PSD-95 regulates CRFR1 localization, trafficking and β-arrestin2 recruitment

MC4R Localizes at Excitatory Postsynaptic and Peri-Postsynaptic Sites of Hypothalamic Neurons in Primary Culture

The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) is a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that is expressed in several brain locations encompassing the hypothalamus and the brainstem, where the receptor controls several body functions, including metabolism. In a well-defined pathway to decrease appetite, hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons localized in the arcuate nucleus (Arc) project to MC4R neurons in the paraventricular nuclei (PVN) to release the natural MC4R agonist α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH). Arc neurons also project excitatory glutamatergic fibers to the MC4R neurons in the PVN for a fast synaptic transmission to regulate a satiety pathway potentiated by α-MSH. By using super-resolution microscopy, we found that in hypothalamic neurons in a primary culture, postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) colocalizes with GluN1, a subunit of the ionotropic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Thus, hypothalamic neurons form excitatory postsynaptic specializations. To study the MC4R distribution at these sites, tagged HA-MC4R under the synapsin promoter was expressed in neurons by adeno-associated virus (AAV) gene transduction. HA-MC4R immunofluorescence peaked at the center and in proximity to the PSD95- and NMDAR-expressing sites. These data provide morphological evidence that MC4R localizes together with glutamate receptors at postsynaptic and peri-postsynaptic sites.

CRHR1 endocytosis: Spatiotemporal regulation of receptor signaling

Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) is crucial for basal and stress-initiated reactions in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and extrahypothalamic brain circuits, where it acts as a neuromodulator to organize behavioral and humoral responses to stress. We review and describe cellular components and molecular mechanisms involved in CRH system signaling through G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) CRHR1 and CRHR2, under the current view of GPCR signaling from the plasma membrane but also from intracellular compartments, which establish the bases of signal resolution in space and time. Focus is placed on latest studies of CRHR1 signaling in physiologically significant contexts of the neurohormone function that disclosed new mechanistic features of cAMP production and ERK1/2 activation. We also introduce in a brief overview the pathophysiological function of the CRH system, underlining the need for a complete characterization of CRHRs signaling to design new and specific therapies for stress-related disorders.

Acrylamide-induced damage to postsynaptic plasticity is CYP2E1 dependent in an SH-SY5Y co-culture system

Acrylamide (ACR), a neurotoxic substance, is characterized by a range of industrial and population exposures. The effects of ACR on synapses have been examined, but the regulation and molecular mechanism of key proteins related to ACR and its metabolite glycidamide (GA) have not been elucidated. In this study, we constructed two co-culture systems to mimic neurons that do not express and overexpress CYP2E1. In these co-cultures, we observed the effects and relative influence of ACR and GA on cell survival as well as synaptic structural and functional plasticity. Next, we investigated the relationship between ACR-induced nerve damage and key proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. After ACR exposure, cell death and synaptic damage were significantly worse in CYP2E1-overexpressing co-culture systems, suggesting that ACR-induced neurotoxicity may be related to metabolic efficiency (including CYP2E1 activity). Moreover, with increasing doses of ACR, the key postsynaptic membrane proteins PSD-95 expression was reduced and CaMKII and NMDAR-2B phosphorylation was increased. ACR exposure also triggered a rapid dose- and time-dependent increase in intracellular Ca²⁺, whose changes can affect the expression of the above-mentioned key proteins. In summary, we clarified the relationship between ACR exposure, neuronal damage and postsynaptic plasticity and proposed an ACR-CYP2E1-GA: Ca²⁺-PSD-95-NMDAR-Ca²⁺-CaMKII effect chain. This information will further improve the development of an alternative pathway strategy for investigating the risk posed by ACR.

Inhibition of the postsynaptic density protein 95 on the protective effect of Ang-(1-7)-Mas on cerebral ischaemia injury

BACKGROUND

Postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD95) plays an important role in cerebral ischaemia injury, but its mechanism needs further research. This study aimed to explore the role of PSD95 in (Ang-(1-7))-Mas-mediated cerebral ischaemia protection and its regulatory mechanism.

METHODS

Oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) neuron and rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) models were used as in vitro and in vivo models, respectively. TAT-MAS9C was used to disrupt the interaction between PSD95 and Mas. The recombinant PSD95 adenovirus (Ad-PSD95) was used to overexpress PSD95 in neurons.

RESULTS

Results showed that in OGD neurons, Ang-(1-7) could promote cell viability; reduce cell apoptosis; reduce the cell membrane localisation of Mas; upregulate the expression levels of pAKT, bcl-2 and I-κB; and downregulate the expression levels of Bax, pI-κB, tumour necrosis factor alpha and interleukin-1β. TAT-MAS9C could enhance the aforementioned effects of Ang-(1-7). However, the PSD95 overexpression inhibited the aforementioned effects of Ang-(1-7). In the MCAO rat model, the 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining showed that Ang-(1-7) reduced the infarct volume. The Morris water maze test showed that the number of crossings over the platform area in the Ang-(1-7) group was significantly increased. TAT-MAS9C could promote the protective effect of Ang-(1-7).

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggested that PSD95 alleviated the activation of AKT and the inhibition of nuclear factor kappa B signalling pathway mediated by the Ang-(1-7)-Mas complex, thereby reducing neuronal activity, increasing apoptosis and inhibiting the Ang-(1-7)-Mas-mediated cerebral ischaemia protection.

CRF-R1 Antagonist Treatment Exacerbates Circadian Corticosterone Secretion under Chronic Stress, but Preserves HPA Feedback Sensitivity

Despite promising initial reports, corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type-1 (CRF-R1) antagonists have mostly failed to display efficacy in clinical trials for anxiety or depression. Rather than broad-spectrum antidepressant/anxiolytic-like drugs, they may represent an ‘antistress’ solution for single stressful situations or for patients with chronic stress conditions. However, the impact of prolonged CRF-R1 antagonist treatments on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis under chronic stress conditions remained to be characterized. Hence, our study investigated whether a chronic CRF-R1 antagonist (crinecerfont, formerly known as SSR125543, 20 mg·kg⁻¹·day⁻¹ ip, 5 weeks) would alter HPA axis basal circadian activity and negative feedback sensitivity in mice exposed to either control or chronic stress conditions (unpredictable chronic mild stress, UCMS, 7 weeks), through measures of fecal corticosterone metabolites, plasma corticosterone, and dexamethasone suppression test. Despite preserving HPA axis parameters in control non-stressed mice, the 5-week crinercerfont treatment improved the negative feedback sensitivity in chronically stressed mice, but paradoxically exacerbated their basal corticosterone secretion nearly all along the circadian cycle. The capacity of chronic CRF-R1 antagonists to improve the HPA negative feedback in UCMS argues in favor of a potential therapeutic benefit against stress-related conditions. However, the treatment-related overactivation of HPA circadian activity in UCMS raise questions about possible physiological outcomes with long-standing treatments under ongoing chronic stress.

Differential sensitivity of alcohol drinking and partner preference to a CRFR1 antagonist in prairie voles and mice

Available pharmacotherapies to treat alcohol use disorder (AUD) show limited efficacy. Preclinical studies in mice and rats suggested that antagonists of the corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1 (CRFR1) could be more efficacious for such treatment. However, clinical trials with CRFR1 antagonists were not successful. While a number of potential explanations for this translational failure have been suggested, we hypothesized that the lack of success in clinical trials could be in part due to different neuroanatomical organization of the CRFR1 system in mice and rats versus humans. The CRF system in prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster), a socially monogamous rodent species, also shows differences in organization from mice and rats. To test our hypothesis, we compared the efficacy of a potent CRFR1 antagonist, CP-376,395, to modulate alcohol drinking in male and female prairie voles versus male and female C57BL/6J mice using an almost identical 2-bottle choice drinking procedure. CP-376,375 (10 and 20 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly decreased alcohol intake (but not alcohol preference) in mice, but not prairie voles. Furthermore, administration of this antagonist (20 mg/kg, i.p.) prior to the partner preference test (PPT) decreased partner preference (PP) in male prairie voles. These findings support our hypothesis that the greater efficacy of CRFR1 antagonists to suppress alcohol consumption in mice and rats versus other mammalian species could be due to the differences in organization of the CRFR1 system between species. They further indicate that activity of the CRFR1 system is necessary for the formation of pair-bonds, but not consumption of high doses of alcohol. Overall, we suggest that testing potential pharmacotherapies should not rely only on studies in mice and rats.

Regulation of G protein-coupled receptor signaling by plasma membrane organization and endocytosis

The trafficking of G protein coupled-receptors (GPCRs) is one of the most exciting areas in cell biology because of recent advances demonstrating that GPCR signaling is spatially encoded. GPCRs, acting in a diverse array of physiological systems, can have differential signaling consequences depending on their subcellular localization. At the plasma membrane, GPCR organization could fine-tune the initial stages of receptor signaling by determining the magnitude of signaling and the type of effectors to which receptors can couple. This organization is mediated by the lipid composition of the plasma membrane, receptor-receptor interactions, and receptor interactions with intracellular scaffolding proteins. GPCR organization is subsequently changed by ligand binding and the regulated endocytosis of these receptors. Activated GPCRs can modulate the dynamics of their own endocytosis through changing clathrin-coated pit dynamics, and through the scaffolding adaptor protein β-arrestin. This endocytic regulation has signaling consequences, predominantly through modulation of the MAPK cascade. This review explores what is known about receptor sorting at the plasma membrane, protein partners that control receptor endocytosis, and the ways in which receptor sorting at the plasma membrane regulates downstream trafficking and signaling.

CRF1 Receptor Signaling via the ERK1/2-MAP and Akt Kinase Cascades: Roles of Src, EGF Receptor, and PI3-Kinase Mechanisms

In the present study, we determined the cellular regulators of ERK1/2 and Akt signaling pathways in response to human CRF₁ receptor (CRF₁R) activation in transfected COS-7 cells. We found that Pertussis Toxin (PTX) treatment or sequestering Gβγ reduced CRF₁R-mediated activation of ERK1/2, suggesting the involvement of a G_i-linked cascade. Neither G_s/PKA nor G_q/PKC were associated with ERK1/2 activation. Besides, CRF induced EGF receptor (EGFR) phosphorylation at Tyr¹⁰⁶⁸, and selective inhibition of EGFR kinase activity by AG1478 strongly inhibited the CRF₁R-mediated phosphorylation of ERK1/2, indicating the participation of EGFR transactivation. Furthermore, CRF-induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation was not altered by pretreatment with batimastat, GM6001, or an HB-EGF antibody indicating that metalloproteinase processing of HB-EGF ligands is not required for the CRF-mediated EGFR transactivation. We also observed that CRF induced Src and PYK2 phosphorylation in a Gβγ-dependent manner. Additionally, using the specific Src kinase inhibitor PP2 and the dominant-negative-SrcYF-KM, it was revealed that CRF-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation depends on Src activation. PP2 also blocked the effect of CRF on Src and EGFR (Tyr⁸⁴⁵) phosphorylation, further demonstrating the centrality of Src. We identified the formation of a protein complex consisting of CRF₁R, Src, and EGFR facilitates EGFR transactivation and CRF₁R-mediated signaling. CRF stimulated Akt phosphorylation, which was dependent on G_i/βγ subunits, and Src activation, however, was only slightly dependent on EGFR transactivation. Moreover, PI3K inhibitors were able to inhibit not only the CRF-induced phosphorylation of Akt, as expected, but also ERK1/2 activation by CRF suggesting a PI3K dependency in the CRF₁R ERK signaling. Finally, CRF-stimulated ERK1/2 activation was similar in the wild-type CRF₁R and the phosphorylation-deficient CRF₁R-Δ386 mutant, which has impaired agonist-dependent β-arrestin-2 recruitment; however, this situation may have resulted from the low β-arrestin expression in the COS-7 cells. When β-arrestin-2 was overexpressed in COS-7 cells, CRF-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation was markedly upregulated. These findings indicate that on the base of a constitutive CRF₁R/EGFR interaction, the G_i/βγ subunits upstream activation of Src, PYK2, PI3K, and transactivation of the EGFR are required for CRF₁R signaling via the ERK1/2-MAP kinase pathway. In contrast, Akt activation via CRF₁R is mediated by the Src/PI3K pathway with little contribution of EGFR transactivation.

The Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Family: Physiology of the Stress Response

The physiological stress response is responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis in the presence of real or perceived challenges. In this function, the brain activates adaptive responses that involve numerous neural circuits and effector molecules to adapt to the current and future demands. A maladaptive stress response has been linked to the etiology of a variety of disorders, such as anxiety and mood disorders, eating disorders, and the metabolic syndrome. The neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and its relatives, the urocortins 1–3, in concert with their receptors (CRFR1, CRFR2), have emerged as central components of the physiological stress response. This central peptidergic system impinges on a broad spectrum of physiological processes that are the basis for successful adaptation and concomitantly integrate autonomic, neuroendocrine, and behavioral stress responses. This review focuses on the physiology of CRF-related peptides and their cognate receptors with the aim of providing a comprehensive up-to-date overview of the field. We describe the major molecular features covering aspects of gene expression and regulation, structural properties, and molecular interactions, as well as mechanisms of signal transduction and their surveillance. In addition, we discuss the large body of published experimental studies focusing on state-of-the-art genetic approaches with high temporal and spatial precision, which collectively aimed to dissect the contribution of CRF-related ligands and receptors to different levels of the stress response. We discuss the controversies in the field and unravel knowledge gaps that might pave the way for future research directions and open up novel opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

MAGI proteins can differentially regulate the signaling pathways of 5-HT2AR by enhancing receptor trafficking and PLC recruitment

MAGI proteins are Membrane-Associated Guanylate Kinase Inverted proteins that belong to the MAGUK family. They are scaffolding proteins that were shown to mediate the trafficking and signaling of various G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). They contain PDZ domains in their structure and many GPCRs interact with these proteins via the PDZ motifs on the carboxyl terminal end of a receptor. In a PDZ overlay assay performed with the carboxyl terminal tail of 5-HT_2AR, we were able to detect all three members of the MAGI subfamily, MAGI-1, MAGI-2 and MAGI-3 as interacting PDZ proteins. The PDZ motif of 5-HT_2AR consists of three amino acids; serine (S), cysteine (C) and valine (V). In this study, we characterize these 5-HT_2AR interactions with MAGI proteins. We first confirm the interaction using co-immunopricipitation and illustrate that the interaction is PDZ motif-dependent in human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells. We then assess the effects of overexpression and knockdown of the MAGI proteins on the internalization, trafficking and signaling of 5-HT_2AR. We find that knockdown of either MAGI-1 or MAGI-3 using siRNA results in a significant reduction in the internalization of 5-HT_2AR. As for signaling, we report here that MAGI proteins can modulate the signaling via the two transduction pathways that 5-HT_2AR can activate. We illustrate a significant effect of modulating MAGI proteins expression on 5-HT-stimulated IP formation. We demonstrate an enhancement in 5-HT_2AR-stimulated IP formation upon MAGI proteins overexpression. In addition, we show that knockdown of MAGI proteins with siRNA leads to a significant reduction in 5-HT_2AR-stimulated IP formation. Furthermore, we illustrate a significant increase in 5-HT-stimulated ERK1/2 phosphorylation upon MAGI proteins knockdown. Interestingly, this effect on ERK1/2 activation is PDZ motif-independent. We also suggest two possible mechanisms of regulation for the effect of MAGI proteins on 5-HT_2AR function. One mechanism involves the regulation of cell surface expression since we show that both MAGI-2 and MAGI-3 can enhance receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane when overexpressed in HEK 293 cells. The other mechanism points to regulation of second messengers in the signaling pathways. Specifically, we show that overexpression of any of the three MAGI proteins can enhance the recruitment of PLCβ3 to 5-HT_2AR. In addition, we report a negative effect for knocking down MAGI-3 on β-arrestin recruitment to the receptor and this effect is PDZ motif-independent. Taken together, our findings document distinct roles for the three MAGI proteins in regulating 5-HT_2AR trafficking and signaling and emphasize the importance of studying PDZ proteins and their interactions with GPCRs to regulate their function.

Endocrinology and the brain: corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a key player of basal and stress-activated responses in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) and in extrahypothalamic circuits, where it functions as a neuromodulator to orchestrate humoral and behavioral adaptive responses to stress. This review describes molecular components and cellular mechanisms involved in CRH signaling downstream of its G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) CRHR1 and CRHR2 and summarizes recent findings that challenge the classical view of GPCR signaling and impact on our understanding of CRHRs function. Special emphasis is placed on recent studies of CRH signaling that revealed new mechanistic aspects of cAMP generation and ERK1/2 activation in physiologically relevant contexts of the neurohormone action. In addition, we present an overview of the pathophysiological role of the CRH system, which highlights the need for a precise definition of CRHRs signaling at molecular level to identify novel targets for pharmacological intervention in neuroendocrine tissues and specific brain areas involved in CRH-related disorders.

β-arrestin signalling and bias in hormone-responsive GPCRs

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) play crucial roles in the ability of target organs to respond to hormonal cues. GPCRs' activation mechanisms have long been considered as a two-state process connecting the agonist-bound receptor to heterotrimeric G proteins. This view is now challenged as mounting evidence point to GPCRs being connected to large arrays of transduction mechanisms involving heterotrimeric G proteins as well as other players. Amongst the G protein-independent transduction mechanisms, those elicited by β-arrestins upon their recruitment to the active receptors are by far the best characterized and apply to most GPCRs. These concepts, in conjunction with remarkable advances made in the field of GPCR structural biology and biophysics, have supported the notion of ligand-selective signalling also known as pharmacological bias. Interestingly, recent reports have opened intriguing prospects to the way β-arrestins control GPCR-mediated signalling in space and time within the cells. In the present paper, we review the existing evidence linking endocrine-related GPCRs to β-arrestin recruitement, signalling, pathophysiological implications and selective activation by biased ligands and/or receptor modifications. Emerging concepts surrounding β-arrestin-mediated transduction are discussed in the light of the peculiarities of endocrine systems.

Don't stress about CRF: assessing the translational failures of CRF1antagonists

BACKGROUND

Dr. Athina Markou sought treatments for a common neural substrate shared by depression and drug dependence. Antagonists of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptors, a target of interest to her, have not reached the clinic despite strong preclinical rationale and sustained translational efforts.

METHODS

We explore potential causes for the failure of CRF1 antagonists and review recent findings concerning CRF-CRF1 systems in psychopathology.

RESULTS

Potential causes for negative outcomes include (1) poor safety and efficacy of initial drug candidates due to bad pharmacokinetic and physicochemical properties, (2) specificity problems with preclinical screens, (3) the acute nature of screens vs. late-presenting patients, (4) positive preclinical results limited to certain models and conditions with dynamic CRF-CRF1 activation not homologous to tested patients, (5) repeated CRF1 activation-induced plasticity that reduces the importance of ongoing CRF1 agonist stimulation, and (6) therapeutic silencing which may need to address CRF2 receptor or CRF-binding protein molecules, constitutive CRF1 activity, or molecules that influence agonist-independent activity or to target structural regions other than the allosteric site bound by all drug candidates. We describe potential markers of activation towards individualized treatment, human genetic, and functional data that still implicate CRF1 systems in emotional disturbance, sex differences, and suggestive clinical findings for CRF1 antagonists in food craving and CRF-driven HPA-axis overactivation.

CONCLUSION

The therapeutic scope of selective CRF1 antagonists now appears narrower than had been hoped. Yet, much remains to be learned about CRF's role in the neurobiology of dysphoria and addiction and the potential for novel anti-CRF therapies therein.

Sequence-Specific Regulation of Endocytic Lifetimes Modulates Arrestin-Mediated Signaling at the µ Opioid Receptor

Functional selectivity at the µ opioid receptor (µR), a prototypical G-protein-coupled receptor that is a physiologically relevant target for endogenous opioid neurotransmitters and analgesics, has been a major focus for drug discovery in the recent past. Functional selectivity is a cumulative effect of the magnitudes of individual signaling pathways, e.g., the Gαi-mediated and the arrestin-mediated pathways for µR. The present work tested the hypothesis that lifetimes of agonist-induced receptor-arrestin clusters at the cell surface control the magnitude of arrestin signaling, and therefore functional selectivity, at µR. We show that endomorphin-2 (EM2), an arrestin-biased ligand for µR, lengthens surface lifetimes of receptor-arrestin clusters significantly compared with morphine. The lengthening of lifetimes required two specific leucines on the C-terminal tail of µR. Mutation of these leucines to alanines decreased the magnitude of arrestin-mediated signaling by EM2 without affecting G-protein signaling, suggesting that lengthened endocytic lifetimes were required for arrestin-biased signaling by EM2. Lengthening surface lifetimes by pharmacologically slowing endocytosis was sufficient to increase arrestin-mediated signaling by both EM2 and the clinically relevant agonist morphine. Our findings show that distinct ligands can leverage specific sequence elements on µR to regulate receptor endocytic lifetimes and the magnitude of arrestin-mediated signaling, and implicate these sequences as important determinants of functional selectivity in the opioid system.

MAGI Proteins Regulate the Trafficking and Signaling of Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptor 1 via a Compensatory Mechanism

Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor1 (CRFR1) is associated with psychiatric illness and is a proposed target for the treatment of anxiety and depression. Similar to many G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), CRFR1 harbors a PDZ (PSD-95/Disc Large/Zona Occludens)-binding motif at the end of its carboxyl-terminal tail. The interactions of PDZ proteins with GPCRs are crucial for the regulation of receptor function. In the present study, we characterize the interaction of all members of the membrane-associated guanylate kinase with inverted orientation PDZ (MAGI) proteins with CRFR1. We show using co-immunoprecipitation that CRFR1 interacts with MAGI-1 and MAGI-3 in human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells in a PDZ motif-dependent manner. We find that overexpression as well as knockdown of MAGI proteins result in a significant reduction in CRFR1 endocytosis. This effect is dependent on an intact PDZ binding motif for MAGI-2 and MAGI-3 but not MAGI-1. We show that the alteration in expression levels of MAGI-1, MAGI-2 or MAGI-3 can interfere with β-arrestin recruitment to CRFR1. This could explain the effects observed with receptor internalization. We also find that knockdown of endogenous MAGI-1, MAGI-2 or MAGI-3 in HEK293 cells can lead to an enhancement in ERK1/2 signaling but has no effect on cAMP formation. Interestingly, we observe a compensation effect between MAGI-1 and MAGI-3. Taken together, our data suggest that the MAGI proteins, MAGI-1, MAGI-2 and MAGI-3 can regulate β-arrestin-mediated internalization of CRFR1 as well as its signaling and that there is a compensatory mechanism involved in regulating the function of the MAGI subfamily.

Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Receptors and Their Interacting Proteins: Functional Consequences

The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system, which is involved in stress, addiction, and anxiety disorders such as depression, acts through G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) known as type-1 and type-2 CRF receptors. The purpose of this review is to highlight recent advances in the interactions of CRF receptors with other GPCRs and non-GPCR proteins and their associated functional consequences. A better understanding of these interactions may generate new pharmacological alternatives for the treatment of addiction and stress-related disorders.

The CRF System as a Therapeutic Target for Neuropsychiatric Disorders

The major neuropsychiatric disorders are devastating illnesses that are only modestly responsive to treatment. Improving the treatment of these conditions will require innovative new strategies that depart from previously focused-on pharmacological mechanisms. Considerable preclinical and clinical data indicate corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling as a target for new psychotropic drug development. Here we review alterations in the CRF system reported in several psychiatric conditions. We also examine the preclinical work that has dissected the distinctive roles of CRF receptors in specific circuits relevant to these disorders. We further describe the clinical trials of CRF1 receptor antagonists that have been conducted. Although these clinical trials have thus far met with limited therapeutic success, the unfolding complexity of the CRF system promises many future directions for studying its role in the etiology and treatment of neuropsychiatric conditions.

Region-specific roles of the corticotropin-releasing factor-urocortin system in stress

Dysregulation of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-urocortin (UCN) system has been implicated in stress-related psychopathologies such as depression and anxiety. It has been proposed that CRF-CRF receptor type 1 (CRFR1) signalling promotes the stress response and anxiety-like behaviour, whereas UCNs and CRFR2 activation mediate stress recovery and the restoration of homeostasis. Recent findings, however, provide clear evidence that this view is overly simplistic. Instead, a more complex picture has emerged that suggests that there are brain region- and cell type-specific effects of CRFR signalling that are influenced by the individual's prior experience and that shape molecular, cellular and ultimately behavioural responses to stressful challenges.