Bio-reduction of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) using a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor

Enhanced removal of diclofenac via coupling Pd catalytic and microbial processes in a H2-based membrane biofilm reactor: Performance, mechanism and biofilm microbial ecology

Diclofenac (DCF) is a most widely used anti-inflammatory drug, which has attracted worldwide attention given its low biodegradability and ecological damage, especially toxic effects on mammals including humans. In this study, a H₂-based membrane biofilm reactor (H₂-MBfR) was constructed with well-dispersed Pd nanoparticles generated in situ. The Pd-MBfR was applied for catalytic reductive dechlorination of DCF. In batch tests, DCF concentration had significantly effect on the rate and extent DCF removal, and NO₃^- had negative impact on DCF reductive dechlorination. Over 67% removal of 0.5 mg/L DCF and 99% removal of 10 mg/L NO₃^--N were achieved in 90 min, and the highest removal of 97% was obtained at 0.5 mg/L DCF in the absence of NO₃^-. Over 78 days of continuous operation, the highest steady-state removal flux of DCF was 0.0097 g/m²/d. LC-MS analysis indicated that the major product was 2-anilinephenylacetic acid (APA). Dechlorination was the main removal process of DCF mainly owing to the catalytic reduction by PdNPs, microbial reduction, and the synergistic reduction of microbial and PdNPs catalysis using direct delivery of H₂. Moreover, DCF reductive Dechlorination shifted the microbial community in the biofilms and Sporomusa was responsible for DCF degradation. In summary, this work expands a remarkable feasibility of sustainable catalytic removal of DCF.

Highly effective electrocatalytic reduction of N-nitrosodimethylamine on Ru/CNT catalyst

N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a commonly identified carcinogenic and genotoxic pollutant in water. In this study, we prepared Ru catalysts supported on carbon nanotube (Ru/CNT) and studied the electrocatalytic reduction of N-nitrosamines on Ru/CNT electrode in a three-electrode system. The results show that Ru-based catalyst exhibits a high activity of 793.3 μmol L^-1 gCat^-1 h^-1 for electrochemical reduction of NDMA. Reaction mechanism study discloses that the electrocatalytic reduction of NDMA is accomplished by both direct electron reduction and atomic H* mediated indirect reduction pathways. Further product analysis indicates that NDMA is finally reduced to dimethylamine (DMA) and ammonia. The reduction efficiency of NDMA strongly relies on cathode potential, initial NDMA concentration and solution pH. To verify the universality of Ru/CNT electrode, electrocatalytic reduction of three dialkyl N-nitrosamines with different alkyl groups was performed and Ru catalyst has high catalytic activities for the three N-nitrosamines, while the catalytic efficiency differs with their structures. Simultaneous electrochemical reduction of the three N-nitrosamines indicates that the reduction rates of N-nitrosamines follow the same order in the multiple-component system as that in the single-component system. Catalyst recycling results demonstrate that after 5 consecutive recycling runs Ru/CNT electrode remains almost identical catalytic activity to the fresh catalyst, manifesting the high catalytic stability of Ru/CNT electrode.

Recent advances in membrane biofilm reactor for micropollutants removal: Fundamentals, performance and microbial communities

The occurrence of micropollutants (MPs) in water and wastewater imposes potential risks on ecological security and human health. Membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR), as an emerging technology, has attracted much attention for MPs removal from water and wastewater. The review aims to consolidate the recent advances in membrane biofilm reactor for MPs removal from the standpoint of fundamentals, removal performance and microbial communities. First, the configuration and working principles of MBfRs are reviewed prior to the discussion of the current status of the system. Thereafter, a comprehensive review of the MBfR performance for MPs elimination based on literature database is presented. Key information on the microbial communities that are of great significance for the removal performance is then synthesized. Perspectives on the future research needs are also provided in this review to ensure the development of MBfRs for more cost-effective elimination of MPs from water and wastewater.

Insights into selenate removal mechanism of hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor for nitrate-polluted groundwater treatment based on anaerobic biofilm analysis

The selenate removal mechanism of hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) for nitrate-polluted groundwater treatment was studied based on anaerobic biofilm analysis. A laboratory-scale MBfR was operated for over 60 days with electron balance, structural analysis, and bacterial community identification. Results showed that anaerobic biofilm had an excellent removal of both selenate (95%) and nitrate (100%). Reduction of Selenate → Selenite → Se⁰ with hydrogen was the main pathway of anaerobic biofilm for selenate removal with amorphous Se⁰ precipitate accumulating in the biofilm. The element selenium was observed to be evenly distributed along the cross-sectional thin biofilm. A part of selenate (3%) was also reduced into methyl-selenide by heterotrophic bacteria. Additionally, Hydrogenophaga bacteria of β-Proteobacteria, capable of both nitrate and selenate removal, worked as the dominant species (over 85%) in the biofilm and contributed to the stable removal of both nitrate and selenate. With the selenate input, bacteria with a capacity for both selenate and nitrate removal were also developed in the anaerobic biofilm community.

Dynamic response of biofilm microbial ecology to para-chloronitrobenzene biodegradation in a hydrogen-based, denitrifying and sulfate-reducing membrane biofilm reactor

The dynamic response of biofilm microbial ecology to para-chloronitrobenzene (p-CNB) biodegradation was systematically evaluated according to the composition and loading of electron acceptors and H₂ availability (controlled by H₂ pressure) in a hydrogen-based, denitrifying and sulfate-reducing membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR). To accomplish this, a laboratory-scale MBfR was set up and operated with different influent p-CNB concentrations (0, 2, and 5 mg p-CNB/L) and H₂ pressures (0.04 and 0.05 MPa). Polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) and cloning were then applied to investigate the bacterial diversity response of biofilm during p-CNB biodegradation. The results showed that denitrification and sulfate reduction largely controlled the total demand for H₂. Additionally, the DGGE fingerprint demonstrated that the addition of p-CNB, which acted as an electron acceptor, was a critical factor in the dynamics of the MBfR biofilm microbial ecology. The presence of p-CNB also had a more advantageous effect on the biofilm microbial community. Additionally, clone library analysis showed that Proteobacteria (especially beta- and gamma-) comprised the majority of the microbial biofilm response to p-CNB biodegradation, and that Pseudomonas sp. (Gammaproteobacteria) played a significant role in the biotransformation of p-CNB to aniline.

Effects of sulfate on simultaneous nitrate and selenate removal in a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor for groundwater treatment: Performance and biofilm microbial ecology

Effects of sulfate on simultaneous nitrate and selenate removal in a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) for groundwater treatment was identified with performance and biofilm microbial ecology. In whole operation, MBfR had almost 100% removal of nitration even with 50 mg mL^-1 sulfate. Moreover, selenate degradation increased from 95% to approximate 100% with sulfate addition, indicating that sulfate had no obvious effects on nitrate degradation, and even partly promoted selenate removal. Short-term sulfate effect experiment further showed that Gibbs free energy of reduction (majority) and abiotic sulfide oxidation (especially between sulfate and selenate) contributed to degradable performance with sulfate. Microbial ecology showed that high percentage of Hydrogenophaga (≥75%) was one of the contributors for the stable and efficient nitrate degradation. Chemoheterotrophy (ratio>0.3) and dark hydrogen oxidation (ratio>0.3) were the majority of functional profile for biofilm in MBfR, and sulfate led to profiles of sulfate respiration and respiration of sulfur compounds in biofilm. Additionally, no special bacteria for selenate degradation was identified in biofilm microbial ecology, and selenate degradation was relied on Hydrogenophaga (75% of ecology percentage with sulfate addition) and Desulfovibrionaceae (4% of ecology percentage with sulfate addition). But with overloading sulfate, Desulfovibrionaceae was prior to sulfate degradation for energy supply and thus inhibited selenate removal.

Biofilms, active substrata, and me

Having worked with biofilms since the 1970s, I know that they are ubiquitous in nature, of great value in water technology, and scientifically fascinating. Biofilms are naturally able to remove BOD, transform N, generate methane, and biodegrade micropollutants. What I also discovered is that biofilms can do a lot more for us in terms of providing environmental services if we give them a bit of help. Here, I explore how we can use active substrata to enable our biofilm partners to provide particularly challenging environmental services. In particular, I delve into three examples in which an active substratum makes it possible for a biofilm to accomplish a task that otherwise seems impossible. The first example is the delivery of hydrogen gas (H₂) as an electron donor to drive the reduction and detoxification of the rising number of oxidized contaminant: e.g., perchlorate, selenate, chromate, chlorinated solvents, and more. The active substratum is a gas-transfer membrane that delivers H₂ directly to the biofilm in a membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR), which makes it possible to deliver a low-solubility gaseous substrate with 100% efficiency. The second example is the biofilm anode of a microbial electrochemical cell (MxC). Here, the anode is the electron acceptor for anode-respiring bacteria, which "liberate" electrons from organic compounds and send them ultimately to a cathode, where we can harvest valuable products or services. The anode's potential is a sensitive tool for managing the microbial ecology and reaction kinetics of the biofilm anode. The third example is intimately coupled photobiocatalysis (ICPB), in which we use photocatalysis to enable the biodegradation of intrinsically recalcitrant organic pollutants. Photocatalysis transforms the recalcitrant organics just enough so that the products are rapidly biodegradable substrates for bacteria in a nearby biofilm. The macroporous substratum, which houses the photocatalyst on its exterior, actively provides donor substrate and protects the biofilm from UV light and free radicals in its interior. These three well-developed topics illustrate how and why an active substratum expands the scope of what biofilms can do to enhance water sustainability.

Biological treatment of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrodimethylamine (NTDMA) in a field-scale fluidized bed bioreactor

The ex situ treatment of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) and N-nitrodimethylamine (NTDMA) in groundwater was evaluated in a field-scale fluidized bed bioreactor (FBR). Both of these compounds, which originally entered groundwater at the test site from the use of liquid rocket propellant, are suspected human carcinogens. The objective of this research was to examine the application of a novel field-scale propane-fed fluidized bed bioreactor as an alternative to ultraviolet irradiation (UV) for treating NDMA and NTDMA to low part-per-trillion (ng/L) concentrations. Previous laboratory studies have shown that the bacterium Rhodococcus ruber ENV425 can biodegrade NDMA and NTDMA during growth on propane as a primary substrate and that the strain can effectively reduce NDMA concentrations in propane-fed bench-scale bioreactors of different design. R. ruber ENV425 was used as a seed culture for the FBR, which operated at a fluidization flow of ∼19 L-per-min (LPM) and received propane, oxygen, and inorganic nutrients in the feed. The reactor effectively treated ∼1 μg/L of influent NDMA to effluent concentrations of less than 10 ng/L at a hydraulic residence time (HRT) of only 10 min. At a 20 min HRT, the FBR reduced NDMA to <4.2 ng/L in the effluent, which was the discharge limit at the test site where the study was conducted. Similarly, NTDMA was consistently treated in the FBR from ∼0.5 μg/L to <10 ng/L at an HRT of 10 min or longer. Based on these removal rates, the average NDMA and NTDMA elimination capacities achieved were 2.1 mg NDMA treated/m³ of expanded bed/hr of operation and 1.1 mg NTDMA treated/m³ of expanded bed/hr of operation, respectively. The FBR system was highly resilient to upsets including power outages. Treatment of NDMA, but not NTDMA, was marginally affected when trace co-contaminants including trichloroethene (TCE) and trichlorofluoromethane (Freon 11) were initially added to feed groundwater, but performance recovered over a few weeks in the continued presence of these compounds. Strain ENV425 appeared to be replaced by native propanotrophs over time based on qPCR analysis, but contaminant treatment was not diminished. The results suggest that a FBR can be a viable alternative to UV treatment for removing NDMA from groundwater.

Community Analysis and Recovery of Phenol-degrading Bacteria from Drinking Water Biofilters

Phenol is a ubiquitous organic contaminant in drinking water. Biodegradation plays an important role in the elimination of phenol pollution in the environment, but the information about phenol removal by drinking water biofilters is still lacking. Herein, we study an acclimated bacterial community that can degrade over 80% of 300 mg/L phenol within 3 days. PCR detection of genotypes involved in bacterial phenol degradation revealed that the degradation pathways contained the initial oxidative attack by phenol hydroxylase, and subsequent ring fission by catechol 1,2-dioxygenase. Based on the PCR denatured gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) profiles of bacteria from biological activated carbon (BAC), the predominant bacteria in drinking water biofilters including Delftia sp., Achromobacter sp., and Agrobacterium sp., which together comprised up to 50% of the total microorganisms. In addition, a shift in bacterial community structure was observed during phenol biodegradation. Furthermore, the most effective phenol-degrading strain DW-1 that correspond to the main band in denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) profile was isolated and identified as Acinetobacter sp., according to phylogenetic analyses of the 16S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene sequences. The strain DW-1 also produced the most important enzyme, phenol hydroxylase, and it also exhibited a good ability to degrade phenol when immobilized on granular active carbon (GAC). This study indicates that the enrichment culture has great potential application for treatment of phenol-polluted drinking water sources, and the indigenous phenol-degrading microorganism could recover from drinking water biofilters as an efficient resource for phenol removal. Therefore, the aim of this study is to draw attention to recover native phenol-degrading bacteria from drinking water biofilters, and use these native microorganisms as phenolic water remediation in drinking water sources.

Utilizing a one-dimensional multispecies model to simulate the nutrient reduction and biomass structure in two types of H2-based membrane-aeration biofilm reactors (H2-MBfR): model development and parametric analysis

In this study, a one-dimensional multispecies model (ODMSM) was utilized to simulate NO3(-)-N and ClO4(-) reduction performances in two kinds of H2-based membrane-aeration biofilm reactors (H2-MBfR) within different operating conditions (e.g., NO3(-)-N/ClO4(-) loading rates, H2 partial pressure, etc.). Before the simulation process, we conducted the sensitivity analysis of some key parameters which would fluctuate in different environmental conditions, then we used the experimental data to calibrate the more sensitive parameters μ1 and μ2 (maximum specific growth rates of denitrification bacteria and perchlorate reduction bacteria) in two H2-MBfRs, and the diversity of the two key parameters' values in two types of reactors may be resulted from the different carbon source fed in the reactors. From the simulation results of six different operating conditions (four in H2-MBfR 1 and two in H2-MBfR 2), the applicability of the model was approved, and the variation of the removal tendency in different operating conditions could be well simulated. Besides, the rationality of operating parameters (H2 partial pressure, etc.) could be judged especially in condition of high nutrients' loading rates. To a certain degree, the model could provide theoretical guidance to determine the operating parameters on some specific conditions in practical application.

Characterization of the microbial community structure and nitrosamine-reducing isolates in drinking water biofilters

Two biofilters were constructed using biological activated carbon (BAC) and nitrosamine-containing water from two drinking water treatment plants. The microbiome of each biofilter was characterized by 454 high-throughput pyrosequencing, and one nitrosamine-reducing bacterium was isolated. The results showed that nitrosamines changed the relative abundance at both the phylum and class levels, and the new genera were observed in the microbial communities of the two BAC filters after cultivation. As such, the genus Rhodococcus, which includes many nitrosamine-reducing strains reported in previous studies, was only detected in the BAC2 filter after cultivation. These findings indicate that nitrosamines can significantly affect the genus level in the microbial communities. Furthermore, the isolated bacterial culture Rhodococcus cercidiphylli A41 AS-1 exhibited the ability to reduce five nitrosamines (N-nitrosodimethylamine, N-nitrosodiethylamine, N-nitrosodi-n-propylamine, N-nitrosopyrrolidine, and N-nitrosodi-n-butylamine) with removal ratios that ranged from 38.1% to 85.4%. The isolate exhibited a better biodegradation ability with nitrosamine as the carbon source when compared with nitrosamine as the nitrogen source. This study increases our understanding of the microbial community in drinking water biofilters with trace quantities of nitrosamines, and provides information on the metabolism of nitrosamine-reducing bacteria.

Uranium removal and microbial community in a H2-based membrane biofilm reactor

We evaluated a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) for its capacity to reduce and remove hexavalent uranium [U(VI)] from water. After a startup period that allowed slow-growing U(VI) reducers to form biofilms, the MBfR successfully achieved and maintained 94-95% U(VI) removal over 8 months when the U surface loading was 6-11 e(-) mEq/m(2)-day. The MBfR biofilm was capable of self-recovery after a disturbance due to oxygen exposure. Nanocrystalline UO2 aggregates and amorphous U precipitates were associated with vegetative cells and apparently mature spores that accumulated in the biofilm matrix. Despite inoculation with a concentrated suspension of Desulfovibrio vulgaris, this bacterium was not present in the U(VI)-reducing biofilm. Instead, the most abundant group in the biofilm community contained U(VI) reducers in the Rhodocyclaceae family when U(VI) was the only electron acceptor. When sulfate was present, the community dramatically shifted to the Clostridiaceae family, which included spores that were potentially involved in U(VI) reduction.

Biotransformation of nitrosamines and precursor secondary amines under methanogenic conditions

The biotransformation potential of six nitrosamines and their precursor secondary amines by a mixed methanogenic culture was investigated. Among the six nitrosamines tested, N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), N-nitrosomethylethylamine (NMEA), and N-nitrosopyrrolidine (NPYR) were almost completely degraded but only when degradable electron donors were available. On the contrary, N-nitrosodiethylamine (NDEA), N-nitrosodipropylamine (NDPA), and N-nitrosodibutylamine (NDBA) were not degraded. Three precursor secondary amines, corresponding to the three biodegradable nitrosamines, were also completely utilized even with very low levels of available electron donors. The secondary amine precursors of the three, nonbiodegradable nitrosamines were also recalcitrant. A bioassay conducted to elucidate the biotransformation pathway of NDMA in the mixed methanogenic culture using H(2) as the electron donor showed that NDMA was utilized as an electron acceptor and transformed to dimethylamine (DMA), which in turn was degraded to ammonia and methane. The H(2) threshold concentration for NDMA bioreduction ranged between 0.0017 and 0.031 atm. Such a high H(2) threshold concentration suggests that in mixed methanogenic cultures, NDMA reducers are weak competitors to other, H(2)-consuming microbial species, such as homoacetogens and methanogens. Thus, complete removal of nitrosamines in anaerobic digestion systems, where the H(2) partial pressure is typically below 10(-4) atm, is difficult to achieve.

Bioreduction of para-chloronitrobenzene in drinking water using a continuous stirred hydrogen-based hollow fiber membrane biofilm reactor

para-Chloronitrobenzene (p-CNB) is particularly harmful and persistent in the environment and is one of the priority pollutants. A feasible degradation pathway for p-CNB is bioreduction under anaerobic conditions. Bioreduction of p-CNB using a hydrogen-based hollow fiber membrane biofilm reactor (HFMBfR) was investigated in the present study. The experiment results revealed that p-CNB was firstly reduced to para-chloraniline (p-CAN) as an intermediate and then reduced to aniline that involves nitro reduction and reductive dechlorination with H(2) as the electron donor. The HFMBfR had reduced p-CNB to a major extent with a maximum removal percentage of 99.3% at an influent p-CNB concentration of 2mg/L and a hydraulic residence time of 4.8h, which corresponded to a p-CNB flux of 0.058g/m(2) d. The H(2) availability, p-CNB loading, and the presence of competing electron acceptors affected the p-CNB reduction. Flux analysis indicated that the reduction of p-CNB and p-CAN could consume fewer electrons than that of nitrate and sulfate. The HFMBfR had high average hydrogen utilization efficiencies at different steady states in this experiment, with a maximum efficiency at 98.2%.

Nitrosamines and water

This paper provides an overview of all current issues that are connected to the presence of nitrosamines in water technology. N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is the most frequently detected member of this family. Nitrosamines became the hottest topic in drinking water science when they were identified as disinfection by-products (DBPs) in chloraminated waters. The danger that they pose to consumer health seems to be much higher than that from chlorinated DBPs. This review summarizes our contemporary knowledge of these compounds in water, their occurrence, and precursors of nitrosamines in drinking and wastewaters, in addition to attempts to remove nitrosamines from water. The paper also reviews our knowledge of the mechanisms of nitrosamine formation in water technology. The current, commonly accepted mechanism of NDMA formation during chloramination of drinking waters assumes that dichloramine reacts with dimethylamine, forms unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and further oxidizes to NDMA. The question to answer is which precursors are responsible for delivering the DMA moiety for the reaction since the presence of DMA in water cannot explain the quantities of NDMA that are formed. There are also reports that other oxidants that are commonly used in water technology may generate NDMA. However, the mechanisms of such transformations are unknown. Methods for the removal of nitrosamines from water are described briefly. However, the research that has been undertaken on such methods seems to be at an early stage of development. It is predicted that photolytic methods may have the greatest potential for technological application.

Aerobic treatment of N-nitrosodimethylamine in a propane-fed membrane bioreactor

N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) is a suspected human carcinogen that has recently been detected in wastewater, groundwater and drinking water. Treatment of this compound to low part-per-trillion (ng/L) concentrations is required to mitigate cancer risk. Current treatment generally entails UV irradiation, which while effective, is also expensive. The objective of this research was to explore potential bioremediation strategies as alternatives for treating NDMA to ng/L concentrations. Batch studies revealed that the propanotroph Rhodococcus ruber ENV425 was capable of metabolizing NDMA from 8 μg/L to <2 ng/L after growth on propane, and that the strain produced metabolites that do not pose a significant risk at the concentrations generated (Fournier et al., 2009). A laboratory-scale membrane bioreactor (MBR) was subsequently constructed to evaluate the potential for long-term ex situ treatment of NDMA. The MBR was seeded with ENV425 and received propane as the primary growth substrate and oxygen as an electron acceptor. At an average influent NDMA concentration of 7.4 μg/L and a 28.5 h hydraulic residence time, the reactor effluent concentration was 3.0 ± 2.3 ng/L (>99.95% removal) over more than 70 days of operation. The addition of trichloroethene (TCE) to the reactor resulted in a significant increase in effluent NDMA concentrations, most likely due to cell toxicity from TCE-epoxide produced during its cometabolic oxidation by ENV425. The data suggest that an MBR system can be a viable treatment option for NDMA in groundwater provided that high concentrations of TCE are not present.

Efficient degradation of lube oil by a mixed bacterial consortium

A laboratory study was performed to assess the biodegradation of lube oil in bio-reactor with 304# stainless steel as a biofilm carrier. Among 164 oil degrading bacterial cultures isolated from oil contaminated soil samples, Commaonas acidovorans Pxl, Bacillus sp. Px2, Pseudomonas sp. Px3 were selected to prepare a mixed consortium for the study based on the efficiency of lube oil utilization. The percentage of oil degraded by the mixed bacterial consortium decreased slightly from 99% to 97.2% as the concentration of lube oil was increased from 2000 to 10,000 mg/L. The degradation of TDOC (total dissolved organic carbon) showed a similar tendency compared with lube oil removal, which indicated that the intermediates in degradation process hardly accumulated. Selected mixed bacterial consortium showed their edge compared to activated sludge. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) photos showed that biofilms on stainless steel were robust and with a dimensional framework constructed by EPS (extracellular polymeric substances), which could promote the biodegradation of hydrocarbons. The increase of biofilm followed first-order kinetics with rate of 0.216 microg glucose/(cm2-day) in logarithm phase. With analysis of Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combined with removal of lube oil and TDOC, mixed bacterial consortium could degrade benzene and its derivatives, aromatic ring organic matters with a percentage over 97%.

Bio-reduction of nitrate from groundwater using a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor

A hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR) using H2 as electron donor was investigated to remove nitrate from groundwater. When nitrate was first introduced to the MBfR, denitrification took place on the shell side of the membranes immediately, and the effluent concentration of nitrate continuously decreased with 100% removal rate on day 45 under the influent nitrate concentration of 5 mg NO3- -N/L, which described the acclimating and enriching process of autohydrogenotrophic denitrification bacteria. A series of short-term experiments were applied to investigate the effects of hydrogen pressures and nitrate loadings on denitrification. The results showed that nitrate reduction rate improved as H2 pressure increasing, and over 97% of total nitrogen removal rate was achieved when the nitrate loading increased from 0.17 to 0.34 g NO3- -N/(m2 x day) without nitrite accumulation. The maximum denitrification rate was 384 g N/(m3 x day). Partial sulfate reduction, which occurred in parallel to nitrate reduction, was inhibited by denitrififcation due to the competition for H2. This research showed that MBfR is effective for removing nitrate from the contaminated groundwater.

Decolorization of azo dyes in bioelectrochemical systems

Azo dyes are ubiquitously used in the textile industry. These dyes need to be removed from the effluent prior to discharge to sewage due to their intense color and toxicity. In this study we investigated the use of a bioelectrochemical system (BES) to abioticlly cathodic decolorization of a model azo dye, Acid Orange 7 (AO7), where the process was driven by microbial oxidation of acetate atthe anode. Effective decolorization of AO7 at rates up to 264 +/- 0.03 mol m(-3) NCC d(-1) (net cathodic compartment, NCC) was achieved at the cathode, with concomitant energy recovery. The AO7 decolorization rate was significantly enhanced when the BES was supplied with power, reaching 13.18 +/- 0.05 mol m(-3) NCC d(-1) at an energy consumption 0.012 +/- 0.001 kWh mol(-1) AO7 (at a controlled cathode potential of -400 mV vs SHE). Compared with conventional anaerobic biological methods, the required dosage of organic cosubstrate was significantly reduced in the BES. A possible cathodic reaction mechanism for the decolorization of AO7 is suggested based on the decolorization products identified: the azo bond of AO7 was cleaved at the cathode, resulting in the formation of the colorless sulfanilic acid and 1-amino-2-naphthol.

Occurrence and fate of nitrosamines and their precursors in municipal sludge and anaerobic digestion systems

The fate of six nitrosamines and their secondary amine precursors and total precursors in three municipal wastewater treatment plants' primary sludge (PS), waste-activated sludge (WAS), and anaerobic digester mixed liquor (ADML) was investigated. N-Nitrosodimethylamine was detected at significant concentrations, with mean concentrations at 678 +/- 302, 394 +/- 322, and 271 +/- 100 ng/L in PS, WAS, and ADML samples, respectively. N-Nitrosopyrrolidine was the other nitrosamine detected in sludge samples but at about an order of magnitude lower concentrations. PS samples also contained the highest concentrations of secondary amines(mostly dimethylamine (DMA) and pyrrolidine) followed by WAS and ADML samples, with mean DMA concentrations at 1280 +/- 689, 210 +/- 266, and 6.2 +/- 3.9 microg/L, respectively. Secondary amines in ADML and some WAS samples accounted for only 20-30% of total nitrosamine precursors underlining the significance of as of yet uncharacterized precursors. Overall, anaerobic sludge digestion was a sink for nitrosamines and secondary amines on the basis of the decreasing trends of these compounds from PS to WAS to ADML after taking mass balances into account An anaerobic bioassay conducted with ADML showed complete degradation of secondary amines even without additional carbon sources, while nitrosamine removal required carbon addition and was directly related to the chemical oxygen demand consumption.

Systematic evaluation of nitrate and perchlorate bioreduction kinetics in groundwater using a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor

To evaluate the simultaneous reduction kinetics of the oxidized compounds, we treated nitrate-contaminated groundwater (approximately 9.4 mg-N/L) containing low concentrations of perchlorate (approximately 12.5 microg/L) and saturated with dissolved oxygen (approximately 8 mg/L) in a hydrogen-based membrane biofilm reactor (MBfR). We systematically increased the hydrogen availability and simultaneously varied the surface loading of the oxidized compounds on the biofilm in order to provide a comprehensive, quantitative data set with which to evaluate the relationship between electron donor (H(2)) availability, surface loading of the electron acceptors (oxidized compounds), and simultaneous bioreduction of the electron acceptors. Increasing the H(2) pressure delivered more H(2) gas, and the total H(2) flux increased linearly from approximately 0.04 mg/cm(2)-d for 0.5 psig (0.034 atm) to 0.13 mg/cm(2)-d for 9.5 psig (0.65 atm). This increased rate of H(2) delivery allowed for continued reduction of the acceptors as their surface loading increased. The electron acceptors had a clear hydrogen-utilization order when the availability of hydrogen was limited: oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, and then perchlorate. Spiking the influent with perchlorate or nitrate allowed us to identify the maximum surface loadings that still achieved more than 99.5% reduction of both oxidized contaminants: 0.21 mg NO(3)-N/cm(2)-d and 3.4 microg ClO(4)/cm(2)-d. Both maximum values appear to be controlled by factors other than hydrogen availability.