1
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Zhao Y, Naeth MA, Wilkinson SR, Dhar A. Potential of biochar and humic substances for phytoremediation of trace metals in oil sands process affected water. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 361:142375. [PMID: 38772514 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Oil sands process affected water (OSPW) is produced during bitumen extraction and typically contains high concentrations of trace metals. Constructed wetlands have emerged as a cost effective and green technology for the treatment of metals in wastewaters. Whether the addition of amendments to constructed wetlands can improve metal removal efficiency is unknown. We investigated the synergistic effects of carbon based amendments and wetland plant species in removal of arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, nickel, and selenium from OSPW. Three native wetland species (Carex aquatilis, Juncus balticus, Scirpus validus) and two amendments (canola straw biochar, nano humus) were investigated in constructed wetland mesocosms over 60 days. Amendment effect on metal removal efficiency was not significant, while plant species effect was. Phytoremediation resulted in removal efficiencies of 78.61-96.31 % for arsenic, cadmium, and cobalt. Carex aquatilis had the highest removal efficiencies for all metals. Amendments alone performed well in removing some metals and were comparable to phytoremediation for cadmium, cobalt, copper, and nickel. Metals were primarily distributed in roots with negligible translocation to shoots. Our work provides insights into the role of plants and amendments during metal remediation and their complex interactions in constructed treatment wetlands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihan Zhao
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H1, Canada.
| | - M Anne Naeth
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H1, Canada.
| | - Sarah R Wilkinson
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H1, Canada.
| | - Amalesh Dhar
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 2H1, Canada.
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2
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Ren H, Zhang R, Zheng Y, Liu Y, Zhang Q, Zhang J, Chen C, Duan E. Fluorescence visualization of CO 2-responsive phase transfer materials targeting at the heterogeneous interfacial reactions in advanced oxidation of naphthenic acid in wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 933:173235. [PMID: 38750751 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Treatment of naphthenic acids (NAs) in wastewater is necessary due to its high toxicity and difficult degradation. In the heterogeneous Fenton-like advanced oxidation of organic pollutant system, the insufficient accessibility of oxidizing agent and NAs greatly hamper the reaction efficiency. CO2-responsive phase transfer materials derived from polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based deep eutectic solvents were specific targeted at the immiscible-binary phase system. The NAs oxidative degradation process was optimized including the kinds of catalyst (Molecular weight of PEG, constitute of DESs, and dosage.), temperature, flow rate of CO2, et al. With the help of fluorescence properties of catalyst, the hydrophilic-hydrophobic interaction was visual-monitored and further studied. The amphipathic property of PEG-200/Sodium persulfate/Polyether amine 230 (PEA230) greatly reduced the aqueous/organic phase transfer barrier between sodium persulfate and NAs (up to 84 %), thus accreting oxidation rate. The surface tension decreased from 35.364 mN/m to 28.595 mN/m. To control the reaction rate, the CO2 respond structure of amido played an important role. In addition, the interfacial transfer intermediates and oxidation pathways were also explored by nuclear magnetic resonance, flourier transform infrared spectroscopy, surface tension, and radical inhibition experiments. The mechanism of advanced oxidation of NAs catalyzed by CO2-responsive phase transfer catalyst was proposed, which would made up for the deficiency of the system theory of heterogeneous chemical oxidation of organic pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Ren
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China; Pollution Prevention Biotechnology Laboratory of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China
| | - Ruoyao Zhang
- School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China
| | - Yi Zheng
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China
| | - Yize Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China
| | - Qiuya Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China
| | - Juan Zhang
- School of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China
| | - Chunmao Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, PR China
| | - Erhong Duan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China; Pollution Prevention Biotechnology Laboratory of Hebei Province, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050018, PR China.
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3
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Leshuk TC, Young ZW, Wilson B, Chen ZQ, Smith DA, Lazaris G, Gopanchuk M, McLay S, Seelemann CA, Paradis T, Bekele A, Guest R, Massara H, White T, Zubot W, Letinski DJ, Redman AD, Allen DG, Gu F. A Light Touch: Solar Photocatalysis Detoxifies Oil Sands Process-Affected Waters Prior to Significant Treatment of Naphthenic Acids. ACS ES&T WATER 2024; 4:1483-1497. [PMID: 38633367 PMCID: PMC11019557 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.3c00616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Environmental reclamation of Canada's oil sands tailings ponds is among the single largest water treatment challenges globally. The toxicity of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) has been associated with its dissolved organics, a complex mixture of naphthenic acid fraction components (NAFCs). Here, we evaluated solar treatment with buoyant photocatalysts (BPCs) as a passive advanced oxidation process (P-AOP) for OSPW remediation. Photocatalysis fully degraded naphthenic acids (NAs) and acid extractable organics (AEO) in 3 different OSPW samples. However, classical NAs and AEO, traditionally considered among the principal toxicants in OSPW, were not correlated with OSPW toxicity herein. Instead, nontarget petroleomic analysis revealed that low-polarity organosulfur compounds, composing <10% of the total AEO, apparently accounted for the majority of waters' toxicity to fish, as described by a model of tissue partitioning. These findings have implications for OSPW release, for which a less extensive but more selective treatment may be required than previously expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy
M. C. Leshuk
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E5
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Zachary W. Young
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Brad Wilson
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Stantec, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 0A4
| | - Zi Qi Chen
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E5
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Danielle A. Smith
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- P&P
Optica, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2 V 2C3
| | - Greg Lazaris
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Department
of Mining and Materials Engineering, McGill
University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0C5
| | - Mary Gopanchuk
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Sean McLay
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Corin A. Seelemann
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Composite Biomaterials Systems Lab, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Theo Paradis
- Canadian
Natural Resources Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P 4J8
| | - Asfaw Bekele
- Imperial
Oil Ltd., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2C 5N1
- ExxonMobil
Biomedical Sciences, Inc., Annandale, New Jersey 08801, United States
| | - Rodney Guest
- Suncor Energy Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P 3E3
| | - Hafez Massara
- Suncor Energy Inc., Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2P 3E3
- Trans-Northern Pipelines Inc., Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada L4B 3P6
| | - Todd White
- Teck Resources Ltd., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V6C 0B3
| | - Warren Zubot
- Syncrude Canada Ltd., Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada T9H 0B6
| | - Daniel J. Letinski
- ExxonMobil
Biomedical Sciences, Inc., Annandale, New Jersey 08801, United States
| | - Aaron D. Redman
- ExxonMobil
Biomedical Sciences, Inc., Annandale, New Jersey 08801, United States
| | - D. Grant Allen
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E5
| | - Frank Gu
- H2nanO
Inc., Kitchener, Ontario, Canada N2R 1E8
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 3E5
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
- Waterloo
Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
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4
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Chen Y, Wang Y, Headley JV, Huang R. Sample preparation, analytical characterization, monitoring, risk assessment and treatment of naphthenic acids in industrial wastewater and surrounding water impacted by unconventional petroleum production. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 913:169636. [PMID: 38157903 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Industrial extraction of unconventional petroleum results in notable volumes of oil sands process water (OSPW), containing elevated concentrations of naphthenic acids (NAs). The presence of NAs represents an intricate amalgamation of dissolved organic constituents, thereby presenting a notable hurdle for the domain of environmental analytical chemistry. There is growing concern about monitoring the potential seepage of OSPW NAs into nearby groundwater and river water. This review summarizes recent studies on sample preparation, characterization, monitoring, risk assessment, and treatment of NAs in industrial wastewater and surrounding water. Sample preparation approaches, such as liquid-liquid extraction, solid phase microextraction, and solid phase extraction, are crucial in isolating chemical standards, performing molecular level analysis, assessing aquatic toxicity, monitoring, and treating OSPW. Instrument techniques for NAs analysis were reviewed to cover different injection modes, ionization sources, and mass analyzers. Recent studies of transfer and transformation of NAs provide insights to differentiate between anthropogenic and natural bitumen-derived sources of NAs. In addition, related risk assessment and treatment studies were also present for elucidation of environmental implication and reclamation strategies. The synthesis of the current state of scientific knowledge presented in this review targets government regulators, academic researchers, and industrial scientists with interests spanning analytical chemistry, toxicology, and wastewater management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Universities on Environmental Science and Engineering, MOE Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Science and Engineering, College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Yongjian Wang
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Universities on Environmental Science and Engineering, MOE Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Science and Engineering, College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - John V Headley
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Rongfu Huang
- Sichuan Provincial Key Laboratory of Universities on Environmental Science and Engineering, MOE Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Science and Engineering, College of Architecture and Environment, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China.
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5
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Cancelli AM, Gobas FAPC. Treatment of naphthenic acids in oil sands process-affected waters with a surface flow treatment wetland: mass removal, half-life, and toxicity-reduction. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 213:113755. [PMID: 35753377 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study is the first to investigate the removal of naphthenic acids in a full-scale constructed wetland within the Alberta Oil Sands region. The average mass-removal efficiency for all O2-naphthenic acids measured in three separate deployments in the wetland ranged from 7.5% to 68.9% and appeared sensitive to physicochemical properties of the naphthenic acids, environmental conditions, and water quality. Treatment efficiency of individual naphthenic acids was found to increase with increasing carbon number and decreasing number of double bond equivalents in the molecule. Treatment efficiency was also found to increase with both higher initial turbidity in OSPW entering the wetland, and warmer average OSPW temperatures during wetland operation. Half-life times of naphthenic acids in the treatment wetland ranged between 8.9 and 39 days and were substantially lower than those in tailings ponds (i.e., 12.9-13.6 years) and laboratory studies focussed on bench-scale aerobic microbial biodegradation (i.e., 44-315 days). Using published dose-response data, biomimetic extraction measurements using solid phase microextraction fibers indicate that 14 days of wetland treatment resulted in a reduction in (4 d) deformity of Danio rerio from 50 to 16%, while exhibiting less than 1% toxic response for less sensitive toxic endpoints. The study concludes that wetland treatment is a feasible and productive treatment method for naphthenic acids in oil sands process-affected water due to a combination of sorption and biodegradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Cancelli
- The School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada.
| | - Frank A P C Gobas
- The School of Resource and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
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6
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Chung TH, Zakaria BS, Meshref MNA, Dhar BR. Enhancing quorum sensing in biofilm anode to improve biosensing of naphthenic acids. Biosens Bioelectron 2022; 210:114275. [PMID: 35447397 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.114275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The feasibility of enhancing quorum sensing (QS) in anode biofilm to improve the quantifications of commercial naphthenic acid concentrations (9.4-94 mg/L) in a microbial electrochemical cell (MXC) based biosensor was demonstrated in this study. First, three calibration methods were systematically compared, and the charging-discharging operation was selected for further experiments due to its 71-227 folds higher electrical signal outputs than the continuous closed-circuit operation and cyclic voltammetry modes. Then, the addition of acylase (5 μg/L) as an exogenous QS autoinducer (acylase) was investigated, which further improved the biosensor's electrical signal output by ∼70%, as compared to the control (without acylase). The addition of acylase increased the relative expression of QS-associated genes (lasR, lasI, rhlR, rhlI, lasA, and luxR) by 7-100%, along with increased abundances of known electroactive bacterial genera, such as Geobacter (from 42% to 47%) and Desulfovibrio (from 6% to 11%). Furthermore, toxicities of different NAs concentrations measured with the Microtox bioassay test were correlated with corresponding electrical signals, indicating that MXC-biosensor can provide a dual platform for rapid assessment of both NA concentrations and NA-associated toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae Hyun Chung
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116, Street NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Basem S Zakaria
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116, Street NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed N A Meshref
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116, Street NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada; Public Works Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University, 1 El Sarayat St., Abbassia, Cairo, 11517, Egypt
| | - Bipro Ranjan Dhar
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116, Street NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada.
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7
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Duncan KD, Hawkes JA, Berg M, Clarijs B, Gill CG, Bergquist J, Lanekoff I, Krogh ET. Membrane Sampling Separates Naphthenic Acids from Biogenic Dissolved Organic Matter for Direct Analysis by Mass Spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:3096-3105. [PMID: 35175743 PMCID: PMC8892831 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c07359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Oil sands process waters can release toxic naphthenic acids (NAs) into aquatic environments. Analytical techniques for NAs are challenged by sample complexity and interference from naturally occurring dissolved organic matter (DOM). Herein, we report the use of a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) polymer membrane for the on-line separation of NAs from DOM and use direct infusion electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to yield meaningful qualitative and quantitative information with minimal sample cleanup. We compare the composition of membrane-permeable species from natural waters fortified with a commercial NA mixture to those derived from weak anion exchange solid-phase extraction (SPE) using high-resolution mass spectrometry. The results show that SPE retains a wide range of carboxylic acids, including biogenic DOM, while permeation through PDMS was selective for petrogenic classically defined NAs (CnH2n+zO2). A series of model compounds (log Kow ∼1-7) were used to characterize the perm-selectivity and reveal the separation is based on hydrophobicity. This convenient sample cleanup method is selective for the O2 class of NAs and can be used prior to conventional analysis or as an on-line analytical strategy when coupled directly to mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D. Duncan
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department
of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Jeffrey A. Hawkes
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mykelti Berg
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Bas Clarijs
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Chris G. Gill
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 1700, Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8W 2Y2
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ingela Lanekoff
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Erik T. Krogh
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 1700, Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8W 2Y2
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8
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Facanali R, Porto NDA, Crucello J, Carvalho RM, Vaz BG, Hantao LW. Naphthenic Acids: Formation, Role in Emulsion Stability, and Recent Advances in Mass Spectrometry-Based Analytical Methods. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2021; 2021:6078084. [PMID: 34956687 PMCID: PMC8709775 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6078084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acids (NAs) are compounds naturally present in most petroleum sources comprised of complex mixtures with a highly variable composition depending on their origin. Their occurrence in crude oil can cause severe corrosion problems and catalysts deactivation, decreasing oil quality and consequently impacting its productivity and economic value. NAs structures also allow them to behave as surfactants, causing the formation and stabilization of emulsions. In face of the ongoing challenge of treatment of water-in-oil (W/O) or oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions in the oil and gas industry, it is important to understand how NAs act in emulsified systems and which acids are present in the interface. Considering that, this review describes the properties of NAs, their role in the formation and stability of oil emulsions, and the modern analytical methods used for the qualitative analysis of such acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roselaine Facanali
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Juliana Crucello
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil
| | - Rogerio M. Carvalho
- Leopoldo Américo Miguez de Mello Research and Development Center, Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro 20031-912, RJ, Brazil
| | - Boniek G. Vaz
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, GO, Brazil
| | - Leandro W. Hantao
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil
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9
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Qian C, Li C, Zhan T, Wang C, Xiang Z. Determination of Naphthenic Acids in Oil Sand Processed Water by Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography with Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (2D GC-QTOFMS). ANAL LETT 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2021.1912068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chenyu Qian
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovation Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis, China National Analytical Center Guangzhou Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Changgang Li
- Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology, Maoming, China
| | - Tong Zhan
- Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology, Maoming, China
| | - Cai Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovation Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhangmin Xiang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Emergency Test for Dangerous Chemicals, Guangdong Institute of Analysis, China National Analytical Center Guangzhou Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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10
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Huang R, Yang L, How ZT, Fang Z, Bekele A, Letinski DJ, Redman AD, Gamal El-Din M. Characterization of raw and ozonated oil sands process water utilizing atmospheric pressure gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry combined with solid phase microextractionun. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 266:129017. [PMID: 33261842 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.129017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This work describes a novel application of atmospheric pressure gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (APGC-TOF-MS) combined with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) for the simultaneous analysis of hydrocarbons and naphthenic acids (NAs) species in raw and ozone-treated oil sands process water (OSPW). SPME method using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-coated fibers was validated using gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID) to ensure the SPME extractions were operated appropriately. The ionization pathways of the hydrocarbon species in OSPW in the APGC source were verified by analyzing a mixture of eight polyaromatic hydrocarbons which were ionized primarily via charge transfer to produce [M+] while NAs in OSPW were found to be ionized through protonation to generate [MH+] in the wet APGC source. SPME/APGC-TOF-MS analysis demonstrated a different composition profile in OSPW #1, with 74.5% of hydrocarbon species, 23.4% of O2-NAs, and 2.1% of the oxidized NA species at extraction pH 2.0 compared with that obtained by UPLC-TOF-MS analysis (36.9% of O2-NAs, 26.8% of O3-NAs, 24.9% of O4-NAs, 9.1% of O5-NAs, 2.3% of O6-NAs). Moreover, the peak areas of the total NAs and the total peak areas of NAs + hydrocarbons measured by SPME/APGC-TOF-MS correlated excellently with the total NA concentration determined by UPLC-TOF-MS (R2 = 0.90) and the concentrations of the total acid-extractable organics determined by SPME/GC-FID (R2 = 0.98), respectively. APGC-TOF-MS integrated with the SPME techniques could extend the range of target compounds and be a promising alternative to evaluate and characterize NAs and hydrocarbon in different water types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongfu Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Lingling Yang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zuo Tong How
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zhi Fang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 1H9, Canada; State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing, 102249, China
| | - Asfaw Bekele
- Upstream Research, Imperial Oil Resources Limited, Calgary, Alberta, T2C 5R2, Canada
| | | | - Aaron D Redman
- ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences, Inc., Annandale, NJ, 08801, USA
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 1H9, Canada.
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11
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Bowman DT, Warren LA, Slater GF. Isomer-specific monitoring of naphthenic acids at an oil sands pit lake by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 746:140985. [PMID: 32739755 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acids (NAs) are persistent, toxic contaminants that are found to accumulate in oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) and tailings after bitumen extraction. A number of strategies for the reclamation of oil sands tailings are currently being tested, including the development of the first demonstration pit lake by Syncrude Canada, Base Mine Lake (BML). An important component of reclamation activities is understanding the source and cycling of NAs in such reclamation systems. However, NAs exist as a highly complex mixture of thousands of compounds which makes their analysis an ongoing challenge. Herein, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOFMS) was used to analyze the methylated extracts of water samples from the water cap and fluid fine tailings (FFT) deposit of BML to characterize the variations in NA distributions between geochemical zones. A collection of (alkylated) monocyclic-, bicyclic-, adamantane-, and thiophene-type carboxylic acids were identified. Total relative abundances were calculated for each NA class (by summation of peak areas of all detected isomers) and minimal variability was detected in the water cap. Total relative abundances for each NA class were either similar or higher in the FFT, relative to the water cap. Examination of isomer distributions indicated that differences in abundance values were generally driven by variations in only one or two isomers of a given NA class. Furthermore, GC × GC revealed distinct isomer profiles were observed between two FFT samples and between the FFT and water cap. While it is not yet clear whether these differences are due to differences in sources of NAs or in their environmental processing, these results illustrate the capability of GC × GC to investigate these questions and thus contribute to the management of these compounds within reclamation or environmental systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Bowman
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Lesley A Warren
- School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George St., Toronto, ON M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - Gregory F Slater
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
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12
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Developments in Molecular Level Characterization of Naphthenic Acid Fraction Compounds Degradation in a Constructed Wetland Treatment System. ENVIRONMENTS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/environments7100089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The reclamation of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) is a matter of environmental importance because of the aquatic toxicity to biota. This study describes refinements in advanced analytical methods to assess the performance of biological treatment systems for OSPW, such as constructed wetland treatment systems (CWTSs). Assessment of treatment efficiency by measurement of the degradation of naphthenic acid fraction compounds (NAFCs) in OSPW is challenging in CWTS due to potentially interfering constituents such as humic acids, organic acids, salts, and hydrocarbons. Here we have applied a previous weak anion exchange (WAX) solid-phase extraction (SPE) method and high-resolution Orbitrap-mass spectrometry (MS) to remove major interferences from the NAFC analysis. The refinements in data processing employing principal component analysis (PCA) indicates that the relative abundance of NAFCs decreased with time in the treated OSPW relative to the untreated OSPW. The most saturated NAFCs with higher carbon numbers were relatively more degraded as compared to unsaturated NAFCs. The use of Kendrick plots and van Krevelen plots for assessment of the performance of the CWTS is shown to be well-suited to detailed monitoring of the complex composition of NAFCs as a function of degradation. The developments and application of analytical methods such as the WAX SPE method and high-resolution Orbitrap-MS are demonstrated as tools enabling the advancement of CWTS design and optimization, enabling passive or semi-passive water treatment systems to be a viable opportunity for OSPW treatment.
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13
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Klemz AC, Damas MSP, González SYG, Mazur LP, Marinho BA, Weschenfelder SE, de Oliveira D, da Silva A, Valle JAB, de Souza AAU, de Souza SMGU. The use of oilfield gaseous byproducts as extractants of recalcitrant naphthenic acids from synthetic produced water. Sep Purif Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2020.117123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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14
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Meshref MNA, Ibrahim MD, Huang R, Yang L, How ZT, Klamerth N, Chelme-Ayala P, Hughes SA, Brown C, Mahaffey A, Gamal El-Din M. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy as a surrogate tool for the quantification of naphthenic acids in oil sands process water and groundwater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 734:139191. [PMID: 32460069 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acid fraction compounds (NAFCs), defined herein as the polar organic compounds extracted from the acidified oil sands process water (OSPW) samples using dichloromethane, are becoming the research hotspot due to their presence in large amount in OSPW and along with other potentially NA-contaminated water streams from the mining site. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) method is commonly used to quantify NAFCs and assumes that the total NA concentration is measured as the sum of the responses for all carboxylic acid functional groups. In this study, the NAFCs in various OSPW and groundwater (GW) samples from an active oil sands mining site were analyzed using FTIR. All water samples were pretreated using either solid-phase extraction (SPE) or liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) methods before analysis. The results showed that SPE produced higher recoveries of NAFCs than LLE for most water samples under current experimental conditions. For the quantification of NAFCs, commercial Fluka NA mixture and a pre-calibrated OSPW extract were employed as the calibration standards. The NAFCs calibrated with Fluka NA mixture and OSPW extract had clear linear relationships. The concentrations of NAFCs obtained using OSPW extract standard curve were 2.5 times the NAFC concentrations obtained using the Fluka NA mixture standard curve. Additionally, good linear correlations were observed between the total NAs and O2-O6 NA species determined by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-TOFMS) and the NAFCs measured by FTIR. According to these correlations, the NA compositions in NAFCs were developed, and the relative abundances of O2-O6 NA species in NAFCs were similar for SPE and LLE pretreated samples. The findings of this study demonstrated that FTIR could be used as a promising tool to monitor total NA species and to estimate the NA profile in different environmental water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed N A Meshref
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed D Ibrahim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Rongfu Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Lingling Yang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Zuo Tong How
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Nikolaus Klamerth
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Pamela Chelme-Ayala
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Sarah A Hughes
- Shell Health - Americas, Shell Oil Company, 150 North Dairy Ashford Road, Houston, TX 77079, USA.
| | - Christine Brown
- Canadian Natural, Technology and Development, 324-8th Ave SW, Calgary, AB T2P 2Z2, Canada
| | - Ashley Mahaffey
- Coral Waters Consulting Inc., Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada.
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15
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Scott AC, Zubot W, Davis CW, Brogly J. Bioaccumulation potential of naphthenic acids and other ionizable dissolved organics in oil sands process water (OSPW) - A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 712:134558. [PMID: 31831242 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Bitumen recovery via mining in Alberta's Athabasca region generates large quantities of oil sands process water (OSPW). Aquatic toxicity of OSPW has been well-studied and the class of organic compounds referred to as naphthenic acids (NAs) are consistently implicated as the primary driver. Proposed lease closure options include treated produced waters in reclaimed landscapes such as pit lakes and wetlands. Consequently, it is crucial to understand the bioaccumulation potential of NAs and other OSPW dissolved organics in these environments. Early studies were focussed only on NAs due to analytical limitations, however, later studies investigated additional classes of dissolved organics in OSPW. Reported bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for NAs in fish and amphibians range from 0.24 to 53 L/kg wet-weight. Most quantitative assessments of NAs bioaccumulation potential evaluated commercial NAs mixtures as a surrogate for OSPW and used using single-ion monitoring for measuring NAs concentrations. The resulting BCF values are based on the NA isomers that conform to the formula, C13H22O2. More recently, an advanced analytical technique capable of determining the profile of different isomer classes in OSPW showed that NAs and other OSPW ionizable dissolved organics (OSPW-IDO) have low partitioning to simulated biological storage lipids, suggesting low bioaccumulation potential. Using the same analytical technique to assess in vivo fish exposures, a subsequent study reported a range of BCFs for OSPW NAs between 0.7 and 53 L/kg wet-weight and heteroatomic isomer classes containing S or N heteroatoms had BCFs between 0.6 and 28 L/kg wet-weight. Reported BCFs for all isomer classes of the OSPW-IDO fraction were less than the Canadian standard for bioaccumulative designation (i.e., BCF ≥ 5000).
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela C Scott
- Unaffiliated private contractor, correspondence c/o Canada's Oil Sands Innovation Alliance (COSIA), 520 5th Avenue SW, Suite 1700, Calgary, AB T2P3R7, Canada.
| | - Warren Zubot
- Syncrude Canada Ltd., Edmonton Research Centre, 9421 17 Avenue, Edmonton, AB T6N1H4, Canada.
| | - Craig W Davis
- ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences, Inc., 1545 US Highway 22 East, Annandale, NJ 08801, United States.
| | - John Brogly
- Canada's Oil Sands Innovation Alliance (COSIA), 520 5th Avenue SW, Suite 1700, Calgary, AB T2P3R7, Canada.
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16
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Ahad JME, Pakdel H, Gammon PR, Mayer B, Savard MM, Peru KM, Headley JV. Distinguishing Natural from Anthropogenic Sources of Acid Extractable Organics in Groundwater near Oil Sands Tailings Ponds. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2790-2799. [PMID: 31995355 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Distinguishing between naphthenic acids (NAs) associated with oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) and those found naturally in groundwaters in contact with the bituminous McMurray Formation poses a considerable analytical challenge to environmental research in Canada's oil sands region. Previous work addressing this problem combined high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry with carbon isotope values generated by online pyrolysis (δ13Cpyr) to characterize and quantify the acid extractable organics (AEOs) fraction containing NAs in the subsurface near an oil sands tailings pond. Here, we build upon this work through further development and application of these techniques at two different study sites near two different tailings ponds, in conjunction with the use of an additional isotopic tool-sulfur isotope analysis (δ34S) of AEOs. The combined use of both δ13Cpyr and δ34S allowed for discrimination of AEOs into the three end-members relevant to ascertaining the NA environmental footprint within the region: (1) OSPW; (2) McMurray Formation groundwater (i.e., naturally occurring bitumen), and; (3) naturally occurring non-bitumen. A Bayesian isotopic mixing model was used to determine the relative proportions of these three sources in groundwater at both study sites. Although background levels of OSPW-derived AEOs were generally low, one sample containing 49-99% (95% credibility interval) OSPW-derived AEOs was detected within an inferred preferential flow-path, highlighting the potential for this technique to track tailings pond seepage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec City, Québec G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Hooshang Pakdel
- INRS Eau Terre Environnement, Québec City, Québec G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Paul R Gammon
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0E8, Canada
| | - Bernhard Mayer
- Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Martine M Savard
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec City, Québec G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - John V Headley
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
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17
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Madison BN, Reynolds J, Halliwell L, Leshuk T, Gu F, Peru KM, Headley JV, Orihel DM. Can the toxicity of naphthenic acids in oil sands process-affected water be mitigated by a green photocatalytic method? Facets (Ott) 2020. [DOI: 10.1139/facets-2019-0053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Our study evaluates the efficacy of a “green” (i.e., sustainable, recyclable, and reusable) technology to treat waste waters produced by Canada’s oil sands industry. We examined the ability of a novel advanced oxidative method—ultra-violet photocatalysis over titanium dioxide (TiO2)-coated microparticles—to reduce the toxicity of naphthenic acid fraction components (NAFC) to early life stages of the fathead minnow ( Pimephales promelas). Lengthening the duration of photocatalysis resulted in greater removal of NAFC from bioassay exposure waters; low- and high-intensity treatments reduced NAFC concentrations to about 20 and 3 mg/L (by Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy, FTIR), respectively. Treatments reduced the acute lethality of NAFC to fathead minnows by over half after low-intensity treatment and three-fold after high-intensity treatment. However, incomplete degradation in low-intensity treatments increased the incidence of chronic toxicity relative to untreated NAFC solutions and cardiovascular abnormalities were common even with >80% of NAFC degraded. Our findings demonstrate that photocatalysis over TiO2 microparticles is a promising method for mitigating the toxicity of oil sands process-affected water-derived NAFC to fish native to the oil sands region, but the intensity of the photocatalytic treatment needs to be considered carefully to ensure adequate mineralization of toxic constituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry N. Madison
- School of Environmental Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Department of Biology, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Jessie Reynolds
- Department of Biology, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Lauren Halliwell
- School of Environmental Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Tim Leshuk
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Frank Gu
- Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Kerry M. Peru
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - John V. Headley
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Diane M. Orihel
- School of Environmental Studies, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
- Department of Biology, Queen’s University, Kingston, ON K7L 3N6, Canada
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18
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Qin R, Lillico D, How ZT, Huang R, Belosevic M, Stafford J, Gamal El-Din M. Separation of oil sands process water organics and inorganics and examination of their acute toxicity using standard in-vitro bioassays. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 695:133532. [PMID: 31419686 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Oil sands process water (OSPW) contains complex components of inorganics and organics. This is the first study that separated OSPW inorganic and organic fractions and examined their relative acute toxicity when compared with the original whole OSPW using an in-vitro cell-based bio-indicator system. The separation of OSPW inorganic and organic fractions would be conducive to the understanding of the toxic contribution of organic and inorganic fractions as well as the identification and treatment of organic fractions. In this research, we demonstrated that the highest organic fraction extraction was obtained using HLB solid phase extraction with 95.4 ± 0.7% of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and 90.0 ± 5.3% of naphthenic acid (NA) recovered from OSPW, which were higher than those obtained using the traditional dichloromethane liquid-liquid extraction (48.8 ± 0.2% of DOC and 81.0 ± 2.6% of NA recovery) or other SPE cartridges tested. We also reported the first isolation method for OSPW inorganic fraction by removing 96.1 ± 0.2% of DOC in OSPW using granular activated carbon. The difference of other parameters such as pH, alkalinity, conductivity, and concentration of detected ions between OSPW and isolated inorganic fraction was negligible. The acute toxicity of whole OSPW, separated OSPW inorganic fraction and organic fraction, and the reconstituted fractions were assessed using in-vitro bioassays with RAW 264.7 mouse macrophage cell lines. OSPW organic fraction demonstrated significant cytotoxicity at 14 mg/L O2-NA and affected the cellular metabolic activity at 10 mg/L of O2-NAs. No significant cytotoxicity or effect on cellular metabolic activity was observed for whole OSPW, OSPW inorganic fraction and the reconstituted fractions. Overall, this study provides the procedure for the isolation of the major components of OSPW (i.e., organics and inorganics), which allows the assessment of their relative toxicological effects using a standard in-vitro bioassay and would allow more accurate characterization and treatment study for each fraction in OSPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Qin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Dustin Lillico
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Zuo Tong How
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Rongfu Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Miodrag Belosevic
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - James Stafford
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada.
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19
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Sørensen L, McCormack P, Altin D, Robson WJ, Booth AM, Faksness LG, Rowland SJ, Størseth TR. Establishing a link between composition and toxicity of offshore produced waters using comprehensive analysis techniques - A way forward for discharge monitoring? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 694:133682. [PMID: 31386952 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Extracts of produced waters from five mature Norwegian Sea oil fields were examined as total organic extracts (TOEs) and after fractionation into operationally-defined 'polar' and 'apolar' fractions. The TOEs and fractions were examined by gas chromatography (GC), GC-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), two dimensional GC-MS (GC × GC-MS) and liquid chromatography with high-resolution spectrometry (LC-HRMS) techniques. Low molecular weight aromatics, phenols and other common petroleum-derived hydrocarbons were characterized and quantified in the TOEs and fractions. In addition, a range of more uncommon polar and apolar constituents, including those likely derived from production chemicals, such as trithiolane, imidazolines and quaternary amine compounds (so-called 'quats'), were tentatively identified, using GC × GC-MS and LC-HRMS. The acute toxicity of the TOEs and subfractions was investigated using early life stages of the marine copepod Acartia tonsa. Toxicity varied significantly for different PW TOEs and subfractions. For some PWs, the toxicity was attributed mainly to the 'polar' components, while that of other PWs was associated mainly with the 'apolar' components. Importantly, the observed toxicity could not be explained by the presence of the commonly reported compounds only. Although, due to the vast chemical complexity even of the sub-fractions of the PW extracts, specific compounds driving the observed toxicity could be not be elucidated in this study, the proposed approach may suggest a way forward for future revisions of monitoring regimes for PW discharges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisbet Sørensen
- SINTEF Ocean, Environment and New Resources, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Paul McCormack
- Petroleum & Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, University of Plymouth, UK
| | | | - William J Robson
- Petroleum & Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, University of Plymouth, UK
| | - Andy M Booth
- SINTEF Ocean, Environment and New Resources, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Steven J Rowland
- Petroleum & Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, University of Plymouth, UK
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20
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Fennell J, Arciszewski TJ. Current knowledge of seepage from oil sands tailings ponds and its environmental influence in northeastern Alberta. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 686:968-985. [PMID: 31200313 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.05.407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Seepage of oil sand process-affected waters (OSPW) from tailings ponds into surface waters is a common concern in the minable oil sands region of northeast Alberta. Research on seepage has been extensive, but few comprehensive treatments evaluating all aspects relevant to the phenomenon are available. In this work, the current information relevant for understanding the state of seepage from tailings ponds was reviewed. The information suggests the infiltration of OSPW into groundwater occurs near some ponds. OSPW may also be present in sediments beneath the Athabasca River adjacent to one pond, but there are no clear observations of OSPW in the river water. Similarly, most water samples from tributaries also show no evidence of OSPW, but these observations are limited by the lack of systematic, systemic, and repeated surveys, missing baseline data, standard analytical approaches, and reference materials. Waters naturally influenced by bitumen, discharge of saline groundwaters, and dilution also potentially affect the consolidation of information and certainty of any conclusions. Despite these challenges, some data suggest OSPW may be present in two tributaries of the Athabasca River adjacent to tailings ponds: McLean Creek and Lower Beaver River. Irrespective of the possible source(s), constituents of OSPW often affect organisms exposed in laboratories, but research in all but one study suggests the concentrations of organics in the surface water bodies assessed are below the standard toxicological effect thresholds for these compounds. In contrast, many samples of groundwater, irrespective of source, likely affect biota. Biomonitoring of surface waters suggests generic responses to stressors, but the influence of natural phenomena and occasionally nutrient enrichment are often suggested by data. In summary, valuable research has been done on seepage. The data suggest infiltration into groundwater is common, seepage into surface waters is not, and anthropogenic biological impacts are not likely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Fennell
- Integrated Sustainability, Calgary, AB, Canada
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21
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Ripmeester MJ, Duford DA. Method for routine "naphthenic acids fraction compounds" determination in oil sands process-affected water by liquid-liquid extraction in dichloromethane and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 233:687-696. [PMID: 31195273 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.05.222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Formerly classified as naphthenic acids, "naphthenic acids fraction compounds" (NAFC) have become the subject of increasing research, in particular in view of their ubiquitous presence in the Canadian oil sands of Northern Alberta and oil sands process-affected waters (OSPW). NAFC, defined herein as the polar acid-extractable organics fraction of OSPW extractable in dichloromethane, are released into OSPW during the aqueous extraction of oil sands. A method for determining total NAFC concentration based on acidification, liquid-liquid extraction, and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) was developed by Jivraj et al. in 1995. It has become widely used in the oil sands industry for routine monitoring of NAFC. Since then, multiple variations of the method are practiced by different laboratories using different calibration materials and different extraction solvents, differences which were found to affect the results by as much as 38 and 64 percent respectively. The goal of this study was to establish a robust method for routinely quantifying NAFC that does not require complex and expensive laboratory equipment such as mass spectrometers. Described improvements include a semi-automated rolling extraction and the use of a vacuum evaporator unit to reduce the method's environmental impact. The improved FT-IR method avoids emulsions, is precise, provides good agreement with gravimetric determinations of NAFC, increases sample throughput, is inexpensive compared to MS methods, and offers a typical reporting limit of 0.1 mg kg-1. The residue recovered by this method with minimal losses can be further analyzed by MS techniques to characterize and identify individual NAFC components if desired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Ripmeester
- Syncrude Canada Ltd., Research & Development Centre, Analytical Research, 9421 17 Ave NW, Edmonton, Alberta, T6N 1H4, Canada
| | - David A Duford
- Syncrude Canada Ltd., Research & Development Centre, Analytical Research, 9421 17 Ave NW, Edmonton, Alberta, T6N 1H4, Canada.
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22
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Zhang L, Zhang Y, Gamal El-Din M. Integrated mild ozonation with biofiltration can effectively enhance the removal of naphthenic acids from hydrocarbon-contaminated water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 678:197-206. [PMID: 31075586 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.04.302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
An innovative biofiltration-ozonation-biofiltration process was established and applied for the treatment of oil sands process water (OSPW). With an equivalent hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 8 h, the biofiltration pretreatment removed 24.4% of classical naphthenic acids (NAs) and 3.3% of oxidized NAs from raw OSPW with removal rate of 0.4 mg/L/h and 0.1 mg/L. Oxidized NAs showed higher resistance to the biofiltration process than classical NAs. The mild ozonation process (with utilized ozone dose of 30 mg/L) removed 84.8% of classical NAs and 11.5% of oxidized NAs from the biofiltrated OSPW with a degradation efficiency of 0.3 mg classical NAs/mg O3 and 0.1 mg oxidized NAs/mg O3. However, by using the same utilized ozone dose, the degradation of classical NAs and oxidized NAs from raw OSPW was 32.1% and 3.9% with ozonation efficiency of 0.1 mg classical NAs/mg O3 and 0.0 mg oxidized NAs/mg O3, respectively. Compared with the biofiltration pretreatment, the post biofiltration process (with HRT of 8 h) showed higher degradation effect on oxidized NAs with removal ratio of 22.9% and removal rate of 0.4 mg/L/h, but showed lower degradation effect on classical NAs with removal ratio of 6.7% and removal rate of 0.0 mg/L/h. After biofiltration-ozonation-biofiltration treatment, the microbial community structure in the biofilter was investigated by next generation sequencing. Proteobacteria and Rhodococcus were dominant bacterial phyla and genus in the biofilter, the abundance of which were 47.21% and 9.50% which were different from those in raw OSPW (62.88% and 0.72%). The change of microbial community structure could be resulted from the interaction between microbial community and the circulating OSPW. The ozonation integrated biodegradation process removed 89.3% and 34.0% of classical and oxidized NAs from OSPW which shows high potential to be applied by the oil and gas industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yanyan Zhang
- Department of Civil Engineering, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, United States
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada.
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23
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Tanna RN, Redman AD, Frank RA, Arciszewski TJ, Zubot WA, Wrona FJ, Brogly JA, Munkittrick KR. Overview of Existing Science to Inform Oil Sands Process Water Release: A Technical Workshop Summary. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2019; 15:519-527. [PMID: 30908840 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The extraction of oil sands from mining operations in the Athabasca Oil Sands Region uses an alkaline hot water extraction process. The oil sands process water (OSPW) is recycled to facilitate material transport (e.g., ore and tailings), process cooling, and is also reused in the extraction process. The industry has expanded since commercial mining began in 1967 and companies have been accumulating increasing inventories of OSPW. Short- and long-term sustainable water management practices require the ability to return treated water to the environment. The safe release of OSPW needs to be based on sound science and engineering practices to ensure downstream protection of ecological and human health. A significant body of research has contributed to the understanding of the chemistry and toxicity of OSPW. A multistakeholder science workshop was held in September 2017 to summarize the state of science on the toxicity and chemistry of OSPW. The goal of the workshop was to review completed research in the areas of toxicology, chemical analysis, and monitoring to support the release of treated oil sands water. A key outcome from the workshop was identifying research needs to inform future water management practices required to support OSPW return. Another key outcome of the workshop was the recognition that methods are sufficiently developed to characterize chemical and toxicological characteristics of OSPW to address and close knowledge gaps. Industry, government, and local indigenous stakeholders have proceeded to utilize these insights in reviewing policy and regulations. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2019;15:519-527. © 2019 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aaron D Redman
- ExxonMobil Biomedical Sciences, Annandale, New Jersey, USA
| | - Richard A Frank
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario
| | - Tim J Arciszewski
- Alberta Environment and Parks, Environmental Monitoring and Science Division, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Warren A Zubot
- Syncrude Canada Ltd, Edmonton Research Centre, Edmonton, Alberta
| | - Frederick J Wrona
- Environmental Monitoring and Science Division, Alberta Environment and Parks, Government of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - John A Brogly
- Canada's Oil Sands Innovation Alliance, Calgary, Alberta
| | - Kelly R Munkittrick
- Cold Regions and Water Initiatives, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
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24
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Li C, Fu L, Lillico DME, Belosevic M, Stafford JL, Gamal El-Din M. Exposure to Organic Fraction Extracted from Oil Sands Process-Affected Water Has Negligible Impact on Pregnancy and Lactation of Mice. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:7083-7094. [PMID: 31117544 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Dissolved organic compounds are major contaminants in oil sands process-affected water (OSPW), of which naphthenic acids (NAs) are one of the main persistent toxicants. In the present study, we explore the toxic effects of the organic fraction extracted from OSPW (OSPW-OF) in mice during pregnancy and lactation. Here, we report that acute oral exposure of female Balb/c mice during gestation, and subchronic exposure throughout gestation and lactation to OSPW-OF (containing naturally occurring levels of NAs found in tailings ponds), had negligible effects on their reproductive performance. Specifically, mating behavior, pregnancy success, embryonic implantation, gestation period, litter size, and offspring viability were not affected by OSPW-OF containing up to 55 mg/L NAs. OSPW-OF exposure also did not affect plasma concentrations of pregnancy-associated hormones or pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, and it had minimal effects on liver stress gene expression. This study presents the first comprehensive in vivo analysis of mammalian toxicity associated with OSPW-OF exposure. Overall, our results suggest that the risk of acute and subchronic toxicity to mice exposed to OSPW-OF at environmentally relevant concentrations of NAs in contaminated drinking water is likely negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 1H9
| | - Li Fu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 1H9
- Department of Biological Sciences , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Dustin M E Lillico
- Department of Biological Sciences , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Miodrag Belosevic
- Department of Biological Sciences , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 2E9
| | - James L Stafford
- Department of Biological Sciences , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 2E9
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , University of Alberta , Edmonton , Alberta Canada T6G 1H9
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25
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Kilgour B, Mahaffey A, Brown C, Hughes S, Hatry C, Hamilton L. Variation in toxicity and ecological risks associated with some oil sands groundwaters. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 659:1224-1233. [PMID: 31096335 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The surface mining of oil sands deposits requires the removal of groundwater to stabilize the deposit (depressurization) and make it safe for mining. The chemistry and toxicity of deep groundwaters (from 45 to 144 m below an active mining operation) were characterized to determine if the release of groundwaters would pose a risk to a receiving aquatic environment. Concentrations of conventional chemicals such as nutrients and metals were generally below CCME chronic guidelines. Concentrations of oil sands naphthenic acids (NAs) varied depending on the method of measurement and were routinely >1 mg L-1. Groundwaters rarely caused lethality to fish and invertebrates in standard acute and chronic toxicity tests. Algal cell production was negatively correlated with chlorides and potentially negatively with NAs. Other chronic toxicity variations were less obviously correlated with measured chemistry. The groundwaters had moderately-high oxygen demand (2 to 33 mg L-1), likely associated with nutrients and organic substances, and thus have the potential to enrich receiving surface water environments if left untreated and depending on the receiving environment. This paper presents for the first time a comprehensive (3 year) pairing of water chemistry and toxicity data on groundwaters collected from aquifer depressurization wells below an active oil sands operation. These data will contribute to a better understanding of the environmental risk these waters potentially pose, and ultimately, to the improvement of water management strategies and the reduction of the overall surface mining footprint of oil sands operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Kilgour
- Kilgour & Associates Ltd, 16-2285C St. Laurent Boulevard, Ottawa, Ontario K1G 4Z6, Canada.
| | - Ashley Mahaffey
- Coral Waters Consulting, Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Christine Brown
- Shell Canada Ltd, Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Sarah Hughes
- Shell Health - Americas, 150 North Dairy Ashford Road, Houston, TX 77079, United States; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada; Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Charles Hatry
- Kilgour & Associates Ltd, 16-2285C St. Laurent Boulevard, Ottawa, Ontario K1G 4Z6, Canada
| | - Liza Hamilton
- Kilgour & Associates Ltd, 16-2285C St. Laurent Boulevard, Ottawa, Ontario K1G 4Z6, Canada
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26
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Gutierrez-Villagomez JM, Peru KM, Edington C, Headley JV, Pauli BD, Trudeau VL. Naphthenic Acid Mixtures and Acid-Extractable Organics from Oil Sands Process-Affected Water Impair Embryonic Development of Silurana (Xenopus) tropicalis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:2095-2104. [PMID: 30648867 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b04461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acids (NAs) are carboxylic acids naturally occurring in crude oils and bitumen and are suspected to be the primary toxic substances in wastewaters associated with oil refineries and mining of oil sands. Oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) generated by the extraction of bitumen from oil sands are a major source of NAs and are currently stored in tailings ponds. We report on the acute lethality and teratogenic effects of aquatic exposure of Silurana (Xenopus) tropicalis embryos to commercial NA extracts and from the acid extractable organics (AEOs) fraction of a Canadian OSPW. Using electrospray ionization-high resolution mass spectrometry, we determined that the O2 species proportion were 98.8, 98.9 and 58.6% for commercial mixtures Sigma 1 (S1M) and Sigma 2 (S2M), and AEOs, respectively. The 96h LC50 estimates were 10.4, 11.7, and 52.3 mg/L for S1M, S2M, and the AEOs, respectively. The 96h EC50 estimates based on frequencies of developmental abnormalities were 2.1, 2.6, and 14.2 mg/L for S1M, S2M, and the AEOs, respectively. The main effects observed were reduced body size, edema, and cranial, heart, gut and ocular abnormalities. Increasing concentrations of the mixtures resulted in increased severity and frequency of abnormalities ( p < 0.05). The rank-order potency was S1M > S2M > AEO based on LC50 and EC50 estimates. These data provide insight into the effects NAs in amphibian embryos and can contribute to the development of environmental guidelines for the management of OSPW.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Water Science and Technology , Environment and Climate Change Canada , Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , Canada S7N 3H5
| | - Connor Edington
- Department of Biology , University of Ottawa , Ottawa , Ontario , Canada K1N 6N5
| | - John V Headley
- Watershed Hydrology and Ecology Research Division, Water Science and Technology , Environment and Climate Change Canada , Saskatoon , Saskatchewan , Canada S7N 3H5
| | - Bruce D Pauli
- Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Division, Wildlife and Landscape Science Directorate, Science and Technology Branch , Environment and Climate Change Canada , Ottawa , Ontario , Canada K1S 5B6
| | - Vance L Trudeau
- Department of Biology , University of Ottawa , Ottawa , Ontario , Canada K1N 6N5
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27
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Huang R, Chen Y, Meshref MNA, Chelme-Ayala P, Dong S, Ibrahim MD, Wang C, Klamerth N, Hughes SA, Headley JV, Peru KM, Brown C, Mahaffey A, Gamal El-Din M. Monitoring of classical, oxidized, and heteroatomic naphthenic acids species in oil sands process water and groundwater from the active oil sands operation area. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 645:277-285. [PMID: 30029109 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The classical, oxidized, and heteroatomic naphthenic acids (NAs) species were monitored in the oil sands process water (OSPW) and groundwater from the active oil sands operation area, using solid phase extraction sample preparation and high resolution mass spectrometry analysis. Groundwater samples include Pleistocene channel aquifer groundwater (PLCA) and oil sands basal aquifer groundwater (OSBA) from different depth of underground. The concentrations of Ox-NAs decreased from OSPW to PLCA, and then increased from PLCA to OSBA, which is deeper than PLCA. The NAs in PLCA mainly comprised of Ox-NAs and N-NAs and the percentage of S-NAs was negligible. Results revealed relative abundances of individual NA species in total NAs varies among different water layers and the potential environmental impacts are expected to be variable. Principal component analysis results of O2-NAs or O4-NAs could be used for differentiation of water types. O2-NAs with n = 12-16 and |Z| = 4-6, and O4-NAs with n = 14-20 and |Z| = 6-8, were identified as marker compounds that could serve as surrogates of the larger complex NA mixture for source differentiation. This work utilized a combination of sample preparation, instrumental analysis, and statistical analysis methods to obtain knowledge of the occurrence, composition, and transfer of NAs in the groundwater of the Alberta oil sands operation area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongfu Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed N A Meshref
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Pamela Chelme-Ayala
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Shimiao Dong
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed D Ibrahim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Chengjin Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Nikolaus Klamerth
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Sarah A Hughes
- Shell Health - Americas, Shell Oil Company, Woodcreek E276K, 150 North Dairy Ashford Road, Houston, TX 77079, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada; Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA.
| | - John V Headley
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Christine Brown
- Shell Canada Ltd. Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Ashley Mahaffey
- Coral Waters Consulting Inc., Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada.
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28
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Ren J, Zheng L, Wang Y, Zang X, Wu J, Yue Y, Han X, Wu L. Synthesis and characterization of quaternary ammonium based ionic liquids and its antistatic applications for diesel. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2018.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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29
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Leshuk T, Peru KM, de Oliveira Livera D, Tripp A, Bardo P, Headley JV, Gu F. Petroleomic analysis of the treatment of naphthenic organics in oil sands process-affected water with buoyant photocatalysts. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 141:297-306. [PMID: 29803095 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2018] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The persistence of toxicity associated with the soluble naphthenic organic compounds (NOCs) of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) implies that a treatment solution may be necessary to enable safe return of this water to the environment. Due to recent advances in high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS), the majority of the toxicity of OSPW is currently understood to derive from a subset of toxic classes, comprising only a minority of the total NOCs. Herein, oxidative treatment of OSPW with buoyant photocatalysts was evaluated under a petroleomics paradigm: chemical changes across acid-, base- and neutral-extractable organic fractions were tracked throughout the treatment with both positive and negative ion mode electrospray ionization (ESI) Orbitrap MS. Elimination of detected OS+ and NO+ classes of concern in the earliest stages of the treatment, along with preferential degradation of high carbon-numbered O2- acids, suggest that photocatalysis may detoxify OSPW with higher efficiency than previously thought. Application of petroleomic level analysis offers unprecedented insights into the treatment of petroleum impacted water, allowing reaction trends to be followed across multiple fractions and thousands of compounds simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Leshuk
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment & Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Diogo de Oliveira Livera
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Austin Tripp
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Patrick Bardo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - John V Headley
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment & Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Frank Gu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada; Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada.
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30
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Ajaero C, Peru KM, Simair M, Friesen V, O'Sullivan G, Hughes SA, McMartin DW, Headley JV. Fate and behavior of oil sands naphthenic acids in a pilot-scale treatment wetland as characterized by negative-ion electrospray ionization Orbitrap mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 631-632:829-839. [PMID: 29727993 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Large volumes of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) are generated during the extraction of bitumen from oil sands in the Athabasca region of northeastern Alberta, Canada. As part of the development of treatment technologies, molecular characterization of naphthenic acids (NAs) and naphthenic acid fraction compounds (NAFC) in wetlands is a topic of research to better understand their fate and behavior in aquatic environments. Reported here is the application of high-resolution negative-ion electrospray Orbitrap-mass spectrometry for molecular characterization of NAs and NAFCs in a non-aerated constructed treatment wetland. The effectiveness of the wetlands to remove OSPW-NAs and NAFCs was evaluated by monitoring the changes in distributions of NAFC compounds in the untreated sample and non-aerated treatment system. After correction for measured evapotranspiration, the removal rate of the classical NAs followed approximately first-order kinetics, with higher rates observed for structures with relatively higher number of carbon atoms. These findings indicate that constructed wetland treatment is a viable method for removal of classical NAs in OSPW. Work is underway to evaluate the effects of wetland design on water quality improvement, preferential removal of different NAFC species, and reduction in toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chukwuemeka Ajaero
- Environmental Systems Engineering, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, 3737 Wascana Parkway, S4S 0A2, Canada; Watershed Hydrology & Ecology Research Division, Water Science & Technology Directorate, Environment & Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Watershed Hydrology & Ecology Research Division, Water Science & Technology Directorate, Environment & Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Monique Simair
- Contango Strategies Limited, 15-410 Downey Road, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4N1, Canada
| | - Vanessa Friesen
- Contango Strategies Limited, 15-410 Downey Road, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 4N1, Canada
| | - Gwen O'Sullivan
- Department of Earth & Environmental Science, Mount Royal University, 4825 Mount Royal Gate SW, Calgary, AB T3E 6K6, Canada
| | - Sarah A Hughes
- Shell Health - Americas, One Shell Plaza, 910 Louisiana, Houston, TX 77002, USA
| | - Dena W McMartin
- Environmental Systems Engineering, University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, 3737 Wascana Parkway, S4S 0A2, Canada; Department of Civil, Geological and Environmental Engineering, 57 Campus Drive, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A9, Canada.
| | - John V Headley
- Watershed Hydrology & Ecology Research Division, Water Science & Technology Directorate, Environment & Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
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31
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Islam MS, McPhedran KN, Messele SA, Liu Y, Gamal El-Din M. Isotherm and kinetic studies on adsorption of oil sands process-affected water organic compounds using granular activated carbon. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 202:716-725. [PMID: 29604558 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The production of oil from oil sands in northern Alberta has led to the generation of large volumes of oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) that was reported to be toxic to aquatic and other living organisms. The toxicity of OSPW has been attributed to the complex nature of OSPW matrix including the inorganic and organic compounds primarily naphthenic acids (NAs: CnH2n+ZOx). In the present study, granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption was investigated for its potential use to treat raw and ozonated OSPW. The results indicated that NA species removal increased with carbon number (n) for a fixed Z number; however, the NA species removal decreased with Z number for a fixed carbon number. The maximum adsorption capacities obtained from Langmuir adsorption isotherm based on acid-extractable fraction (AEF) and NAs were 98.5 mg and 60.9 mg AEF/g GAC and 60 mg and 37 mg NA/g GAC for raw and ozonated OSPW, respectively. It was found that the Freundlich isotherm model best fits the AEF and NA equilibrium data (r2 ≥ 0.88). The adsorption kinetics showed that the pseudo-second order and intraparticle diffusion models were both appropriate in modeling the adsorption kinetics of AEF and NAs to GAC (r2 ≥ 0.97). Although pore diffusion was the rate limiting step, film diffusion was still significant for assessing the rate of diffusion of NAs. This study could be helpful to model, design and optimize the adsorption treatment technologies of OSPW and to assess the performance of other adsorbents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Shahinoor Islam
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Kerry N McPhedran
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Selamawit A Messele
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada.
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32
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Xue J, Huang C, Zhang Y, Liu Y, Gamal El-Din M. Bioreactors for oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) treatment: A critical review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 627:916-933. [PMID: 29426216 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 01/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Canada has the world's largest oil sands reservoirs. Surface mining and subsequent caustic hot water extraction of bitumen lead to an enormous quantity of tailings (volumetric ratio bitumen:water=9:1). Due to the zero-discharge approach and the persistency of the complex matrix, oil producers are storing oil sands tailings in vast ponds in Northern Alberta. Oil sands tailings are comprised of sand, clay and process-affected water (OSPW). OSPW contains an extremely complex matrix of organic contaminants (e.g., naphthenic acids (NAs), residual bitumen, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)), which has proven to be toxic to a variety of aquatic species. Biodegradation, among a variety of examined methods, is believed to be one of the most cost effective and practical to treat OSPW. A number of studies have been published on the removal of oil sands related contaminants using biodegradation-based practices. This review focuses on the treatment of OSPW using various bioreactors, comparing bioreactor configurations, operating conditions, performance evaluation and microbial community dynamics. Effort is made to identify the governing biotic and abiotic factors in engineered biological systems receiving OSPW. Generally, biofilms and elevated suspended biomass are beneficial to the resilience and degradation performance of a bioreactor. The review therefore suggests that a hybridization of biofilms and membrane technology (to ensure higher suspended microbial biomass) is a more promising option to remove OSPW organic constituents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinkai Xue
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Chunkai Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yanyan Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada.
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1H9, Canada.
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33
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Ahad JME, Pakdel H, Lavoie D, Lefebvre R, Peru KM, Headley JV. Naphthenic acids in groundwater overlying undeveloped shale gas and tight oil reservoirs. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 191:664-672. [PMID: 29078190 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The acid extractable organics (AEOs) containing naphthenic acids (NAs) in groundwater overlying undeveloped shale gas (Saint-Édouard region) and tight oil (Haldimand sector, Gaspé) reservoirs in Québec, Canada, were analysed using high resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry and thermal conversion/elemental analysis - isotope ratio mass spectrometry. As classically defined by CnH2n+ZO2, the most abundant NAs detected in the majority of groundwater samples were straight-chain (Z = 0) or monounsaturated (Z = -2) C16 and C18 fatty acids. Several groundwater samples from both study areas, however, contained significant proportions of presumably alicyclic bicyclic NAs (i.e., Z = -4) in the C10-C18 range. These compounds may have originated from migrated waters containing a different distribution of NAs, or are the product of in situ microbial alteration of shale organic matter and petroleum. In most groundwater samples, intramolecular carbon isotope values generated by pyrolysis (δ13Cpyr) of AEOs were on average around 2-3‰ heavier than those generated by bulk combustion (δ13C) of AEOs, providing further support for microbial reworking of subsurface organic carbon. Although concentrations of AEOs were very low (<2.0 mg/L), the detection of potentially toxic bicyclic acids in groundwater overlying unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs points to a natural background source of organic contaminants prior to any large-scale commercial hydrocarbon development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada.
| | - Hooshang Pakdel
- INRS, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Denis Lavoie
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - René Lefebvre
- INRS, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - John V Headley
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
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Huang R, Chen Y, Meshref MNA, Chelme-Ayala P, Dong S, Ibrahim MD, Wang C, Klamerth N, Hughes SA, Headley JV, Peru KM, Brown C, Mahaffey A, Gamal El-Din M. Characterization and determination of naphthenic acids species in oil sands process-affected water and groundwater from oil sands development area of Alberta, Canada. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 128:129-137. [PMID: 29100206 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This work reports the monitoring and assessment of naphthenic acids (NAs) in oil sands process-affected water (OSPW), Pleistocene channel aquifer groundwater (PLCA), and oil sands basal aquifer groundwater (OSBA) from an active oil sands development in Alberta, Canada, using ultra performance liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-TOF-MS) analysis with internal standard (ISTD) and external standard (ESTD) calibration methods and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS) for compositional analysis. PLCA was collected at 45-51 m depth and OSBA was collected at 67-144 m depth. Results of Ox-NA concentrations follow an order as OSPW > OSBA > PLCA, indicating that occurrences of NAs in OSBA were likely related to natural bitumen deposits instead of OSPW. Liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) was applied to avoid the matrix effect for the ESTD method. Reduced LLE efficiency accounted for the divergence of the ISTD and ESTD calibrated results for oxidized NAs. Principle component analysis results of O2 and O4 species could be employed for differentiation of water types, while classical NAs with C13-15 and Z (-4)-(-6) and aromatic O2-NAs with C16-18 and Z (-14)-(-16) could be measured as marker compounds to characterize water sources and potential temporal variations of samples, respectively. FTICR-MS results revealed that compositions of NA species varied greatly among OSPW, PLCA, and OSBA, because of NA transfer and transformation processes. This work contributed to the understanding of the concentration and composition of NAs in various types of water, and provided a useful combination of analytical and statistical tools for monitoring studies, in support of future safe discharge of treated OSPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongfu Huang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Yuan Chen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed N A Meshref
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Pamela Chelme-Ayala
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Shimiao Dong
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Mohamed D Ibrahim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Chengjin Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Nikolaus Klamerth
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Sarah A Hughes
- Shell Health - Americas, Shell Oil Company, 910 Louisiana Street, Houston, TX 77002, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada; Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
| | - John V Headley
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Christine Brown
- Shell Canada Ltd., Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB, T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Ashley Mahaffey
- Coral Waters Consulting Inc., Shell Technology Centre Calgary, 3655 36 St NW, Calgary, AB, T2L 1Y8, Canada
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada.
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