin accessibility at target sites and ectopic expression of meso-endodermal genes. Taken together, ZFP462 confers lineage and locus specificity to the broadly expressed epigenetic regulator G9A/GLP. Our results suggest that aberrant activation of lineage non-specific genes in the neuronal lineage underlies ZNF462-associated neurodevelopmental pathology.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) of Heat Shock Protein 90 (Hsp90)

Chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) is a widely used technique for genome-wide mapping of protein-DNA interactions and epigenetic marks in vivo. Recent studies have suggested an important role of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) in chromatin. This molecular chaperone assists other proteins to acquire their mature and functional conformation and helps in the assembly of many complexes. In this chapter, we provide specific details on how to perform Hsp90 ChIP-seq from Drosophila Schneider (S2) cells. Briefly, cells are simultaneously lyzed and reversibly cross-linked to stabilize protein-DNA interactions. Chromatin is prepared from isolated nuclei and sheared by sonication. Hsp90-bound loci are immunoprecipitated and the corresponding DNA fragments are purified and sequenced. The described approach revealed that Hsp90 binds close to the transcriptional start site of around one-third of all Drosophila coding genes and characterized the role of the chaperone at chromatin.

Evidence that direct inhibition of transcription factor binding is the prevailing mode of gene and repeat repression by DNA methylation

Cytosine methylation efficiently silences CpG-rich regulatory regions of genes and repeats in mammalian genomes. To what extent this entails direct inhibition of transcription factor (TF) binding versus indirect inhibition via recruitment of methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) proteins is unclear. Here we show that combinatorial genetic deletions of all four proteins with functional MBDs in mouse embryonic stem cells, derived neurons or a human cell line do not reactivate genes or repeats with methylated promoters. These do, however, become activated by methylation-restricted TFs if DNA methylation is removed. We identify several causal TFs in neurons, including ONECUT1, which is methylation sensitive only at a motif variant. Rampantly upregulated retrotransposons in methylation-free neurons feature a CRE motif, which activates them in the absence of DNA methylation via methylation-sensitive binding of CREB1. Our study reveals methylation-sensitive TFs in vivo and argues that direct inhibition, rather than indirect repression by the tested MBD proteins, is the prevailing mechanism of methylation-mediated repression at regulatory regions and repeats.

High-affinity chromodomains engineered for improved detection of histone methylation and enhanced CRISPR-based gene repression

Histone methylation is an important post-translational modification that plays a crucial role in regulating cellular functions, and its dysregulation is implicated in cancer and developmental defects. Therefore, systematic characterization of histone methylation is necessary to elucidate complex biological processes, identify biomarkers, and ultimately, enable drug discovery. Studying histone methylation relies on the use of antibodies, but these suffer from lot-to-lot variation, are costly, and cannot be used in live cells. Chromatin-modification reader domains are potential affinity reagents for methylated histones, but their application is limited by their modest affinities. We used phage display to identify key residues that greatly enhance the affinities of Cbx chromodomains for methylated histone marks and develop a general strategy for enhancing the affinity of chromodomains of the human Cbx protein family. Our strategy allows us to develop powerful probes for genome-wide binding analysis and live-cell imaging. Furthermore, we use optimized chromodomains to develop extremely potent CRISPR-based repressors for tailored gene silencing. Our results highlight the power of engineered chromodomains for analyzing protein interaction networks involving chromatin and represent a modular platform for efficient gene silencing.

Local CpG density affects the trajectory and variance of age-associated DNA methylation changes

BACKGROUND

DNA methylation is an epigenetic mark associated with the repression of gene promoters. Its pattern in the genome is disrupted with age and these changes can be used to statistically predict age with epigenetic clocks. Altered rates of aging inferred from these clocks are observed in human disease. However, the molecular mechanisms underpinning age-associated DNA methylation changes remain unknown. Local DNA sequence can program steady-state DNA methylation levels, but how it influences age-associated methylation changes is unknown.

RESULTS

We analyze longitudinal human DNA methylation trajectories at 345,895 CpGs from 600 individuals aged between 67 and 80 to understand the factors responsible for age-associated epigenetic changes at individual CpGs. We show that changes in methylation with age occur at 182,760 loci largely independently of variation in cell type proportions. These changes are especially apparent at 8322 low CpG density loci. Using SNP data from the same individuals, we demonstrate that methylation trajectories are affected by local sequence polymorphisms at 1487 low CpG density loci. More generally, we find that low CpG density regions are particularly prone to change and do so variably between individuals in people aged over 65. This differs from the behavior of these regions in younger individuals where they predominantly lose methylation.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results, which we reproduce in two independent groups of individuals, demonstrate that local DNA sequence influences age-associated DNA methylation changes in humans in vivo. We suggest that this occurs because interactions between CpGs reinforce maintenance of methylation patterns in CpG dense regions.

Densely methylated DNA traps Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 2 but permits free diffusion by Methyl-CpG-binding domain protein 3

The methyl-CpG-binding domain 2 and 3 proteins (MBD2 and MBD3) provide structural and DNA-binding function for the Nucleosome Remodeling and Deacetylase (NuRD) complex. The two proteins form distinct NuRD complexes and show different binding affinity and selectivity for methylated DNA. Previous studies have shown that MBD2 binds with high affinity and selectivity for a single methylated CpG dinucleotide while MBD3 does not. However, the NuRD complex functions in regions of the genome that contain many CpG dinucleotides (CpG islands). Therefore, in this work, we investigate the binding and diffusion of MBD2 and MBD3 on more biologically relevant DNA templates that contain a large CpG island or limited CpG sites. Using a combination of single-molecule and biophysical analyses, we show that both MBD2 and MBD3 diffuse freely and rapidly across unmethylated CpG-rich DNA. In contrast, we found methylation of large CpG islands traps MBD2 leading to stable and apparently static binding on the CpG island while MBD3 continues to diffuse freely. In addition, we demonstrate both proteins bend DNA, which is augmented by methylation. Together, these studies support a model in which MBD2-NuRD strongly localizes to and compacts methylated CpG islands while MBD3-NuRD can freely mobilize nucleosomes independent of methylation status.

DNA Methylation: Genomewide Distribution, Regulatory Mechanism and Therapy Target

DNA methylation is the most important epigenetic modification involved in the regulation of transcription, imprinting, establishment of X-inactivation, and the formation of a chromatin structure. DNA methylation in the genome is often associated with transcriptional repression and the formation of closed heterochromatin. However, the results of genome-wide studies of the DNA methylation pattern and transcriptional activity of genes have nudged us toward reconsidering this paradigm, since the promoters of many genes remain active despite their methylation. The differences in the DNA methylation distribution in normal and pathological conditions allow us to consider methylation as a diagnostic marker or a therapy target. In this regard, the need to investigate the factors affecting DNA methylation and those involved in its interpretation becomes pressing. Recently, a large number of protein factors have been uncovered, whose ability to bind to DNA depends on their methylation. Many of these proteins act not only as transcriptional activators or repressors, but also affect the level of DNA methylation. These factors are considered potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of diseases resulting from either a change in DNA methylation or a change in the interpretation of its methylation level. In addition to protein factors, a secondary DNA structure can also affect its methylation and can be considered as a therapy target. In this review, the latest research into the DNA methylation landscape in the genome has been summarized to discuss why some DNA regions avoid methylation and what factors can affect its level or interpretation and, therefore, can be considered a therapy target.

Computational discovery of novel inhibitory candidates targeting versatile transcriptional repressor MBD2

Genome methylation is a key epigenetic mechanism in various biological events such as development, cellular differentiation, cancer progression, aging, and iPSC reprogramming. Crosstalk between DNA methylation and gene expression is mediated by MBD2, known as the reader of DNA methylation and suggested as a drug target. Despite its magnitude of significance, a scarcely limited number of small molecules to be used as inhibitors have been detected so far. Therefore, we screened a comprehensive compound library to elicit MBD2 inhibitor candidates. Promising molecules were subjected to computational docking analysis by targeting the methylated DNA-binding domain of human MBD2. We could detect reasonable binding energies and docking residues, presumably located in druggable pockets. Docking results were also validated via MD simulation and per-residue energy decomposition calculation. Drug-likeness of these small molecules was assessed through ADMET prediction to foresee off-target side effects for future studies. All computational approaches notably highlighted two compounds named CID3100583 and 8,8-ethylenebistheophylline. These compounds have become prominent as novel candidates, possibly disrupting MBD2_MBD-DNA interaction. Consequently, these compounds have been considered prospective inhibitors with the usage potential in a wide range of applications from cancer treatment to somatic cell reprogramming protocols.

A secreted fungal effector suppresses rice immunity through host histone hypoacetylation

Histone acetylation is a critical epigenetic modification that regulates plant immunity. Fungal pathogens secrete effectors that modulate host immunity and facilitate infection, but whether fungal pathogens have evolved effectors that directly target plant histone acetylation remains unknown. Here, we identified a secreted protein, UvSec117, from the rice false smut fungus, Ustilaginoidea virens, as a key effector that can target the rice histone deacetylase OsHDA701 and negatively regulates rice broad-spectrum resistance against rice pathogens. UvSec117 disrupts host immunity by recruiting OsHDA701 to the nucleus and enhancing OsHDA701-modulated deacetylation, thereby reducing histone H3K9 acetylation levels in rice plants and interfering with defense gene activation. Host-induced gene silencing of UvSec117 promotes rice resistance to U. virens, thus providing an alternative way for developing rice false smut-resistant plants. This is the first direct evidence demonstrating that a fungal effector targets a histone deacetylase to suppress plant immunity. Our data provided insight into a counter-defense mechanism in a plant pathogen that inactivates host defense responses at the epigenetic level.

Role of the hedgehog signaling pathway in rheumatic diseases: An overview

Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway is an evolutionarily conserved signal transduction pathway that plays an important regulatory role during embryonic development, cell proliferation, and differentiation of vertebrates, and it is often inhibited in adult tissues. Recent evidence has shown that Hh signaling also plays a key role in rheumatic diseases, as alterations in their number or function have been identified in rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, systemic sclerosis, and Sjogren's Syndrome. As a result, emerging studies have focused on the blockade of this pathogenic axis as a promising therapeutic target in several autoimmune disorders; nevertheless, a greater understanding of its contribution still requires further investigation. This review aims to elucidate the most recent studies and literature data on the pathogenetic role of Hh signaling in rheumatic diseases.

Context-dependent CpG methylation directs cell-specific binding of transcription factor ZBTB38

DNA methylation on CpGs regulates transcription in mammals, both by decreasing the binding of methylation-repelled factors and by increasing the binding of methylation-attracted factors. Among the latter, zinc finger proteins have the potential to bind methylated CpGs in a sequence-specific context. The protein ZBTB38 is unique in that it has two independent sets of zinc fingers, which recognize two different methylated consensus sequences in vitro. Here, we identify the binding sites of ZBTB38 in a human cell line, and show that they contain the two methylated consensus sequences identified in vitro. In addition, we show that the distribution of ZBTB38 sites is highly unusual: while 10% of the ZBTB38 sites are also bound by CTCF, the other 90% of sites reside in closed chromatin and are not bound by any of the other factors mapped in our model cell line. Finally, a third of ZBTB38 sites are found upstream of long and active CpG islands. Our work therefore validates ZBTB38 as a methyl-DNA binder in vivo and identifies its unique distribution in the genome.

Generating specificity in genome regulation through transcription factor sensitivity to chromatin

Cell type-specific gene expression relies on transcription factors (TFs) binding DNA sequence motifs embedded in chromatin. Understanding how motifs are accessed in chromatin is crucial to comprehend differential transcriptional responses and the phenotypic impact of sequence variation. Chromatin obstacles to TF binding range from DNA methylation to restriction of DNA access by nucleosomes depending on their position, composition and modification. In vivo and in vitro approaches now enable the study of TF binding in chromatin at unprecedented resolution. Emerging insights suggest that TFs vary in their ability to navigate chromatin states. However, it remains challenging to link binding and transcriptional outcomes to molecular characteristics of TFs or the local chromatin substrate. Here, we discuss our current understanding of how TFs access DNA in chromatin and novel techniques and directions towards a better understanding of this critical step in genome regulation.

Characterization of demethylating DNA glycosylase ROS1 from Nicotiana tabacum L

One of the main mechanisms of epigenetic regulation in higher eukaryotes is based on the methylation of cytosine at the C5 position with the formation of 5-methylcytosine (mC), which is further recognized by regulatory proteins. In mammals, methylation mainly occurs in CG dinucleotides, while in plants it targets CG, CHG, and CHH sequences (H is any base but G). Correct maintenance of the DNA methylation status is based on the balance of methylation, passive demethylation, and active demethylation. While in mammals active demethylation is based on targeted regulated damage to mC in DNA followed by the action of repair enzymes, demethylation in plants is performed by specialized DNA glycosylases that hydrolyze the N-glycosidic bond of mC nucleotides. The genome of the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana encodes four paralogous proteins, two of which, DEMETER (DME) and REPRESSOR OF SILENCING 1 (ROS1), possess 5-methylcytosine-DNA glycosylase activity and are necessary for the regulation of development, response to infections and abiotic stress and silencing of transgenes and mobile elements. Homologues of DME and ROS1 are present in all plant groups; however, outside A. thaliana, they are poorly studied. Here we report the properties of a recombinant fragment of the ROS1 protein from Nicotiana tabacum (NtROS1), which contains all main structural domains required for catalytic activity. Using homologous modeling, we have constructed a structural model of NtROS1, which revealed folding characteristic of DNA glycosylases of the helix– hairpin–helix structural superfamily. The recombinant NtROS1 protein was able to remove mC bases from DNA, and the enzyme activity was barely affected by the methylation status of CG dinucleotides in the opposite strand. The enzyme removed 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (hmC) from DNA with a lower efficiency, showing minimal activity in the presence of mC in the opposite strand. Expression of the NtROS1 gene in cultured human cells resulted in a global decrease in the level of genomic DNA methylation. In general, it can be said that the NtROS1 protein and other homologues of DME and ROS1 represent a promising scaffold for engineering enzymes to analyze the status of epigenetic methylation and to control gene activity.

Noncatalytic Domains in DNA Glycosylases

Many proteins consist of two or more structural domains: separate parts that have a defined structure and function. For example, in enzymes, the catalytic activity is often localized in a core fragment, while other domains or disordered parts of the same protein participate in a number of regulatory processes. This situation is often observed in many DNA glycosylases, the proteins that remove damaged nucleobases thus initiating base excision DNA repair. This review covers the present knowledge about the functions and evolution of such noncatalytic parts in DNA glycosylases, mostly concerned with the human enzymes but also considering some unique members of this group coming from plants and prokaryotes.

Optochemical Control of TET Dioxygenases Enables Kinetic Insights into the Domain-Dependent Interplay of TET1 and MBD1 while Oxidizing and Reading 5-Methylcytosine

Methyl-CpG binding domain (MBD) proteins and ten-eleven-translocation (TET) dioxygenases are the readers and erasers of 5-methylcytosine (5mC), the central epigenetic mark of mammalian DNA. We employ light-activatable human TET1 controlled by a genetically encoded photocaged serine to enable in vivo kinetic studies of their interplay at the common substrate methylated cytosine–guanine (mCpG). We identify the multidomain reader MBD1 to negatively regulate TET1-catalyzed 5mC oxidation kinetics via its mCpG-binding MBD domain. However, we also identify the third Cys-x-x-Cys (CXXC3) domain of MBD1 to promote oxidation kinetics by TET1, dependent on its ability to bind nonmethylated CpG, the final product of TET-mediated mCpG oxidation and active demethylation. In contrast, we do not observe differences in TET1 regulation for MBD1 variants with or without the transcriptional repressor domain. Our approach reveals a complex, domain-dependent interplay of these readers and erasers of 5mC with different domain-specific contributions of MBD1 to the overall kinetics of TET1-catalyzed global 5mC oxidation kinetics that contribute to a better understanding of dynamic methylome shaping.

Epigenetics and Early Development

The epigenome controls all aspect of eukaryotic development as the packaging of DNA greatly affects gene expression. Epigenetic changes are reversible and do not affect the DNA sequence itself but rather control levels of gene expression. As a result, the science of epigenetics focuses on the physical configuration of chromatin in the proximity of gene promoters rather than on the mechanistic effects of gene sequences on transcription and translation. In the present review we discuss three prominent epigenetic modifications, DNA methylation, histone methylation/acetylation, and the effects of chromatin remodeling complexes. Specifically, we introduce changes to the methylated state of DNA through DNA methyltransferases and DNA demethylases, discuss the effects of histone tail modifications such as histone acetylation and methylation on gene expression and present the functions of major ATPase subunit containing chromatin remodeling complexes. We also introduce examples of how changes in these epigenetic factors affect early development in humans and mice. In summary, this review provides an overview over the most important epigenetic mechanisms and provides examples of the dramatic effects of epigenetic changes in early mammalian development.

Mechanisms that regulate the activities of TET proteins

The ten-eleven translocation (TET) family of dioxygenases consists of three members, TET1, TET2, and TET3. All three TET enzymes have Fe⁺² and α-ketoglutarate (α-KG)-dependent dioxygenase activities, catalyzing the 1st step of DNA demethylation by converting 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), and further oxidize 5hmC to 5-formylcytosine (5fC) and 5-carboxylcytosine (5caC). Gene knockout studies demonstrated that all three TET proteins are involved in the regulation of fetal organ generation during embryonic development and normal tissue generation postnatally. TET proteins play such roles by regulating the expression of key differentiation and fate-determining genes via (1) enzymatic activity-dependent DNA methylation of the promoters and enhancers of target genes; and (2) enzymatic activity-independent regulation of histone modification. Interacting partner proteins and post-translational regulatory mechanisms regulate the activities of TET proteins. Mutations and dysregulation of TET proteins are involved in the pathogenesis of human diseases, specifically cancers. Here, we summarize the research on the interaction partners and post-translational modifications of TET proteins. We also discuss the molecular mechanisms by which these partner proteins and modifications regulate TET functioning and target gene expression. Such information will help in the design of medications useful for targeted therapy of TET-mutant-related diseases.

DNA Methylation and Establishing Memory

A single event can cause a life-long memory. Memories physically reside in neurons, and changes in neuronal gene expression are considered to be central to memory. Early models proposed that specific DNA methylations of cytosines in neuronal DNA encode memories in a stable biochemical form. This review describes recent research that elucidates the molecular mechanisms used by the mammalian brain to form DNA methylcytosine encoded memories. For example, neuron activation initiates cytosine demethylation by stimulating DNA topoisomerase II beta (TOP2B) protein to make a temporary DNA double-strand break (repaired within about 2 hours) at a promoter of an immediate early gene, EGR1, allowing expression of this gene. The EGR1 proteins then recruit methylcytosine dioxygenase TET1 proteins to initiate demethylation at several hundred genes, facilitating expression of those genes. Initiation of demethylation of cytosine also occurs when OGG1 localizes at oxidized guanine in a methylated CpG site and recruits TET1 for initiation of demethylation at that site. DNMT3A2 is another immediate early gene upregulated by synaptic activity. DNMT3A2 protein catalyzes de novo DNA methylations. These several mechanisms convert external experiences into DNA methylations and initiated demethylations of neuronal DNA cytosines, causing changes in gene expression that are the basis of long-term memories.

Distinctive aspects of the placental epigenome and theories as to how they arise

The placenta has a methylome dramatically unlike that of any somatic cell type. Among other distinctions, it features low global DNA methylation, extensive “partially methylated domains” packed in dense heterochromatin and methylation of hundreds of CpG islands important in somatic development. These features attract interest in part because a substantial fraction of human cancers feature the exact same phenomena, suggesting parallels between epigenome formation in placentation and cancer. Placenta also features an expanded set of imprinted genes, some of which come about by distinctive developmental pathways. Recent discoveries, some from far outside the placental field, shed new light on how the unusual placental epigenetic state may arise. Nonetheless, key questions remain unresolved.

The DNMT1 inhibitor GSK-3484862 mediates global demethylation in murine embryonic stem cells

Background

DNA methylation plays an important role in regulating gene expression in mammals. The covalent DNMT1 inhibitors 5-azacytidine and decitabine are widely used in research to reduce DNA methylation levels, but they impart severe cytotoxicity which limits their demethylation capability and confounds interpretation of experiments. Recently, a non-covalent inhibitor of DNMT1 called GSK-3484862 was developed by GlaxoSmithKline. We sought to determine whether GSK-3484862 can induce demethylation more effectively than 5-azanucleosides. Murine embryonic stem cells (mESCs) are an ideal cell type in which to conduct such experiments, as they have a high degree of DNA methylation but tolerate dramatic methylation loss.

Results

We determined the cytotoxicity and optimal concentration of GSK-3484862 by treating wild-type (WT) or Dnmt1/3a/3b triple knockout (TKO) mESC with different concentrations of the compound, which was obtained from two commercial sources. Concentrations of 10 µM or below were readily tolerated for 14 days of culture. Known DNA methylation targets such as germline genes and GLN-family transposons were upregulated within 2 days of the start of GSK-3484862 treatment. By contrast, 5-azacytidine and decitabine induced weaker upregulation of methylated genes and extensive cell death. Whole-genome bisulfite sequencing showed that treatment with GSK-3484862 induced dramatic DNA methylation loss, with global CpG methylation levels falling from near 70% in WT mESC to less than 18% after 6 days of treatment with GSK-3484862. The treated cells showed a methylation level and pattern similar to that observed in Dnmt1-deficient mESCs.

Conclusions

GSK-3484862 mediates striking demethylation in mESCs with minimal non-specific toxicity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13072-021-00429-0.

Misregulation of the expression and activity of DNA methyltransferases in cancer

In mammals, DNA methyltransferases DNMT1 and DNMT3's (A, B and L) deposit and maintain DNA methylation in dividing and nondividing cells. Although these enzymes have an unremarkable DNA sequence specificity (CpG), their regional specificity is regulated by interactions with various protein factors, chromatin modifiers, and post-translational modifications of histones. Changes in the DNMT expression or interacting partners affect DNA methylation patterns. Consequently, the acquired gene expression may increase the proliferative potential of cells, often concomitant with loss of cell identity as found in cancer. Aberrant DNA methylation, including hypermethylation and hypomethylation at various genomic regions, therefore, is a hallmark of most cancers. Additionally, somatic mutations in DNMTs that affect catalytic activity were mapped in Acute Myeloid Leukemia cancer cells. Despite being very effective in some cancers, the clinically approved DNMT inhibitors lack specificity, which could result in a wide range of deleterious effects. Elucidating distinct molecular mechanisms of DNMTs will facilitate the discovery of alternative cancer therapeutic targets. This review is focused on: (i) the structure and characteristics of DNMTs, (ii) the prevalence of mutations and abnormal expression of DNMTs in cancer, (iii) factors that mediate their abnormal expression and (iv) the effect of anomalous DNMT-complexes in cancer.

Rett Syndrome and Fragile X Syndrome: Different Etiology With Common Molecular Dysfunctions

Rett syndrome (RTT) and Fragile X syndrome (FXS) are two monogenetic neurodevelopmental disorders with complex clinical presentations. RTT is caused by mutations in the Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 gene (MECP2) altering the function of its protein product MeCP2. MeCP2 modulates gene expression by binding methylated CpG dinucleotides, and by interacting with transcription factors. FXS is caused by the silencing of the FMR1 gene encoding the Fragile X Mental Retardation Protein (FMRP), a RNA binding protein involved in multiple steps of RNA metabolism, and modulating the translation of thousands of proteins including a large set of synaptic proteins. Despite differences in genetic etiology, there are overlapping features in RTT and FXS, possibly due to interactions between MeCP2 and FMRP, and to the regulation of pathways resulting in dysregulation of common molecular signaling. Furthermore, basic physiological mechanisms are regulated by these proteins and might concur to the pathophysiology of both syndromes. Considering that RTT and FXS are disorders affecting brain development, and that most of the common targets of MeCP2 and FMRP are involved in brain activity, we discuss the mechanisms of synaptic function and plasticity altered in RTT and FXS, and we consider the similarities and the differences between these two disorders.

Deficiency of replication-independent DNA mismatch repair drives a 5-methylcytosine deamination mutational signature in cancer

Multiple mutational signatures have been associated with DNA mismatch repair (MMR)–deficient cancers, but the mechanisms underlying their origin remain unclear. Here, using mutation data from cancer genomes, we identify a previously unknown function of MMR that is able to protect genomes from 5-methylcytosine (5mC) deamination–induced somatic mutations in a replication-independent manner. Cancers with deficiency of MMR proteins MSH2/MSH6 (MutSα) exhibit mutational signature contributions distinct from those that are deficient in MLH1/PMS2 (MutLα). This disparity arises from unrepaired 5mC deamination–induced mismatches rather than replicative DNA polymerase errors. In cancers with biallelic loss of MBD4 DNA glycosylase, repair of 5mC deamination damage is strongly associated with H3K36me3 chromatin, implicating MutSα as the essential factor in its repair. We thus uncover a noncanonical role of MMR in the protection against 5mC deamination–induced mutation in human cancers.

MET1-Dependent DNA Methylation Represses Light Signaling and Influences Plant Regeneration in Arabidopsis

Plant somatic cells can be reprogrammed into a pluripotent cell mass, called callus, which can be subsequently used for de novo shoot regeneration through a two-step in vitro tissue culture method. MET1-dependent CG methylation has been implicated in plant regeneration in Arabidopsis, because the met1-3 mutant exhibits increased shoot regeneration compared with the wild-type. To understand the role of MET1 in de novo shoot regeneration, we compared the genome-wide DNA methylomes and transcriptomes of wild-type and met1-3 callus and leaf. The CG methylation patterns were largely unchanged during leaf-to-callus transition, suggesting that the altered regeneration phenotype of met1-3 was caused by the constitutively hypomethylated genes, independent of the tissue type. In particular, MET1-dependent CG methylation was observed at the blue light receptor genes, CRYPTOCHROME 1 (CRY1) and CRY2, which reduced their expression. Coexpression network analysis revealed that the CRY1 gene was closely linked to cytokinin signaling genes. Consistently, functional enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes in met1-3 showed that gene ontology terms related to light and hormone signaling were overrepresented. Overall, our findings indicate that MET1-dependent repression of light and cytokinin signaling influences plant regeneration capacity and shoot identity establishment.

Impact of genetic and environmental factors on autoimmune hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic non-resolving liver disease characterized by diffuse hypergammaglobulinemia, the presence of autoantibodies and characteristic histological findings. The disease can have catastrophic outcome with the development of end-stage liver disease if misdiagnosed/undiagnosed and left untreated. AIH pathogenesis remains obscure and the main hypothesis supports its development in genetically predisposed individuals after being exposed to certain environmental triggers. Genetic predisposition is linked to the presence of certain HLA alleles, mainly HLA-DR3 and HLA-DR4. However, a wide number of non-HLA epitopes have also been associated with the disease although data vary significantly among different ethnic groups. Therefore, it is likely that epigenetic alterations may also play a crucial role in disease's pathogenesis, although not yet extensively studied. The aim of this review was to summarize the genetic and environmental factors that have been associated with AIH, but also to open new insights towards the role of epigenetic modifications in the etiology of the disease.

Expression of DnMTs and MBDs in AlCl3-Induced Neurotoxicity Mouse Model

Alteration in DNA methylation after aluminum exposure has been shown to contribute in pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). This study is aimed to determine the effect of Al exposure (42 and 60 days) on learning and memory and the expression of proteins involved in DNA methylation (MBD1, MBD2, MBD3, MeCP2 (methyl CpG binding protein 2), DnMT1 and DnMT3a). Male BALB/c mice were treated with AlCl₃ for either 42 days or 60 days. After treatment completion, learning and memory were compared to the control group using novel object recognition test, elevated plus maze test, open field test, and Morris water maze test. The treated animals and their respective controls were sacrificed after cognitive testing and samples from their whole cortex and hippocampus were harvested for gene expression analysis. Mice treated with AlCl₃ showed significant cognitive deficit with impaired short-term memory, elevated anxiety, and deterioration in spatial and reference memory. The AlCl₃ treatment showed significant reduction in the expression of MBDs in the whole cortex at 60 days of treatment as compared to control. AlCl₃-treated animals showed decreased expression of MBDs and DnMT3a in the hippocampus for longer treated animals but strikingly, MBD2 showed significantly increased expression in AlCl₃-treated animals at 60 days p ≤ 0.001. In conclusion, this study showed that AlCl₃-treated animals showed significant memory and cognitive deficits and it is associated with significant changes in the expression of proteins involved in DNA methylation mechanism. Moreover, different Al exposure duration had slightly different effects.

MeCP2 is a microsatellite binding protein that protects CA repeats from nucleosome invasion

The Rett syndrome protein MeCP2 was described as a methyl-CpG-binding protein, but its exact function remains unknown. Here we show that mouse MeCP2 is a microsatellite binding protein that specifically recognizes hydroxymethylated CA repeats. Depletion of MeCP2 alters chromatin organization of CA repeats and lamina-associated domains and results in nucleosome accumulation on CA repeats and genome-wide transcriptional dysregulation. The structure of MeCP2 in complex with a hydroxymethylated CA repeat reveals a characteristic DNA shape, with considerably modified geometry at the 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, which is recognized specifically by Arg¹³³, a key residue whose mutation causes Rett syndrome. Our work identifies MeCP2 as a microsatellite DNA binding protein that targets the 5hmC-modified CA-rich strand and maintains genome regions nucleosome-free, suggesting a role for MeCP2 dysfunction in Rett syndrome.