PCBs and organochlorine pesticides in indoor environments - A comparison of indoor contamination in Canada and Czech Republic

Organochlorine pesticide contamination of soils and dust from an urban environment in the Niger Delta of Nigeria

The concentrations, sources, and risk of twenty organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in soils and dusts from a typical urban setting in the Niger Delta of Nigeria were examined. The Σ20 OCP concentrations (ng g-1) varied from 4.49 to 150 with an average value of 32.6 for soil, 4.67 to 21.5 with an average of 11.7 for indoor dust, and 1.6 to 96.7 with an average value of 23.5 for outdoor dust. The Σ20 OCP concentrations in these media were in the order: soil > outdoor dust > indoor dust, which was in contrast with the order of the detection frequency, i.e., indoor dust (95 to 100 %) > soil (60 to 90 %) > outdoor dust (30 to 80 %). The concentrations of the different OCP classes in these media followed the order: aldrin + dieldrin + endrin and its isomers (Drins) > chlordanes > dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs) > hexachlorocyclohexane (HCHs) > endosulfans for outdoor dust and soil, while that of the indoor dust followed the order: Drins > chlordanes > endosulfans > DDTs > HCHs. The cancer risk values for human exposure to OCPs in these sites exceeded 10-6 which indicates possible carcinogenic risks. The sources of OCPs in these media reflected both past use and recent inputs.

Widespread occurrence of pesticides in low-income housing

BACKGROUND

Low socioeconomic status (SES) residents living in social housing, which is subsidized by government or government-funded agencies, may have higher exposures to pesticides used in indoor residences since pesticides are applied due to structural deficiencies, poor maintenance, etc. OBJECTIVE: To estimate exposure of residents in low-SES social housing built in the 1970s to legacy and current-use pesticides and to investigate factors related to exposures.

METHODS

Twenty-eight particle-phase pesticides were measured in the indoor air of 46 units in seven low-income social housing, multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs) in Toronto, Canada using portable air cleaners deployed for 1 week in 2017. Pesticides analyzed were legacy and current use in the classes: organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, and strobilurins.

RESULTS

At least one pesticide was detected in 89% of the units with detection frequencies (DF) for individual pesticides of up to 50%, including legacy organochlorines and current-use pesticides. Current-use pyrethroids had the highest DF and concentrations, with the highest particle-phase concentration for pyrethrin I at 32,000 pg/m3. Heptachlor, restricted for use in Canada in 1985, had the highest estimated maximum total air (particle plus gas phase) concentration of 443,000 pg/m3. Heptachlor, lindane, endosulfan I, chlorothalonil, allethrin, and permethrin (except in one study) had higher concentrations than those measured in low-income residences reported elsewhere. In addition to the intentional use of pesticides to control pests and their use in building materials and paints, tobacco smoking was significantly correlated with the concentrations of five pesticides used on tobacco crops. The distribution of pesticides with high DF in individual buildings suggested that pest eradication programs by the building management and/or pesticide use by residents were the major sources of measured pesticides.

IMPACT

Low-income social housing fills a much-needed demand, but the residences are prone to pest infestation and hence pesticide use. We found exposure to at least 1 of 28 particle-phase pesticides in 89% of all 46 units tested, with the highest DF and concentrations for current-use pyrethroids and long-banned organochlorines (e.g., DDT, heptachlor) due to very high persistence indoors. Also measured were several pesticides not registered for use indoors, e.g., strobilurins used to treat building materials and pesticides used on tobacco crops. These results, which are the first Canadian data for most pesticides indoors, show widespread exposure to numerous pesticides.

Do hazardous substances in demolition waste hinder circular economy?

Hazardous substances in demolition waste are often deemed a barrier to a circular economy owing to concerns about their fate in recycled materials. However, with the growing demand for recycling materials, it is essential to find circular solutions for construction materials but still protect health and the environment by managing hazardous substances. In this study, selected hazardous substance groups were analysed from demolition waste samples. Most of the concentrations did not raise any concerns when the safety of recycling materials was considered. However, the detection limits of laboratory chemical analysis can be discussed, as bromine was found in samples by an X-ray fluorescence (XRF)-analyser, but only one laboratory detected brominated flame retardants (BRFs). New technologies and practices are needed to follow the chemical content of materials used in the construction phase. Detecting hazardous substances in recyclable materials is the only way to achieve harmless material cycles.

Endocrine disrupting chemical mixture exposure and risk of papillary thyroid cancer in U.S. military personnel: A nested case-control study

Single-pollutant methods to evaluate associations between endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and thyroid cancer risk may not reflect realistic human exposures. Therefore, we evaluated associations between exposure to a mixture of 18 EDCs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), brominated flame retardants, and organochlorine pesticides, and risk of papillary thyroid cancer (PTC), the most common thyroid cancer histological subtype. We conducted a nested case-control study among U.S. military servicemembers of 652 histologically-confirmed PTC cases diagnosed between 2000 and 2013 and 652 controls, matched on birth year, sex, race/ethnicity, military component (active duty/reserve), and serum sample timing. We estimated mixture odds ratios (OR), 95% confidence intervals (95% CI), and standard errors (SE) for associations between pre-diagnostic serum EDC mixture concentrations, overall PTC risk, and risk of histological subtypes of PTC (classical, follicular), adjusted for body mass index and military branch, using quantile g-computation. Additionally, we identified relative contributions of individual mixture components to PTC risk, represented by positive and negative weights (w). A one-quartile increase in the serum mixture concentration was associated with a non-statistically significant increase in overall PTC risk (OR = 1.19; 95% CI = 0.91, 1.56; SE = 0.14). Stratified by histological subtype and race (White, Black), a one-quartile increase in the mixture was associated with increased classical PTC risk among those of White race (OR = 1.59; 95% CI = 1.06, 2.40; SE = 0.21), but not of Black race (OR = 0.95; 95% CI = 0.34, 2.68; SE = 0.53). PCBs 180, 199, and 118 had the greatest positive weights driving this association among those of White race (w = 0.312, 0.255, and 0.119, respectively). Findings suggest that exposure to an EDC mixture may be associated with increased classical PTC risk. These findings warrant further investigation in other study populations to better understand PTC risk by histological subtype and race.

Quantifying 209 Polychlorinated Biphenyl Congeners in Silicone Wristbands to Evaluate Differences in Exposure among Demolition Workers

A social housing estate in Denmark was designated for demolition due to exceedance of guidance values for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in indoor air. Here, we deployed precleaned silicone wristbands (n = 46) among demolition workers of these contaminated buildings during single workdays while conducting various work tasks. We established a method to analyze all 209 PCBs in wristbands to identify prominent congeners of exposure and evaluate differences between tasks. Wristbands were extracted using microwave-assisted extraction and then concentrated for gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) analysis. Twenty-nine chromatographic peaks representing 37 congeners were detected in every wristband, and tetra-CBs were the dominant homologue group. PCB-66, -44, and -70 were the most abundant congeners measured in worker wristbands, none of which are included within the typical seven indicator or WHO 12 PCBs. Workers who cut PCB-containing sealants had wristbands with the highest PCB concentrations (geometric mean ∑209PCBs = 1963 ng/g wristband), which were followed by those handling concrete elements on the building roof. Additionally, wristbands captured a broader range of PCBs than has been previously measured in air and serum samples. Taken together, our results highlight the importance of total congener analysis in assessing current PCB exposure in demolition work and the utility of wristbands for assessing these exposures.

Quantitative characterization of resident' exposure to typical semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) around a non-ferrous metal smelting plant

To comprehensively characterize residents' exposure to major semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), samples of indoor floor wipes, size-segregated airborne particles, gaseous air, food, and paired skin wipes were simultaneously collected from residential areas around a large non-ferrous metal smelting plant as compared with the control areas, and three typical SVOCs (including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and halogenated PAHs (HPAHs)) were determined. Comparison and correlation analysis among matrices indicated PAHs were the major contaminants emitted from metal smelting activities compared to HPAHs and PCBs, with naphthalene verified as the most important characteristic compound, and their accumulation on skin may be a comprehensive consequence of contact with floor dust and air. While patterns of human exposure pathways for the SVOCs were found to be clearly correlated to their vapor pressure, dermal absorption was the major contributor (51.1-76.3%) to total carcinogenic risk (TCR) of PAHs and HPAHs for surrounding residents, especially for low molecular weight PAHs, but dietary ingestion (98.6%) was the dominant exposure pathway to PCBs. The TCR of PAHs exceeded the acceptable level (1 × 10-4), implying smelting activities obviously elevated the health risk. This study will serve developing pertinent exposure and health risk prevention measures.

Advances in identifying and managing emerging contaminants in aquatic ecosystems: Analytical approaches, toxicity assessment, transformation pathways, environmental fate, and remediation strategies

Emerging contaminants (ECs) are increasingly recognized as threats to human health and ecosystems. This review evaluates advanced analytical methods, particularly mass spectrometry, for detecting ECs and understanding their toxicity, transformation pathways, and environmental distribution. Our findings underscore the reliability of current techniques and the potential of upcoming methods. The adverse effects of ECs on aquatic life necessitate both in vitro and in vivo toxicity assessments. Evaluating the distribution and degradation of ECs reveals that they undergo physical, chemical, and biological transformations. Remediation strategies such as advanced oxidation, adsorption, and membrane bioreactors effectively treat EC-contaminated waters, with combinations of these techniques showing the highest efficacy. To minimize the impact of ECs, a proactive approach involving monitoring, regulations, and public education is vital. Future research should prioritize the refining of detection methods and formulation of robust policies for EC management.

Organophosphate ester flame retardants and plasticizers in house dust and mental health outcomes among Canadian mothers: A nested prospective cohort study in CHILD

Organophosphate ester flame retardants and plasticizers (OPEs) are common exposures in modern built environments. Toxicological models report that some OPEs reduce dopamine and serotonin in the brain. Deficiencies in these neurotransmitters are associated with anxiety and depression. We hypothesized that exposure to higher concentrations of OPEs in house dust would be associated with a greater risk of depression and stress in mothers across the prenatal and postpartum periods. We conducted a nested prospective cohort study using data collected on mothers (n = 718) in the CHILD Cohort Study, a longitudinal multi-city Canadian birth cohort (2008-2012). OPEs were measured in house dust sampled at 3-4 months postpartum. Maternal depression and stress were measured at 18 and 36 weeks gestation and 6 months and 1 year postpartum using the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies for Depression Scale (CES-D) and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS). We used linear mixed models to examine the association between a summed Z-Score OPE index and continuous depression and stress scores. In adjusted models, one standard deviation increase in the OPE Z-score index was associated with a 0.07-point (95% CI: 0.01, 0.13) increase in PSS score. OPEs were not associated with log-transformed CES-D (β: 0.63%, 95% CI: -0.18%, 1.46%). The effect of OPEs on PSS score was strongest at 36 weeks gestation and weakest at 1 year postpartum. We observed small increases in maternal perceived stress levels, but not depression, with increasing OPEs measured in house dust during the prenatal and early postpartum period in this cohort of Canadian women. Given the prevalence of prenatal and postpartum anxiety and the ubiquity of OPE exposures, additional research is warranted to understand if these chemicals affect maternal mental health.

Airborne Pesticides-Deep Diving into Sampling and Analysis

The escalating utilization of pesticides has led to pronounced environmental contamination, posing a significant threat to agroecosystems. The extensive and persistent global application of these chemicals has been linked to a spectrum of acute and chronic human health concerns. This review paper focuses on the concentrations of airborne pesticides in both indoor and outdoor environments. The collection of diverse pesticide compounds from the atmosphere is examined, with a particular emphasis on active and passive air sampling techniques. Furthermore, a critical evaluation is conducted on the methodologies employed for the extraction and subsequent quantification of airborne pesticides. This analysis takes into consideration the complexities involved in ensuring accurate measurements, highlighting the advancements and limitations of current practices. By synthesizing these aspects, this review aims to foster a more comprehensive and informed comprehension of the intricate dynamics related to the presence and measurement of airborne pesticides. This, in turn, is poised to significantly contribute to the refinement of environmental monitoring strategies and the augmentation of precise risk assessments.

Comparison of pollution status and source apportionment for PCBs and OCPs of indoor dust from an industrial city

In this study, the pollution status of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) was investigated in indoor and outdoor dust from three different functional areas of Hefei, China. The relationship between the concentrations of PCBs and OCPs and different influencing factors in dwellings was studied. The results showed that the concentrations of PCBs and OCPs were higher in samples from dwellings with higher smoking frequency, lower cleaning frequency, higher floors and smaller household size. The results of Spearman's correlation coefficient analysis indicated that PCBs and OCPs were not consistently associated with each other, while sources of low-chlorinated PCBs and high-chlorinated PCBs were different. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) shows the shape of indoor dust was a mixture of blocky, flocculated, spherical structures, and irregular shapes. The results of principal component analysis (PCA) and positive matrix factorization model (PMF) showed that the PCBs and OCPs of indoor dust came from both indoor and outdoor sources between local and regional transport. Carbon (δ¹³C) and Nitrogen (δ¹⁵N) stable isotope results indicate or show that the indoor dust (δ¹³C: - 24.37‰, δ¹⁵N: 6.88‰) and outdoor dust (δ¹³C: - 12.65‰, δ¹⁵N: 2.558‰) is derived from fossil fuel, coal combustion, road dust, fly ash, C4 biomass and soil. Potential source contribution factor (PSCF) and concentration weighted-trajectory analysis suggest that sources of pollutants were local and regional transport from surrounding provinces and marine emissions. The average daily dose (adult: 8.20E-04, children: 2.37E-03) of pollutants and the carcinogenic risks (adult: 1.23E-02, children: 2.65E-02) were relatively greater for children than adults. This study demonstrates the utility of SEM to characterize indoor dust morphology while combining PMF, PSCF, and stable isotope methods in identifying indoor PCBs and OCPs sources and regions.

Characterization of organic contaminants associated with road dust of Delhi NCR, India

Hydrophobic organic contaminated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and CHNS (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur species) are explosively associated with road dust particles. A few organic contaminants are toxic in nature and have an unpleasant effect on human health. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), the US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the United States-Environmental Protection Agency has considered several PAHs and PCBs as carcinogens for human beings. In the proposed study, the anthropogenic contaminants present in road dust were assessed in six representative diversified sites i.e. industrial, commercial, office, residential, construction and traffic intersection in Delhi NCR, India. Roadside dust samples were gathered in premonsoon, monsoon and postmonsoon seasons and characterized for PAHs, PCBs and CHNS. The concentration of total PAHs (16 Nos) and PCBs (6 Nos) of the selected sites ranged from 0.27 µg/kg to 605.80 µg/kg and 0.01 µg/kg to 41.26 µg/kg, respectively. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy-attenuated total reflectance study suggested that the presence of O = C = O, Si-O, carbonyl, acidic or aliphatic esters group were associated with road dust particles. Hydrogen and sulphur concentrations were not detected in the selected road dust samples. Carbon and nitrogen concentrations varied from 2.24% to 16.82% and 0.69% to 14.5%, respectively, seasonally. In the premonsoon season, road dust was distinguishably contaminated as compared to monsoon and postmonsoon season, which might be due to movement of contaminated road dust from adjacent locations. It was perceived that Delhi NCR organic contamination in road dust was much below as compared to other countries. It may be concluded that due to the presence of significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen concentrations in the road dust, to a greater extent, road dust can be fertile and might be advantageous for green belt development to mitigate air pollution. The utilization of road dust will further bring down the burden of landfill sites and may lead towards sustainability.

Risk of cardiovascular diseases following residential exposure to airborne polychlorinated biphenyls: A register-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Indoor air in buildings constructed with materials containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may be contaminated with especially lower-chlorinated PCBs. So far, the cardiovascular consequences of living with such contamination are unknown.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) following residential exposure to predominantly lower-chlorinated PCBs in indoor air.

METHODS

The Health Effects of PCBs in Indoor Air (HESPAIR) cohort is register-based with 51 921 residents of two residential areas near Copenhagen: Farum Midtpunkt and Brøndby Strand Parkerne. Here, indoor air was contaminated with PCB in one third of the apartments due to construction with materials containing PCB. Individual PCB exposure was estimated based on register-based information on relocation dates and indoor air PCB measurements in subsets of the apartments. Information on CVD was retrieved from the Danish National Patient Register for the follow-up period of 1977-2018. We estimated adjusted hazard ratios using Cox regression with time-varying exposure.

RESULTS

Cumulative residential exposure to airborne PCB was not associated with a higher overall risk for CVD (HR for highly exposed (≥3300 ng/m³ PCB × year): 1.02, 95% CI 0.94-1.10). This was also the case for most of the specific cardiovascular diseases, apart from acute myocardial infarction where a higher risk was observed for residents exposed to ≥3300 ng/m³ PCB × year compared to the reference group (HR 1.17, 95% CI 1.00-1.35). However, no exposure-response relationship was apparent and additional adjustment for education attenuated the risk estimate.

DISCUSSION

In this, to our knowledge, first study ever to examine the risk of CVD following residential exposure to PCBs in indoor air, we observed limited support for cardiovascular effects of living in PCB-contaminated indoor air. Considering the prevalence of exposure to airborne PCBs and lack of literature on their potential health effects, these findings need to be corroborated in other studies.

Outdoor Atmospheric Micro-/Nanomineral-Mediated Organochlorine Pesticides in Sichuan Basin, China: Adsorption, Occurrence, and Risk Assessment

Atmospheric micro-/nanominerals play an important role in the adsorption, enrichment, and migration of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). In the present study, the correlations between OCPs and minerals in outdoor atmospheric dustfall were investigated, and the correlations were used to speculate the source of p,p'-(dicofol+dichlorobenzophenone [DBP]), which is the sum of p,p'-dicofol and p,p'-DBP. Atmospheric dustfall samples were collected from 53 sites in the Chengdu-Deyang-Mianyang economic region in the Sichuan basin. In this region, 24 OCPs were analyzed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The average concentration of 24 OCPs was 51.2 ± 27.4 ng/g. The results showed that the concentration of Σ₂₄ OCPs in urban areas was higher than that in suburban areas (p < 0.05). Minerals in atmospheric dustfall were semiquantitatively analyzed by X-ray diffraction. The primary minerals were quartz, calcite, and gypsum. A Spearman correlation analysis of OCPs and minerals showed that low-volatility OCPs could be adsorbed by minerals in atmospheric dustfall. A density functional theory simulation verified that p,p'-(dicofol+DBP) in atmospheric dustfall was primarily derived from the p,p'-dicofol adsorbed by gypsum. Isomeric ratio results suggested that the samples had weathered lindane and chlordane profiles and confirmed that residents in the Sichuan basin used technical dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane. Finally, the OCPs were evaluated to determine the potential risk of cancer in adults and children from OCP exposure. Exposure to OCPs via atmospheric dustfall was safe for adults. The cancer risk for children exposed to OCPs was slightly lower than the threshold value (10^-6 ) under a high dust ingestion rate, which poses a concern. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:594-604. © 2022 SETAC.

A new insight into the emission source of DDT in indoor environment from rural area of South China and comprehensive human health exposure assessment

Human exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and the subsequent risk to human health remain an important concern due to the "new" input of DDTs in the environment, especially since exposure to DDTs in indoor microenvironments is often ignored. In this study, we identified a new source of DDT emission in indoor environments and evaluated the health risk from the exposure to DDTs by investigating DDTs in indoor and outdoor dust, air, and coatings of household items in rural areas of Qingyuan, South China. The concentrations of DDTs in house dust and air were < MQL (method quantification limit)-3450 ng/g (median 42.4 ng/g) and 22.7-965 pg/m³ (median 49.5 pg/m³), respectively, which were significantly higher than the outdoor DDT values. Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) was the main isomer in air samples, while DDT was the dominant isomer in indoor dust. Significant correlations between different DDT isomers were observed in indoor samples but not in outdoor samples. Furniture coating was identified as a source of DDTs in the indoor dust. The total daily exposure dose of DDTs (1.75 × 10^-2 ng/kg bw/day for adults and 1.28 × 10^-1 ng/kg bw/day for toddlers) through inhalation, dust ingestion, and dermal contact was found unlikely to pose a health risk. Our findings provide new insights into the emission sources and health risks caused by DDT indoors, highlighting the need to further investigate the toxicity mechanisms of parent DDT compound.

Inhalation and dermal absorption as dominant pathways of PCB exposure for residents of contaminated apartment buildings

Applications of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in buildings and their persistence in indoor environments have led to cases of current and highly elevated exposure in humans, despite the global cease of production decades ago. Personal exposure to PCBs was assessed among residents in a social housing estate in Denmark containing both contaminated (n = 67) and non-contaminated (n = 23) apartments. Samples and estimated daily intakes (EDIs) were assessed for 15 PCB congeners, and body burden, which was limited by the dietary data availability, was compared across 7 indicator PCBs, with its sum (PCB_sum7) often applied in European regulation of PCBs. Median PCB_sum7 EDI across measured pathways for exposed residents was 101 ng· (kg bodyweight)^-1· day^-1, with the majority of exposure (60%) coming from inhalation of contaminated indoor air. Calculated from both PCBs measured in indoor air and on hand wipes, dermal absorption estimates showed comparable results and served as a secondary exposure pathway, accounting for 35% of personal exposure and considering selected assumptions and sources of physical-chemical parameters. Estimates revealed that diet was the primary PCB source among the reference group, accounting for over 75% of the PCB_sum7 EDI across exposure routes. When evaluating overall EDIs across the two study groups and including dietary estimates, PCB exposure among exposed residents was around 10 times higher than the reference group. Solely within the exposed population, pathway-specific body burdens were calculated to account for exposure across years of residence in contaminated apartments, where lower chlorinated PCBs were dominant in indoor air. Among these dominant congeners, estimated body burdens of PCB-28 and -52 were significantly correlated with measured serum (r_s = 0.49, 0.45; p < 0.001). This study demonstrates that inhalation and dermal absorption serve as dominant exposure pathways for residents of apartments contaminated with predominantly lower chlorinated PCBs and suggest that predictions of body burden from indoor environment measurements may be comparable to measured serum PCBs.

A Review of Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Pollution in the Air: Where and How Much Are We Exposed to?

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were widely used in industrial and commercial applications, until they were banned in the late 1970s as a result of their significant environmental pollution. PCBs in the environment gained scientific interest because of their persistence and the potential threats they pose to humans. Traditionally, human exposure to PCBs was linked to dietary ingestion. Inhalational exposure to these contaminants is often overlooked. This review discusses the occurrence and distribution of PCBs in environmental matrices and their associated health impacts. Severe PCB contamination levels have been reported in e-waste recycling areas. The occurrence of high PCB levels, notably in urban and industrial areas, might result from extensive PCB use and intensive human activity. Furthermore, PCB contamination in the indoor environment is ten-fold higher than outdoors, which may present expose risk for humans through the inhalation of contaminated air or through the ingestion of dust. In such settings, the inhalation route may contribute significantly to PCB exposure. The data on human health effects due to PCB inhalation are scarce. More epidemiological studies should be performed to investigate the inhalation dose and response mechanism and to evaluate the health risks. Further studies should also evaluate the health impact of prolonged low-concentration PCB exposure.

Application of a pharmacokinetic model in characterizing sources of polychlorinated biphenyl exposure and determining threshold daily intakes for adverse health effects in infants and toddlers

Characterization of PCB exposure sources for vulnerable population groups is essential to minimize the health effects of PCB exposure. At the same time, it is important to consolidate the knowledge on threshold intakes of PCBs for infants and toddlers to prevent health effects. We estimated total PCB concentrations from birth to 2 years of age in children from Slovak and Czech populations, which continue to have high PCB concentrations in breast milk. Using a pharmacokinetic (PK) model, we characterized dominant PCB exposure sources and estimated new threshold estimated daily intakes (TEDI) (above which adverse effects cannot be excluded) for postnatal PCB exposure in infants and toddlers. In the PK model, concentrations of seven indicator PCBs in breast milk and cord blood samples from 291 mother-child pairs from the Slovak birth cohort, and 396 breast milk samples from Czech mothers we used, together with their physiological characteristics and PCB concentrations from other exposure sources (food, dust, air). The estimated total PCB concentrations in children's blood at different ages were compared with threshold PCB concentrations of 500, 700 and 1000 ng·g_lipid^-1 in serum proposed by the French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES) and the German Environment Agency (UBA), above which possible adverse health effects may be expected. We estimated that up to 20.6% of Slovak children and up to 45.7% of Czech children at two years of age exceeded the threshold value of 700 ng·g_lipid^-1 in blood. Mean TEDIs leading to values of 500 ng·g_lipid^-1 in blood for children up to two years ranged between 110 and 220 ng·kg^-1·bw·day^-1, varying according to breastfeeding duration. Breast milk and prenatal exposure contributed to 71%-85% of PCBs exposure at two years of age. In contrast, the contributions of PCBs from dust and indoor air were negligible.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) in the Environment: Occupational and Exposure Events, Effects on Human Health and Fertility

In the last decade or so, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) garnered renewed attention in the scientific community due to new evidence pointing at their continued presence in the environment and workplaces and the potential human risks related to their presence. PCBs move from the environment to humans through different routes; the dominant pathway is the ingestion of contaminated foods (fish, seafood and dairy products), followed by inhalation (both indoor and outdoor air), and, to a lesser extent, dust ingestion and dermal contact. Numerous studies reported the environmental and occupational exposure to these pollutants, deriving from building materials (flame-retardants, plasticizers, paints, caulking compounds, sealants, fluorescent light ballasts, etc.) and electrical equipment. The highest PCBs contaminations were detected in e-waste recycling sites, suggesting the need for the implementation of remediation strategies of such polluted areas to safeguard the health of workers and local populations. Furthermore, a significant correlation between PCB exposure and increased blood PCB concentrations was observed in people working in PCB-contaminated workplaces. Several epidemiological studies suggest that environmental and occupational exposure to high concentrations of PCBs is associated with different health outcomes, such as neuropsychological and neurobehavioral deficits, dementia, immune system dysfunctions, cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In addition, recent studies indicate that PCBs bioaccumulation can reduce fertility, with harmful effects on the reproductive system that can be passed to offspring. In the near future, further studies are needed to assess the real effects of PCBs exposure at low concentrations for prolonged exposure in workplaces and specific indoor environments.

Pesticides in doormat and floor dust from homes close to treated fields: Spatio-temporal variance and determinants of occurrence and concentrations

Indoor dust has been postulated as an important matrix for residential pesticide exposure. However, there is a lack of information on presence, concentrations and determinants of multiple pesticides in dust in residential homes close to treated fields. Our objective was to characterize the spatial and temporal variance of pesticides in house dust, study the use of doormats and floors as proxies for pesticides in indoor dust and identify determinants of occurrence and concentrations. Homes within 250 m from selected bulb fields were invited to participate. Homes within 20 km from these fields but not having agricultural fields within 500 m were selected as controls. House dust was vacuumed in all homes from floors (VFD) and from newly placed clean doormats (DDM). Sampling was done during two periods, when pesticides are used and not-used. For determination of 46 prioritized pesticides, a multi-residue extraction method was used. Most statistical analyses are focused on the 12 and 14 pesticides that were detected in >40% of DDM and VFD samples, respectively. Mixed models were used to evaluate relationships between possible determinants and pesticides occurrence and concentrations in DDM and VFD. 17 pesticides were detected in more than 50% of the homes in both matrixes. Concentrations differed by about a factor five between use and non-use periods among homes within 250 m of fields and between these homes and controls. For 7 pesticides there was a moderate to strong correlation (Spearman rho 0.30-0.75) between concentrations in DDM and VFD. Distance to agricultural fields and air concentrations were among the most relevant predictors for occurrence and levels of a given pesticide in DDM. Concentrations in dust are overall higher during application periods and closer to fields (<250 m) than further away. The omnipresence of pesticides in dust lead to residents being exposed all year round.

Photocatalytic Degradation of Dielectric Mineral Oil with PCBs Content Coupled with Algae Treatment

Insulating oil contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is an environmentally important pollutant. This research focused on the establishment of the optimum conditions under which photocatalytic oxidation can be used together with biotreatment using the Nostoc sp. microorganism to degrade PCBs present in used dielectric oils. Among the optimal conditions studied were PCB concentration, initial pH, and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) concentration for the photocatalytic step, and PCB concentration and photoperiod for the biotreatment step. The results indicate that the optimal conditions necessary for photocatalytic degradation were a pH of 6.10, 113 mg/L TiO₂, and 765 mg/L PCBs, achieving close to 90% removal. For the biotreatment step, the results showed that PCBs progressively inhibited the microbiological growth, with the lowest cellular growth observed in the medium with the highest PCB concentration.

An overview of organic contaminants in indoor dust, their health impact, geographical distribution and recent extraction/analysis methods

People spend a substantial proportion of their time indoors; therefore, exposure to contaminants in indoor dust is persistent and profuse. According to the findings of recent studies, contaminants such as flame retardants (FRs), organochlorines (OCs), and phthalate esters (PAEs) are more prevalent in indoor dust. The discrepancy in the geographical distribution of these chemicals indicates country-specific applications. However, many studies have revealed that chlorophosphates, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate are frequently detected in indoor dust throughout the world. Although some chemicals (e.g., OCs) were banned/severely restricted decades ago, they have still been detected in indoor dust. These organic contaminants have shown clear evidence of carcinogenic, neurotoxic, immunogenic, and estrogenic activities. Recent extraction methods have shown their advantages, such as high recoveries, less solvent consumption, less extraction time and simplicity of use. The latest separation techniques such as two-dimensional gas/liquid chromatography, latest ionization techniques (e.g., matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI)), and modern techniques of mass spectrometry (e.g., tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS), time-of-flight (TOF) and high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS)) improve the detection limits, accuracy, reproducibility and simultaneous detection of organic contaminants. For future perspectives, it is suggested that the importance of the study of dust morphology for comprehensive risk analysis, introducing standard reference materials to strengthen the analytical methods, adopt common guidelines for comparison of research findings and the importance of dust analysis in the developing world since lack of records on the production and usage of hazardous substances. Such measures will help to evaluate the effectiveness of prevailing legislations and to set up new regulations.

Concentrations of halogenated flame retardants and polychlorinated biphenyls in house dust from Lagos, Nigeria

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) are regulated under the Stockholm Convention of the United Nations' Environment Programme; with similar concerns emerging about alternative halogenated flame retardants (alt-HFRs), the use of which is increasing as replacements for PBDEs and HBCDD. While the presence in indoor dust of PCBs, PBDEs, and HBCDDs has been reported previously in a few African locations including Lagos, Nigeria, we are unaware of similar data for alt-HFRs. The present study thus aimed to provide the first information on alt-HFRs in indoor dust in sub-Saharan Africa, and to evaluate the impact of restrictions on the use of PBDEs, HBCDD, and PCBs on their concentrations in house dust in Lagos, Nigeria. Concentrations of ∑₈PBDEs, ∑HBCDDs, ∑₇alt-HFRs, and ∑₈PCBs in 15 samples of dust from homes in Lagos, Nigeria were found to be: 43-810 (median = 300) ng g^-1, <dl - 66 (median = <dl) ng g^-1, 32-2600 (median = 320) ng g^-1 and 3.8-61 (median = 18) ng g^-1 respectively. The dominant PBDE was BDE-209, its replacement decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) was the predominant alt-HFR, while PCB-138 displayed the highest concentration of the 8 PCBs targeted. Likely due to their higher vapour pressures, concentrations of the non-arochlor PCB 11, as well as those of PCB 28, and PBDE 28 were below detection limits. Concentrations of PBDEs and PCBs reported are generally below those reported previously for Lagos, Nigeria; suggesting restrictions on their manufacture and use have been effective. In contrast, while concentrations of BDE-209 in this study were lower than in one previous study in Lagos, they exceeded those in another; implying that the more recent restrictions on the deca-BDE product have yet to be fully effective. The evidence presented here of concentrations of alt-HFRs in Nigerian house dust provide a valuable benchmark against which future trends in their concentrations may be evaluated.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in indoor dust from urban dwellings of Lahore, Pakistan: Congener profile, toxicity equivalency, and human health implications

This study is the pioneer assessment of the PCBs in indoor dust particles (from air conditioners) of an urbanized megacity from South Asian. The ∑₃₅ PCB concentration ranged from 0.27 to 152.9 ng/g (mean: 24.84 ± 22.10 ng/g). The tri- and tetra-PCBs were dominant homologues, contributing 57.36% of the total PCB concentrations. The mean levels of Σ₈ -dioxin-like (DL), Σ₆ -indicator PCBs and WHO₂₀₀₅ -TEQ for DL-PCBs were 2.22 ± 2.55 ng/g, 9.49 ± 8.04 ng/g and 4.77 ± 4.89 pg/g, respectively. The multiple linear regression indicated a significant correlation of dusting frequency (p = 1.06 × 10-04) and age of the house (p = 1.02 × 10-06) with PCB concentrations in indoor environment. The spatial variation of PCB profile revealed relatively higher concentrations from sites near to illegal waste burning spots, electrical locomotive workshops, and grid stations. Human health risk assessment of PCBs for adults and toddlers through all three exposure routes (ie, inhalation, ingestion, and dermal contact) demonstrated that toddlers were vulnerable to high cancer risk (4.32 × 10^-04 ), while adults were susceptible from low to moderate levels of risk (3.16 × 10^-05 ). Therefore, comprehensive investigations for PCBs in the indoor settings, focusing particularly on the sensitive populations with relationship to the electronic devices, transformers, and illegal waste burning sites, are recommended.

Indoor/outdoor relationships, signatures, sources, and carcinogenic risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons-enriched PM2.5 in an emerging port of northern China

Humans spend most of their time in indoor environments, thus a thorough understanding of indoor and outdoor PM_2.5-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) origins for accurate assessment of health risks is required. In the present study, 84 pairs of PM_2.5 samples from indoor (laboratory) and outdoor (campus) locations were collected from April to December 2018 in Caofeidian, China. The annual median concentration of PM_2.5 outdoors was 90.80 µg/m³, 9.08 times higher than the annual standard of WHO guideline (10 µg/m³). Indoor PM_2.5 annual median concentration (41.80 µg/m³) was also higher than the annual standard of ASHRAE guideline (15 µg/m³). The annual median concentrations of ∑₁₈PAHs indoors (44.23 ng/m³) and outdoors (189.6 ng/m³) were highest in winter and descended in the order of autumn > spring > summer. Contrary to summer and autumn, indoor/outdoor concentration ratios were less than 1 in spring and winter, indicating that the contribution of outdoor particle infiltration was more significant than that of indoor sources. The positive matrix factorization model suggested that indoor PAHs came from three sources: vehicle emissions (43%), biomass burning (37%), industry emissions, and coal combustion (20%). Outdoor PAHs came from four sources: petroleum volatilization (39%), vehicle emissions (30%), coal combustion (18%), and biomass burning (13%). The incremental lifetime cancer risk values of indoor and outdoor PAHs in winter exceeded the acceptable level (10^-6), and the carcinogenic risk of adults was higher than that of children and teenagers. These results indicated that simultaneous monitoring of indoor and outdoor PAHs is recommended for accurate assessment of health risk, and the analysis in the current work should be helpful to formulate policies to reduce PAHs emissions.

Room-to-Room Variability of Airborne Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Schools and the Application of Air Sampling for Targeted Source Evaluation

Airborne polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations are higher indoors than outdoors due to their historical use in building materials and their presence in modern paints and surface treatments. For some populations, including school children, PCB levels indoors result in inhalation exposures that may be greater than or equivalent to exposure through diet. In a school, PCB exposure may come from multiple sources. We hypothesized that there are both Aroclor and non-Aroclor sources within a single school and that PCB concentration and congener profiles differ among rooms within a single building. To evaluate this hypothesis and to identify potential localized sources, we measured airborne PCBs in nine rooms in a school. We found that schoolroom concentrations exceed outdoor air concentrations. Schoolroom concentrations and congener profiles also varied from one room to another. The concentrations were highest in the math room (35.75 ng m-3 ± 8.08) and lowest in the practice gym (1.54 ng m-3 ± 0.35). Rooms in the oldest wing of the building, originally constructed between 1920 and 1970, had the highest concentrations. The congener distribution patterns indicate historic use of Aroclor 1254 as well as modern sources of non-Aroclor congeners associated with paint pigments and surface coatings. Our findings suggest this noninvasive source identification method presents an opportunity for targeted source testing for more cost-effective prioritization of materials remediation in schools.

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in air-conditioner filter dust of indoor urban setting: Implication for health risk in a developing country

This preliminary investigation highlights the occurrence of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) in the indoor environment of a megacity, Lahore, Pakistan using the dust ensnared by air-conditioner filters. The Σ₁₆ OCPs concentration ranged from 7.53 to 1272.87 ng/g with the highest percent contribution by ΣDDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; 87.21%) and aldrin (6.58%). The spatial variation of OCPs profile revealed relatively higher concentration from homes near to agricultural and abandoned DDT manufacturing sites. Calculated isomer ratios revealed historic sources of hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and the fresh input of technical DDT and chlordane by the dwellers. The air conditioner dust was helpful to better understand the health risk in the indoor environment. So far a high lifetime cancer risk (10^-3 ) was predicted for toddlers via accidental ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure. Similarly, the non-carcinogenic risk-based hazard quotient was found to be high for toddlers (6.94) and within the permissible limit (<1) for adults.

Emerging investigator series: air conditioning filters as a sampler for semi-volatile organic compounds in indoor and near-building air

Organic compounds like flame retardants (FRs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are consistently found in both indoor and outdoor environments. There are many possible matrices for measurement of these compounds (e.g. indoor dust, air - passive and active air samples), but all methods have limitations, like the heterogeneous distribution of indoor dust, or noisy active air samplers. We used filters from building-wide heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) units to evaluate levels of PAHs, PCBs, OCPs and NFRs in indoor and outdoor environments, and to evaluate whether this method is feasible for screening semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in indoor and near-building outdoor environments. Detectable levels of FRs, PCBs, OCPs and PAHs were found, demonstrating that HVAC filters do collect SVOCs, with generally higher levels of PAHs in the incoming air filters and higher levels of PCBs, OCPs and FRs in the outgoing air filters. Levels of FRs, PCBs and OCPs in outgoing air were comparable to those measured using conventional active air sampling in the same building. The advantages of using HVAC filters are (1) integrated and homogeneous samples, as the whole building is sampled over typically a long timescale (months), and (2) samples are easy and cheap to collect and do not require prior deployment of samplers. The key disadvantage is that HVAC filters are not designed for analytical chemistry and thus the filter materials can have variable or unknown gas sorption and particle capture, and can have strong matrix effects during analysis.

Investigating the presence of emerging and legacy POPs in European domestic air

Presence of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and dechlorane plus (DP) were evaluated in indoor domestic air from four European countries (Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal). The main pollutants were hexachlorohexanes (sum of α-, β- and γ-HCH; ΣHCHs) and ΣPCBs (sum of PCB-28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153 and 180), with median concentrations of 366 and 306 pg/m³, respectively. By decreasing order came hexachlorobenzene (HCB; 130 pg/m³), ΣDDXs (sum of DDTs, DDEs and DDDs; 94.4 pg/m³), ΣPBDEs (sum of BDE-17, 28, 47, 66, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, 206, 207 and 209; 6.08 pg/m³) and DP (0.30 pg/m³). Lower ΣPCBs and ΣDDXs levels were found at Portuguese homes compared to Belgian, Italian and Spanish households. Italian samples presented also lower ΣHCHs concentrations while Spanish homes revealed higher HCB and BDE-209 indoor air concentrations than those obtained in the other countries. ΣHCHs, ΣDDXs and ΣPBDE levels mirrored lindane, dicofol and Penta-, DecaBDE use, respectively. The influence of building characteristics, surroundings and inhabitants habits on pollutant air concentrations was investigated. Data generated were used to conduct a human exposure assessment for toddlers and adults with median (P50) and upper (P95) concentrations. Results indicated that health risk posed by inhalation of ΣPCBs, ΣHCHs, ΣDDXs, HCB, ΣPBDEs and DP were 2 to 5 orders of magnitude lower than oral Reference Dose (RfD) values, and 90 (PCB-28) and 12 (γ-HCH) times lower than Minimal Risk Levels (MRLs) for toddlers at the worst case scenario.

Passive air sampling for semi-volatile organic chemicals

During passive air sampling, the amount of a chemical taken up in a sorbent from the air without the help of a pump is quantified and converted into an air concentration. In an equilibrium sampler, this conversion requires a thermodynamic parameter, the equilibrium sorption coefficient between gas-phase and sorbent. In a kinetic sampler, a time-averaged air concentration is obtained using a sampling rate, which is a kinetic parameter. Design requirements for kinetic and equilibrium sampling conflict with each other. The volatility of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) varies over five orders of magnitude, which implies that passive air samplers are inevitably kinetic samplers for less volatile SVOCs and equilibrium samplers for more volatile SVOCs. Therefore, most currently used passive sampler designs for SVOCs are a compromise that requires the consideration of both a thermodynamic and a kinetic parameter. Their quantitative interpretation depends on assumptions that are rarely fulfilled, and on input parameters, that are often only known with high uncertainty. Kinetic passive air sampling for SVOCs is also challenging because their typically very low atmospheric concentrations necessitate relatively high sampling rates that can only be achieved without the use of diffusive barriers. This in turn renders sampling rates dependent on wind conditions and therefore highly variable. Despite the overall high uncertainty arising from these challenges, passive air samplers for SVOCs have valuable roles to play in recording (i) spatial concentration variability at scales ranging from a few centimeters to tens of thousands of kilometers, (ii) long-term trends, (iii) air contamination in remote and inaccessible locations and (iv) indoor inhalation exposure. Going forward, thermal desorption of sorbents may lower the detection limits for some SVOCs to an extent that the use of diffusive barriers in the kinetic sampling of SVOCs becomes feasible, which is a prerequisite to decreasing the uncertainty of sampling rates. If the thermally stable sorbent additionally has a high sorptive capacity, it may be possible to design true kinetic samplers for most SVOCs. In the meantime, the passive air sampling community would benefit from being more transparent by rigorously quantifying and explicitly reporting uncertainty.

The effect of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) on bovine oviductal contractions and LIF synthesis during estrous cycle, in vitro studies

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of synthetic xenobiotics that have been used in many industrial applications. Currently, PCBs are among the most prominent environmental contaminants. Previously we showed that PCBs impair secretion of prostaglandins (PGs) at the oviduct. PGs are involved in the regulation of oviductal contractions and the synthesis of leukemia inhibitory factors LIF. Since oviductal contractions are crucial for gamete and embryo transport, and LIF is essential for embryo implantation, the direct effect of PCBs on oviductal motor activity and LIF mRNA expression were investigated. Oviductal strips and cells were taken from cows during the estrous cycle and were treated with PCBs at concentrations close to their environmental ranges. All the studied PCBs decreased the force of the contractions of the longitudinal and circular muscles of the isthmus. Additionally, these PCBs decreased the amplitude of the longitudinal muscle of the oviduct. Moreover, PCB-30-OH and PCB-153 increased the mRNA expression of LIF. Since PCBs inhibit the motor function of the oviduct and stimulate the synthesis of LIF, it is possible that PCBs can slow gamete or embryo transport and increase the potential for pathological embryo implantation in the oviduct.

Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorines pesticides in indoor dust: An exploration of sources and health exposure risk in a rural area (Kopawa) of Nepal

While contamination of indoor environment with organochlorine compounds (OCs) is well documented worldwide, only a few studies highlighted the problem of indoor pollution in Indian sub-continent, including Nepal. This study insight the contamination level, distribution pattern, and sources of OCs in indoor dust from a rural area of Nepal. Additionally, daily exposure risk through different intake pathways was estimated in order to mark the potential risk of OCs to local residents. Results indicated the predominance of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in dust. Ʃ₂₆OCPs (median 87 ng/g) in dust was about 7-8 times greater than Ʃ₃₀PCBs (median 10.5 ng/g). DDT was the most abundant chemical among Ʃ₂₆OCPs, followed by HCHs and endosulfan, and accounted for 73%, 7%, and 4% of Ʃ₂₆OCPs, respectively. A relatively high level of ƩDDT than other OCPs suggests the existence of DDT source in the Nepalese environment. Among PCB, tetra-CBs were most prevalent, trailed by penta-CBs, hexa-CBs, and hepta-CBs, and comprised 28%, 21%, 17% and 17% of Ʃ₃₀PCBs, respectively. Dioxin like-PCBs (median 3.48 ng/g) was about two times higher than the total indicator-PCB (median 1.63 ng/g). High p,p-DDT/p,p-DDE ratio (median 2.89) suggested fresh application and minimal degradation of DDT in the local environment of Kopawa. While lower α-/γ-HCH ratio (median 0.75) indicated lindane contamination as the primary sources of HCH. Moreover, the low α-/β-endosulfan ratio (median 0.86) specified the fresh use of commercial endosulfan. Among OCPs, only DDT positively related to total organic carbon (TOC) (Rho = 0.55, p < 0.05) but not black carbon (BC), proposing minimal or zero impact of TOC and BC. For PCBs, PCB-126 was moderately and negatively correlated with TOC (Rho = -0.49, p < 0.05), but not BC. The daily risk exposure (DRE) assessment showed that children are more vulnerable to OCs than the adult. The DRE of OCs in this study were 2-4 order of magnitude lower than their corresponding reference dose (RfD), proposing insignificant risk.

Levels and characteristics of polychlorinated biphenyls in surface sediments of the Chaobai river, a source of drinking water for Beijing, China

We collected surface sediments from the Chaobai river, the dominant source of drinking water for Beijing, China, to assess the status of contamination by polychlorinated biphenyls and evaluate their sources. Total concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls in the sediments ranged from 0.125 to 70.6 ng/g dry weight and correlated with the locations relating to painting operation such as printing factories and construction material markets. Dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls were present and corresponded with constituents of commercial polychlorinated biphenyl mixtures. Principal component analysis indicated two dominant sources of polychlorinated biphenyls in the sediments-deposition from airborne emissions and point-source pollution from factories. An ecological risk assessment concluded that there was only slight polychlorinated biphenyl pollution in the sediments of the Chaobai river, which was not likely to induce adverse biological effects. Our findings provide information for polychlorinated biphenyl risk assessment and recognition of the dominant sources of these compounds in drinking water in China.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls and legacy and current pesticides in indoor environment in Australia - occurrence, sources and exposure risks

Paired indoor air and floor dust samples were collected from residential houses and offices (n = 28) in two Australian cities in 2015. For the air samples, a modified passive air sampler (PAS) was used to collect semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in gaseous phase and airborne particles simultaneously. Sampling rates (R) of the PAS for gaseous SVOCs ranged from 0.69 to 3.4 m³ sampler^-1 day^-1. Out of the 33 analytes, 22, 14 and 17 compounds were detected (above the method detection limit) in over 50% of air, airborne particles and floor dust samples respectively. The highest median level in air, airborne particles and floor dust was observed for phenanthrene (2.0 ng m^-3), permethrin (8800 ng g^-1) and permethrin (5100 ng g^-1) respectively. Among polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, with few exceptions, the largest contribution was from 3,3'-dichlorobiphenyl (PCB11) for both indoor air and floor dust samples. In these houses and offices, the indoor level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) was mainly influenced by ambient (outdoor) air. Primary sources of PCBs were from within indoor environments and generally older houses have higher concentrations in air. Among pesticides, hexachlorobenzene in indoor environments appeared to be due to transfer from outdoor sources whereas chlordanes and pyrethroids were associated with past and current household application respectively. Compared to data from other countries/regions, concentrations of chlordanes, chlorpyrifos and pyrethroids in indoor air and dust samples from Australia were among the highest whereas PCB and PAH levels were among the lowest. The sum of estimated daily intakes (EDIs) via inhalation and dust contact and ingestion were calculated. The highest median value of EDI was observed for permethrin at 2.8 (for adults) and 74 ng kg^-1 day^-1 (for toddlers), which are <0.15% of the U.S. EPA reference dose.

Higher health risk resulted from dermal exposure to PCBs than HFRs and the influence of haze

To investigate the influence of haze on human dermal exposure to a series of halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), paired forehead wipes were collected from 46 volunteers (23 males, 23 females) using gauze pads soaked in isopropyl alcohol under heavy and light haze pollution levels. The median levels of ∑₂₇HFRs and ∑₂₇PCBs in all 92 samples were 672 and 1300ng/m², respectively. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) (171ng/m²) and decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) (134ng/m²) were the dominant components of HFRs, indicating that dermal exposure may also be the significant pathway for non-volatile compounds. PCB-37 contributed the most to ∑₂₇PCBs, with a median concentration of 194ng/m², followed by PCB-60 (141ng/m²). Generally, PBDE, PCB and DD (dehalogenated derivatives of DPs) levels on the foreheads of female participants (291, 1340, 0.92ng/m²) were higher (p=0.037, 0.001, and 0.031, respectively) than those of male participants (226, 989, and 0.45ng/m²). A significant difference (p=0.001) in PCBs was found between light (1690ng/m²) and heavy (996ng/m²) haze pollution conditions. Nevertheless, HFR levels under heavy (median=595ng/m², ranging from 295 to 1490ng/m²) and light haze pollution conditions (ranging from 205 to 1220ng/m² with a median of 689ng/m²) did not show significant differences (p=0.269). The non-carcinogenic health risk resulting from dermal exposure to ∑₈HFRs and ∑₂₇PCBs was 8.72×10^-5 and 1.63×10^-2, respectively, raising more concern about populations' exposure to PCBs than HFRs.

Polychlorinated biphenyls in stormwater sediments: Relationships with land use and particle characteristics

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Concentrations of 209 PCB congeners as well as profiles of the ten homologues were determined in stormwater sediments collected from various (primarily roadway) sites with different land use. The total PCB concentrations ranged from 8.3 to 57.4 ng/g dry weight (dw), with a mean value of 29.2 ng/g dw. PCB concentrations varied with nearby land use. Higher stormwater sediment PCB concentrations were found in dense urban areas (average: 39.8 ± 10.5 ng/g) and residential areas (average: 35.3 ± 6.2 ng/g) compared to highways passing through greenspace (average: 18.0 ± 0.4 ng/g). The number of chlorines per biphenyl ranged from 3.63 to 5.39 and the toxic equivalency (TEQs) of the PCBs were between 1.5 and 18.0 pg/g at all sites. A non-Aroclor congener, PCB 11, was detected in all samples and was dominant at two sites. PCBs were sorbed to smaller stormwater particulate matter (≤75 μm) at higher concentrations compared to larger particles (>75 μm). PCB sorption tended to increase with the total organic carbon (TOC) of the particulate matter in the sediment samples. However, greater PCB mass (almost 80%) was present in the larger particles. Information on sediment PCB concentrations from different land uses, along with stormwater particulate matter data can allow the estimation of PCB loads and load reductions using stormwater control measures.

Examining the role of total organic carbon and black carbon in the fate of legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in indoor dust from Nepal: Implication on human health

Despite the fact that the consumption and import of legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been stopped in Nepal since 2001, they are still of worry for human prosperity and the environment because of their persistence behavior and constant release from sources that are presently being used. The essential objective of this study was to assess the concentration and spatial distribution of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in residential dust from Nepal keeping in mind the end goal to evaluate the importance of total organic carbon (TOC) and black carbon (BC) in the fate of legacy POPs. Additionally, health risk exposure via dust ingestion and dermal absorption was estimated to evaluate the significance of dust media for human exposure. Results demonstrated that ∑OCPs in dust was 37 times greater than ∑PCBs. DDT was mostly dominated in the dust, and contributed 90% of the ∑OCPs, while hexa-CBs predominated among PCBs and represented 34% of ∑PCBs. Birgunj and Biratnagar had a relatively higher level of ∑OCPs and ∑PCBs than those of Kathmandu and Pokhara. TOC and BC showed a poor connection with OCPs, recommending little or no role. However, PCB in the dust, especially low congeners was strongly linked with TOC but not BC indicating the significant role of TOC. The daily risk exposure estimation indicated dermal absorption through dust as the principal means of OCPs/PCBs intake to both adult and children population. These estimated exposures were 2-4 orders of magnitude inferior to their corresponding reference dose showing insignificant risk.

Linking past uses of legacy SVOCs with today's indoor levels and human exposure

Semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) emitted from consumer products, building materials, and indoor and outdoor activities can be highly persistent in indoor environments. Human exposure to and environmental contamination with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) was previously reported in a region near a former PCB production facility in Slovakia. However, we found that the indoor residential PCB levels did not correlate with the distance from the facility. Rather, indoor levels in this region and those reported in the literature were related to the historic PCB use on a national scale and the inferred presence of primary sources of PCBs in the homes. Other SVOCs had levels linked with either the activities in the home, e.g., polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with wood heating; or outdoor activities, e.g., organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) with agricultural land use and building age. We propose a classification framework to prioritize SVOCs for monitoring in indoor environments and to evaluate risks from indoor SVOC exposures. Application of this framework to 88 measured SVOCs identified several PCB congeners (CB-11, -28, -52), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), benzo(a)pyrene, and γ-HCH as priority compounds based on high exposure and toxicity assessed by means of toxicity reference values (TRVs). Application of the framework to many emerging compounds such as novel flame retardants was not possible because of either no or outdated TRVs. Concurrent identification of seven SVOC groups in indoor environments provided information on their comparative levels and distributions, their sources, and informed our assessment of associated risks.

Genetic structure of Anopheles gambiae s.s populations following the use of insecticides on several consecutive years in southern Benin

Background

Several studies have reported the strong resistance of Anopheles gambiae s.l. complex species to pyrethroids. The voltage-dependent sodium channel (Vgsc) gene is the main target of pyrethroids and DDT. In Benin, the frequency of the resistant allele (L1014F) of this gene varies along the north-south transect. Monitoring the evolution of resistance is necessary to better appreciate the genetic structure of vector populations in localities subject to the intensive use of chemicals associated with other control initiatives. The purpose of this study was to map the distribution of pyrethroid insecticide resistance alleles of the Kdr gene in malaria vectors in different regions and ecological facies in order to identify the evolutionary forces that might be the basis of anopheline population dynamics.

Methods

The characterization of Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations and resistance mechanisms were performed using adult mosquitoes obtained from larvae collected in the four agroecological zones in southern Benin. Genomic DNA extraction was performed on whole mosquitoes.The extracted genomic DNA from them were used for the molecular identification of species in Anopheles gambiae s.l. complex and the identification of genotypes related to pyrethroid resistance as the Kdr gene amino acid position 1014 in sodium channel. Molecular speciation and genotyping of Kdr resistant alleles (1014) were done using PCR.Genepop software version 4.2 was used to calculate allelic and genotypic frequencies in each agroecological zone. The p value of the allelic frequency was determined using the binomial test function in R version 3.3.3. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium was checked for each population with Genetics software version 1.3.8.1. The observed heterozygosity and the expected heterozygosity as well as the fixation index and genetic differentiation index within and between populations were calculated using Genepop software version 4.2.

Results

During the study period, Anopheles coluzzii was the major species in all agroecological zones while Anopheles gambiae was scarcely represented. Regardless of the species, resistant homozygote individuals (L1014F/L1014F) were dominant in all agroecological zones, showing a strong selection of the resistant allele (L1014F). All populations showed a deficit of heterozygosity. No genetic differentiation was observed between the different populations of the two species. For Anopheles coluzzii, there was a small differentiation among the populations of the central cotton and bar-lands zones. The genetic differentiation was modest among the population of the fisheries zone (Fst = 0.1295). The genetic differentiation was very high in the population of Anopheles gambiae of the bar-lands zone (Fst = 0.2408).

Conclusion

This study revealed that the use of insecticides in Benin for years has altered the genetic structure of Anopheles gambiae s.s. populations in all agroecological zones of southern Benin. It would be desirable to orientate vector control efforts towards the use of insecticides other than pyrethroids and DDT or combinations of insecticides with different modes of action.