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Scharf P, Sandri S, Borges PP, Franco de Oliveira T, Farsky SHP. A single and short exposure to heated tobacco vapor or cigarette smoke affects macrophage activation and polarization. Toxicology 2024; 506:153859. [PMID: 38825031 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2024] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
The toxicity of heated tobacco products (HTP) on the immune cells remains unclear. Here, U937-differentiated macrophages were exposed to a single and short-term exposure (30 minutes) of HTP vapor or cigarette smoke (CS) in an air-liquid interface (ALI) system to evaluate the effects on macrophages' early activation and polarization. In our system, HTP released lower amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), but higher nicotine levels than CS into the cell culture supernatant. Both tobacco products triggered the expression of the α-7 nicotinic receptor (α7 nAChR) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. When challenged with a bacterial product, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), cells exposed to HTP or CS failed to respond properly and enhance ROS production upon LPS stimuli. Furthermore, both tobacco products also impaired bacterial phagocytosis and the exposures triggered higher IL-1β secretion. The α7 nAChR antagonist treatment rescued the effects caused only by HTP exposure. The CS-exposed group switched macrophage to the pro-inflammatory M1, while HTP polarized to the suppressive M2 profile. Associated, data highlight that HTP and CS exposures similarly activate macrophages; nonetheless, the α7 nAChR pathway is only involved in HTP actions, and the distinct subsequent polarization caused by HTP or CS may influence the outcome of host defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Scharf
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Silvana Sandri
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Pâmela Pacassa Borges
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Tiago Franco de Oliveira
- Department of Pharmacosciences, Federal University of Health Sciences of Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Sandra Helena Poliselli Farsky
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analyses, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, SP 05508-000, Brazil.
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Guo W, Yu JZ, Chan W. Face Mask as a Versatile Sampling Device for the Assessment of Personal Exposure to 54 Toxic Compounds in Environmental Tobacco Smoke. Chem Res Toxicol 2023. [PMID: 37406339 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), which contains hundreds of toxic compounds, significantly increases the risk of developing many human diseases, including lung cancer. The most common method of assessing personal exposure to ETS-borne toxicants is by sampling sidestream smoke generated by a smoking machine through a sorbent tube or filter, followed by solvent extraction and instrumental analysis. However, the ETS sampled may not truly represent the ETS in the ambient environment, due to complicating factors from the smoke released by the burning end of the cigarette and from the absorption of the chemicals in the respiratory tract of the smoker. In this study, we developed and validated an alternative air sampling method involving breathing through a face mask to simultaneously determine personal exposure to 54 ETS-borne compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, aromatic amines, alkaloids, and phenolic compounds in real smoking scenarios. The newly developed method was used to evaluate the risk associated with exposure to ETS released from conventional cigarettes (CCs) and that from novel tobacco products such as e-cigarettes (ECs) and heated tobacco products (HTPs), with the observation of cancer risk associated with exposure to ETS released from CCs significantly higher than that from ECs and HTPs. It is anticipated that this method offers a convenient and sensitive way to collect samples for assessing the health impacts of ETS exposure.
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3
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Masjedi MR, Dobaradaran S, Arfaeinia H, Samaei MR, Novotny TE, Rashidi N. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) leachates from post-consumption waterpipe tobacco waste (PWTW) into aquatic environment- a primary study. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 327:121500. [PMID: 36963456 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Post-consumption waterpipe tobacco waste (PWTW) is an unrecognized type of hazardous waste that is produced and released in large quantities into the aquatic environment. It may contain high amounts of various pollutants including PAH, and to date, there has been no research on the potential for contamination by PAH from PWTW leaching into aquatic environments. In this study, the concentrations of PAH via PWTW of fruit-flavored and traditional tobacco leachate into three water types, including distilled water (DW), tap water (TW) and sea water (SW) at different contact times were evaluated. There were significantly higher concentration levels of ƩPAH in waters with leachates from fruit-flavored PWTW than traditional tobacco (P-value<0.05). The concentration levels of ƩPAH in DW, TW and SW at a total contact time of two months ranged from 0.13 to 3.51, 0.12 to 3.63 and 0.11-3.64 μg/L, respectively. Lower molecular weight PAH such as naphthalene (Naph), acenaphthylene (Acen) and fluorine (Flu) were detected in leachates immediately after a short contact time of 15 min. Higher molecular weight PAH including benzo [a]anthracene (BaA), benzo [b]fluoranthene (BbF), benzo [k]fluoranthene (BkF), chrysene (Chr), and benzo [a]pyrene (BaP) were detected after one month contact time, while indeno [1,2,3-cd] pyrene (Indp), benzo [ghi]perylene (BghiP) and dibenz [a,h]anthracene (DahA) were only observed at the contact time measurement of two months. By adding sodium azide as an antimicrobial agent and chemical preservative to SW samples, higher concentrations of PAH including IP, DahA and BghiP were observed. The concentration levels of PAH in water samples after two months contact time were higher than water quality standards provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) and other international organizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Masjedi
- Tobacco Control Research Center (TCRC), Iranian Anti-Tobacco Association, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sina Dobaradaran
- Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Instrumental Analytical Chemistry and Centre for Water and Environmental Research (ZWU), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, Germany; Centre for Water and Environmental Research, University of Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsstr. 5, Essen, 45141, Germany
| | - Hossein Arfaeinia
- Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran.
| | - Mohammad Reza Samaei
- Research Center for Health Sciences, Institute of Health, Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Science, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Thomas E Novotny
- School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, 92182, United States; San Diego State University Research Foundation, San Diego, CA, 92182, United States
| | - Nima Rashidi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
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Zhao X, Xu H, Li Y, Liu Y, Guo C, Li Y. Status and frontier analysis of indoor PM 2.5-related health effects: a bibliometric analysis. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2023; 0:reveh-2022-0228. [PMID: 36976918 DOI: 10.1515/reveh-2022-0228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological data indicate atmospheric particulate matter, especially fine particulate matter (PM2.5), has many negative effects on human health. Of note, people spend about 90% of their time indoors. More importantly, according to the World Health Organization (WHO) statistics, indoor air pollution causes nearly 1.6 million deaths each year, and it is considered as one of the major health risk factors. In order to obtain a deeper understanding of the harmful effects of indoor PM2.5 on human health, we used bibliometric software to summarize articles in this field. In conclusion, since 2000, the annual publication volume has increased year by year. America topped the list for the number of articles, and Professor Petros Koutrakis and Harvard University were the author and institution with the most published in this research area, respectively. Over the past decade, scholars gradually paid attention to molecular mechanisms, therefore, the toxicity can be better explored. Particularly, apart from timely intervention and treatment for adverse consequences, it is necessary to effectively reduce indoor PM2.5 through technologies. In addition, the trend and keywords analysis are favorable ways to find out future research hotspots. Hopefully, various countries and regions strengthen academic cooperation and integration of multi-disciplinary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Zhao
- Department of Toxicology and Sanitary Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Hailin Xu
- Department of Toxicology and Sanitary Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yufan Liu
- Department of Toxicology and Sanitary Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Caixia Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yanbo Li
- Department of Toxicology and Sanitary Chemistry, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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López LR, Dessì P, Cabrera-Codony A, Rocha-Melogno L, Kraakman B, Naddeo V, Balaguer MD, Puig S. CO 2 in indoor environments: From environmental and health risk to potential renewable carbon source. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 856:159088. [PMID: 36181799 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In the developed world, individuals spend most of their time indoors. Poor Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) has a wide range of effects on human health. The burden of disease associated with indoor air accounts for millions of premature deaths related to exposure to Indoor Air Pollutants (IAPs). Among them, CO2 is the most common one, and is commonly used as a metric of IAQ. Indoor CO2 concentrations can be significantly higher than outdoors due to human metabolism and activities. Even in presence of ventilation, controlling the CO2 concentration below the Indoor Air Guideline Values (IAGVs) is a challenge, and many indoor environments including schools, offices and transportation exceed the recommended value of 1000 ppmv. This is often accompanied by high concentration of other pollutants, including bio-effluents such as viruses, and the importance of mitigating the transmission of airborne diseases has been highlighted by the COVID-19 pandemic. On the other hand, the relatively high CO2 concentration of indoor environments presents a thermodynamic advantage for direct air capture (DAC) in comparison to atmospheric CO2 concentration. This review aims to describe the issues associated with poor IAQ, and to demonstrate the potential of indoor CO2 DAC to purify indoor air while generating a renewable carbon stream that can replace conventional carbon sources as a building block for chemical production, contributing to the circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R López
- LEQUiA, Institute of Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, carrer Maria Aurelia Capmany 69, Girona, Spain.
| | - P Dessì
- LEQUiA, Institute of Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, carrer Maria Aurelia Capmany 69, Girona, Spain
| | - A Cabrera-Codony
- LEQUiA, Institute of Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, carrer Maria Aurelia Capmany 69, Girona, Spain
| | - L Rocha-Melogno
- ICF, 2635 Meridian Parkway Suite 200, Durham, NC 27713, United States
| | - B Kraakman
- Jacobs Engineering, Templey Quay 1, Bristol BAS1 6DG, UK; Institute of Sustainable Processes, University of Valladolid, Dr. Mergelina s/n., 47011 Valladolid, Spain
| | - V Naddeo
- Sanitary Environmental Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salerno, 84084 Fisciano, SA, Italy
| | - M D Balaguer
- LEQUiA, Institute of Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, carrer Maria Aurelia Capmany 69, Girona, Spain
| | - S Puig
- LEQUiA, Institute of Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, carrer Maria Aurelia Capmany 69, Girona, Spain
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The Impact of Tobacco Cigarettes, Vaping Products and Tobacco Heating Products on Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11091829. [PMID: 36139904 PMCID: PMC9495690 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11091829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells constantly produce oxidizing species because of their metabolic activity, which is counteracted by the continuous production of antioxidant species to maintain the homeostasis of the redox balance. A deviation from the metabolic steady state leads to a condition of oxidative stress. The source of oxidative species can be endogenous or exogenous. A major exogenous source of these species is tobacco smoking. Oxidative damage can be induced in cells by chemical species contained in smoke through the generation of pro-inflammatory compounds and the modulation of intracellular pro-inflammatory pathways, resulting in a pathological condition. Cessation of smoking reduces the morbidity and mortality associated with cigarette use. Next-generation products (NGPs), as alternatives to combustible cigarettes, such as electronic cigarettes (e-cig) and tobacco heating products (THPs), have been proposed as a harm reduction strategy to reduce the deleterious impacts of cigarette smoking. In this review, we examine the impact of tobacco smoke and MRPs on oxidative stress in different pathologies, including respiratory and cardiovascular diseases and tumors. The impact of tobacco cigarette smoke on oxidative stress signaling in human health is well established, whereas the safety profile of MRPs seems to be higher than tobacco cigarettes, but further, well-conceived, studies are needed to better understand the oxidative effects of these products with long-term exposure.
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Li X, Baumgartner J, Barrington-Leigh C, Harper S, Robinson B, Shen G, Sternbach T, Tao S, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Carter E. Socioeconomic and Demographic Associations with Wintertime Air Pollution Exposures at Household, Community, and District Scales in Rural Beijing, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:8308-8318. [PMID: 35675631 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c07402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The Chinese government implemented a national household energy transition program that replaced residential coal heating stoves with electricity-powered heat pumps for space heating in northern China. As part of a baseline assessment of the program, this study investigated variability in personal air pollution exposures within villages and between villages and evaluated exposure patterns by sociodemographic factors. We randomly recruited 446 participants in 50 villages in four districts in rural Beijing and measured 24 h personal exposures to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon (BC). The geometric mean personal exposure to PM2.5 and BC was 72 and 2.5 μg/m3, respectively. The variability in PM2.5 and BC exposures was greater within villages than between villages. Study participants who used traditional stoves as their dominant source of space heating were exposed to the highest levels of PM2.5 and BC. Wealthier households tended to burn more coal for space heating, whereas less wealthy households used more biomass. PM2.5 and BC exposures were almost uniformly distributed by socioeconomic status. Future work that combines these results with PM2.5 chemical composition analysis will shed light on whether air pollution source contributors (e.g., industrial, traffic, and household solid fuel burning) follow similar distributions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoying Li
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, United States
| | - Jill Baumgartner
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
- Institute for Health and Social Policy, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Christopher Barrington-Leigh
- Institute for Health and Social Policy, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
- Bieler School of Environment, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2A7, Canada
| | - Sam Harper
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Brian Robinson
- Department of Geography, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada
| | - Guofeng Shen
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Sino-French Institute for Earth System Science, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Talia Sternbach
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
- Institute for Health and Social Policy, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 1G1, Canada
| | - Shu Tao
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Sino-French Institute for Earth System Science, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- Department of Geography, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B9, Canada
| | - Yuanxun Zhang
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Regional Atmospheric Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Ellison Carter
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80521, United States
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Li N, Friedrich R, Schieberle C. Exposure of Individuals in Europe to Air Pollution and Related Health Effects. Front Public Health 2022; 10:871144. [PMID: 35692351 PMCID: PMC9174982 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.871144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Air pollutants, especially PM2.5 and NO2, are associated with adverse health impacts, as shown by numerous epidemiological studies. In these studies, the observed health impacts have been correlated with ambient concentrations, mainly taken from air pollution monitoring stations. However, individuals are harmed by the pollutants in the inhaled air at the places where they stay, and thus, the concentration of pollutants in the inhaled air is obviously a better indicator for health impacts than the ambient concentration at a monitoring station. Furthermore, the current method for estimating the occurrence of chronic diseases uses annual average concentrations as indicator. However, according to current hypotheses, chronic diseases, especially chronic mortality, develop through the exposure to pollutants over many years, maybe up to a full lifetime. Thus in this study, a methodology and a computer-aided probabilistic model system are described for calculating the exposure of a person to PM2.5 and NO2 over the whole lifetime where the person is characterized by attributes such as age, gender, place of residence and work as well as socioeconomic status. The model system contains a “life course trajectory model”, which estimates the course of the education and professional development for the past lifetime of a person, whose present socioeconomic status is known. Furthermore, a “time-activity model” estimates at which places (so-called micro-environments) a person with a certain socioeconomic status stayed and how long he stayed there within a certain year. The concentrations of air pollutants in indoor environments are calculated with a “mass-balance model”, the outdoor concentrations with “atmospheric models”. Finally, the results of these models are combined to estimate the annual average exposure for the life years of individuals and population subgroups. The exposure is then used to estimate and monetize health impacts. The exposures and health impacts for a number of population subgroups in Europe are presented. For instance, a European citizen, who was 70 years old in 2015, has been exposed to around 25 μg/m3 of PM2.5 during his lifetime above the age of 30, which is associated with a reduction of life expectancy of 13.4 days per year of exposure above 30.
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El-Kaassamani M, Yen M, Talih S, El-Hellani A. Analysis of mainstream emissions, secondhand emissions and the environmental impact of IQOS waste: a systematic review on IQOS that accounts for data source. Tob Control 2022; 33:tobaccocontrol-2021-056986. [PMID: 35568394 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2021-056986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To highlight the general features of IQOS literature focusing on the chemical analysis of IQOS emissions. DATA SOURCES PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus databases were searched on 8 November 2021 using the terms 'heated tobacco product', 'heat-not-burn', 'IQOS' and 'tobacco heating system' with time restriction (2010-2021). The search yielded 5480 records. STUDY SELECTION Relevant publications on topics related to IQOS assessment were retrieved (n=341). Two reviewers worked separately and reached agreement by consensus. DATA EXTRACTION Data on author affiliation and funding, article type and date of publication were extracted. Publications were categorised depending on their focus and outcomes. Data on IQOS emissions from the chemical analysis category were extracted. DATA SYNTHESIS Of the included publications, 25% were published by Philip Morris International (PMI) affiliates or PMI-funded studies. PMI-sponsored publications on emissions, toxicology assessments and health effects were comparable in number to those reported by independent research, in contrast to publications on IQOS use, market trends and regulation. Data on nicotine yield, carbonyl emissions, other mainstream emissions, secondhand emissions and IQOS waste were compared between data sources to highlight agreement or disagreement between PMI-sponsored and independent research. CONCLUSIONS Our analysis showed agreement between the data sources on nicotine yield from IQOS under the same puffing conditions. Also, both sources agreed that IQOS emits significantly reduced levels of some emissions compared with combustible cigarettes. However, independent studies and examination of PMI's data showed significant increases in other emissions from and beyond the Food and Drug Administration's harmful and potentially harmful constituents list.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malak El-Kaassamani
- Department of Chemistry, American University of Beirut Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Miaoshan Yen
- Department of Biostatistics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Center for the Study of Tobacco Products, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
| | - Soha Talih
- Center for the Study of Tobacco Products, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, American University of Beirut Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Ahmad El-Hellani
- Center for the Study of Tobacco Products, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia, USA
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, The Ohio State University College of Public Health, Columbus, Ohio, USA
- Center for Tobacco Research, The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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Comprehensive Air Quality Assessment of the Tobacco Heating System 2.2 under Simulated Indoor Environments. ATMOSPHERE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos12080989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Despite the growing popularity of heated tobacco products, there are few comprehensive studies on their environmental aerosols. Therefore, the impact of the Tobacco Heating System 2.2 (THS 2.2) on indoor air quality was evaluated on the basis of a comprehensive list of 31 airborne constituents along with targeted screening of the gas–vapor and particulate phases of the environmental aerosol. The assessments were conducted at three ventilation rates. Indoor use of THS 2.2 increased the levels of nicotine, acetaldehyde, glycerin, and (if mentholated products were used) menthol relative to background levels, with a corresponding increase in total volatile organic compounds (TVOC) values. Moreover, a temporary increase in ultrafine particles was observed when two or more tobacco sticks were used simultaneously or with a short time lapse between usages, but the concentrations returned to close to background levels almost immediately. This is because THS 2.2 generates an aerosol of liquid droplets, which evaporate quickly. Nicotine, acetaldehyde, glycerin, and TVOC levels were measured in the low μg/m3 range and were below the existing guideline limits. A comparison of airborne constituent levels during indoor THS 2.2 use with emissions from combustion products and common everyday activities revealed a substantially lower impact of THS 2.2 on the indoor environment.
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Domínguez-Amarillo S, Fernández-Agüera J, Cesteros-García S, González-Lezcano RA. Bad Air Can Also Kill: Residential Indoor Air Quality and Pollutant Exposure Risk during the COVID-19 Crisis. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E7183. [PMID: 33008116 PMCID: PMC7578999 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
During the first outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic the population, focusing primarily on the risk of infection, was generally inattentive to the quality of indoor air. Spain, and the city of Madrid in particular, were among the world's coronavirus hotspots. The country's entire population was subject to a 24/7 lockdown for 45 days. This paper describes a comparative longitudinal survey of air quality in four types of housing in the city of Madrid before and during lockdown. The paper analysed indoor temperatures and variations in CO2, 2.5 μm particulate matter (PM2.5) and total volatile organic compound (TVOC) concentrations before and during lockdown. The mean daily outdoor PM2.5 concentration declined from 11.04 µg/m3 before to 7.10 µg/m3 during lockdown. Before lockdown the NO2 concentration values scored as 'very good' 46% of the time, compared to 90.9% during that period. Although the city's outdoor air quality improved, during lockdown the population's exposure to indoor pollutants was generally more acute and prolonged. Due primarily to concern over domestic energy savings, the lack of suitable ventilation and more intensive use of cleaning products and disinfectants during the covid-19 crisis, indoor pollutant levels were typically higher than compatible with healthy environments. Mean daily PM2.5 concentration rose by approximately 12% and mean TVOC concentration by 37% to 559%. The paper also puts forward a series of recommendations to improve indoor domestic environments in future pandemics and spells out urgent action to be taken around indoor air quality (IAQ) in the event of total or partial quarantining to protect residents from respiratory ailments and concomitantly enhanced susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, as identified by international medical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Domínguez-Amarillo
- Instituto Universitario de Arquitectura y Ciencias de la Construcción, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, 41014 Sevilla, Spain;
| | - Jesica Fernández-Agüera
- Instituto Universitario de Arquitectura y Ciencias de la Construcción, Escuela Técnica Superior de Arquitectura, Universidad de Sevilla, 41014 Sevilla, Spain;
| | - Sonia Cesteros-García
- Escuela Politécnica Superior, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, Montepríncipe Campus, Boadilla del Monte, 28668 Madrid, Spain; (S.C.-G.); (R.A.G.-L.)
| | - Roberto Alonso González-Lezcano
- Escuela Politécnica Superior, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, Montepríncipe Campus, Boadilla del Monte, 28668 Madrid, Spain; (S.C.-G.); (R.A.G.-L.)
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Mitova MI, Cluse C, Goujon-Ginglinger CG, Kleinhans S, Rotach M, Tharin M. Human chemical signature: Investigation on the influence of human presence and selected activities on concentrations of airborne constituents. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 257:113518. [PMID: 31753636 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
There is growing evidence that the very presence of human beings in an enclosed environment can impact air quality by affecting the concentrations of certain airborne volatile organic compounds (VOC). This influence increases considerably when humans perform different activities, such as using toiletries, or simply eating and drinking. To understand the influence of these parameters on the concentrations of selected airborne constituents, a study was performed under simulated residential conditions in an environmentally-controlled exposure room. The human subjects either simply remained for a certain time in the exposure room, or performed pre-defined activities in the room (drinking wine, doing sport, using toiletries, and preparation of a meal containing melted cheese). The impact of each activity was assessed separately using our analytical platform and exposure room under controlled environmental conditions. The results showed that prolonged human presence leads to increased levels of isoprene, TVOCs, formaldehyde and, to a lesser extent, acetaldehyde. These outcomes were further supported by results of meta-analyses of data acquired during several internal studies performed over two years. Furthermore, it was seen that the indoor concentrations of several of the selected constituents rose when the recreational and daily living activities were performed. Indeed, an increase in acetaldehyde was observed for all tested conditions, and these higher indoor levels were especially notable during wine-drinking as well as cheese meal preparation. Formaldehyde increased during the sessions involving sport, using toiletries, and cheese meal preparation. Like acetaldehyde, acrolein, crotonaldehyde and particulate matter levels rose significantly during the cheese meal preparation session. In conclusion, prolonged human residence indoors and some recreational and daily living activities caused substantial emissions of several airborne pollutants under ventilation typical for residential environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya I Mitova
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
| | - Camille Cluse
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | | | - Samuel Kleinhans
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Michel Rotach
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Tharin
- PMI R&D, Philip Morris Products S.A., Quai Jeanrenaud 5, CH-2000 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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13
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Ni Y, Shi G, Qu J. Indoor PM 2.5, tobacco smoking and chronic lung diseases: A narrative review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2020; 181:108910. [PMID: 31780052 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2019.108910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The lung is one of the most important organs exposed to environmental agents. People spend approximately 90% of their time indoors, and risks to health may thus be greater from exposure to poor air quality indoors than outdoors. Multiple indoor pollutants have been linked to chronic respiratory diseases. Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is known as an important source of multiple pollutants, especially in indoor environments. Indoor PM2.5 (particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter < 2.5 μm) was reported to be the most reliable marker of the presence of tobacco smoke. Recent studies have demonstrated that PM2.5 is closely correlated with chronic lung diseases. In this paper, we reviewed the relationship of tobacco smoking and indoor PM2.5 and the mechanism that underpin the link of tobacco smoke, indoor PM2.5 and chronic lung diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingmeng Ni
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rui Jin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Guochao Shi
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rui Jin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jieming Qu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Rui Jin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China; Institute of Respiratory Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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14
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Cancelada L, Sleiman M, Tang X, Russell ML, Montesinos VN, Litter MI, Gundel LA, Destaillats H. Heated Tobacco Products: Volatile Emissions and Their Predicted Impact on Indoor Air Quality. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:7866-7876. [PMID: 31150216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
This study characterized emissions from IQOS, a heated tobacco product promoted as a less harmful alternative to cigarettes. Consumable tobacco plugs were analyzed by headspace GC/MS to assess the influence of heating temperature on the emission profile. Yields of major chemical constituents increased from 4.1 mg per unit at 180 °C to 6.2 mg at 200 °C, and 10.5 mg at 220 °C. The Health Canada Intense smoking regime was used to operate IQOS in an environmental chamber, quantifying 33 volatile organic compounds in mainstream and sidestream emissions. Aldehydes, nitrogenated species, and aromatic species were found, along with other harmful and potentially harmful compounds. Compared with combustion cigarettes, IQOS yields were in most cases 1-2 orders of magnitude lower. However, yields were closer to, and sometimes higher than electronic cigarettes. Predicted users' daily average intake of benzene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acrolein were 39 μg, 32 μg, 2.2 mg and 71 μg, respectively. Indoor air concentrations were estimated for commonly encountered scenarios, with acrolein levels of concern (over 0.35 μg m-3) derived from IQOS used in homes and public spaces. Heated tobacco products are a weaker indoor pollution source than conventional cigarettes, but their impacts are neither negligible nor yet fully understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Cancelada
- Indoor Environment Group , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road MS70-108B , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
- División Química de la Remediación Ambiental , CNEA-CONICET , Avenida Gral. Paz 1499 , 1650 San Martín , Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Mohamad Sleiman
- Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, SIGMA Clermont , Institut de Chimie de Clermont Ferrand (ICCF) , F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand , France
| | - Xiaochen Tang
- Indoor Environment Group , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road MS70-108B , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Marion L Russell
- Indoor Environment Group , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road MS70-108B , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - V Nahuel Montesinos
- División Química de la Remediación Ambiental , CNEA-CONICET , Avenida Gral. Paz 1499 , 1650 San Martín , Buenos Aires , Argentina
- Centro Tecnologías Químicas , FRBA-UTN , Medrano 951 , 1179 CABA , Argentina
| | - Marta I Litter
- División Química de la Remediación Ambiental , CNEA-CONICET , Avenida Gral. Paz 1499 , 1650 San Martín , Buenos Aires , Argentina
- Instituto de Investigación e Ingeniería Ambiental , Universidad de General San Martín , Campus Miguelete, Av. 25 de Mayo y Francia , 1650 San Martín , Buenos Aires , Argentina
| | - Lara A Gundel
- Indoor Environment Group , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road MS70-108B , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Hugo Destaillats
- Indoor Environment Group , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road MS70-108B , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
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15
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Canha N, Lage J, Coutinho JT, Alves C, Almeida SM. Comparison of indoor air quality during sleep in smokers and non-smokers' bedrooms: A preliminary study. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 249:248-256. [PMID: 30893637 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
People spend one third of their life sleeping, but the bedroom, as a specific micro-environment, is often neglected when assessing human exposure to air pollutants. However, exposure during sleep may be significant in the long-term to the integrated individual exposure. This study aimed to assess the exposure during sleep, focusing on a multi-pollutant approach (comfort parameters, carbon dioxide - CO2, carbon monoxide - CO, formaldehyde (CH2O), total volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter - PM2.5 and PM10 - and ultrafine particles, particle number concentrations - PNC - and lung deposited surface area - LDSA). For that, the air quality during sleep (in real conditions) was monitored using real-time devices in 12 bedrooms of urban (Lisbon and Vila Franca de Xira) and rural (Ponte de Sor) areas of Portugal for one night. Volunteers were smokers and non-smokers. Considering the Portuguese legislation for indoor air quality (IAQ), 67% of the bedrooms registered CO2 levels above the limit value, while CH2O, VOC, PM10 and PM2.5 thresholds were exceeded in 30, 100, 36, and 45% of cases, respectively. Regarding ultrafine parameters, LDSA and PNC ranged from 7.3 to 95.2 μm2/cm3 and from 0.6 to 4.8 × 103/cm3, respectively. Even with no smoking indoors, smokers' bedrooms were found to have significant higher levels of CO, CH2O, PM2.5, PM10 and LDSA than non-smokers' bedrooms, showing the effect of thirdhand smoke, exhalation of pollutants after smoking and infiltration on the degradation of the air quality in the bedroom. A recent new model of real-time monitor was also used for a wide set of IAQ parameters. Its performance to measure PM2.5 and CO2 was assessed, showing its applicability in real conditions. Although often neglected, these micro-environments should be considered in the integrated individual exposure to air pollutants and further studied. MAIN FINDINGS OF THE WORK: Several pollutants (CO2, PM, VOCs and CH2O) exceeded the guidelines during sleep; smokers are exposed to higher levels of CO, CH2O, PM, and LDSA than non-smokers while sleeping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuno Canha
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, Km 139.7, 2695-066, Bobadela, LRS, Portugal; CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Joana Lage
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, Km 139.7, 2695-066, Bobadela, LRS, Portugal
| | - Joana Teixeira Coutinho
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, Km 139.7, 2695-066, Bobadela, LRS, Portugal
| | - Célia Alves
- CESAM - Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Susana Marta Almeida
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada Nacional 10, Km 139.7, 2695-066, Bobadela, LRS, Portugal
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16
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Meišutovič-Akhtarieva M, Prasauskas T, Čiužas D, Krugly E, Keraitytė K, Martuzevičius D, Kaunelienė V. Impacts of exhaled aerosol from the usage of the tobacco heating system to indoor air quality: A chamber study. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 223:474-482. [PMID: 30784754 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.02.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol particle, carbonyl, and nicotine concentrations were analysed as pollutants affecting indoor air quality during the usage of electrically-heated tobacco product - the Tobacco Heating System (THS). Quantitative experimental variables included THS use intensity as number of parallel users (1, 3, or 5), distance to the bystander (0.5, 1, or 2 m), as well as environmental conditions in a chamber: ventilation intensity as air changes per hour (0.2, 0.5, or 1 h-1), and relative humidity (RH, 30, 50 or 70%). The real-time particle number (PNC), CO and CO2 concentration, as well as off-line acetaldehyde, formaldehyde, nicotine, and 3-ethenylpyridine concentration was measured during and after the active usage. Use of THS resulted in a statistically significant increase of several analytes including nicotine, acetaldehyde, PM2.5, and PNC as compared to the background. The obtained levels were significantly lower (approximately 16, 8, 8 and 28 times for nicotine, acetaldehyde, PNC and PM2.5, respectively) compared to the levels resulting from conventional cigarette (CC) smoking under identical conditions. The maximum 30 min concentration of PNC (4.8 × 105 #/cm3), as well as maximum concentration of PNC (9.3 × 106 #/cm3) suggest that the intensive use of THS in a confined space with limited ventilation might cause substantially elevated aerosol concentrations, although these particles appeared as highly volatile ones and evaporated within seconds. Generally, the usage intensity (number of simultaneous users) prevailed as the most important factor positively affecting pollutant variations; another important factor was the distance to bystander.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Meišutovič-Akhtarieva
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania
| | - Tadas Prasauskas
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania
| | - Darius Čiužas
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania
| | - Edvinas Krugly
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania
| | - Karolina Keraitytė
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania
| | - Dainius Martuzevičius
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania
| | - Violeta Kaunelienė
- Department of Environmental Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Radvilenu pl. 19, Kaunas, LT50254, Lithuania.
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17
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van Drooge BL, Marco E, Perez N, Grimalt JO. Influence of electronic cigarette vaping on the composition of indoor organic pollutants, particles, and exhaled breath of bystanders. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:4654-4666. [PMID: 30560536 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3975-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The changes of particles and organic pollutants in indoor atmospheres as consequence of vaping with electronic cigarettes have been analyzed. Changes in the composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath of non-smoking volunteers present in the vaping environments have also been studied. The exposure experiments involved non-vaping (n = 5) and vaping (n = 5) volunteers staying 12 h together in a room (54 m2) without external ventilation. The same experiment was repeated without vaping for comparison. Changes in the distributions of particles in the 8-400 nm range were observed, involving losses of nucleation-mode particles (below 20 nm) and increases of coagulation processes leading to larger size particles. In quantitative terms, vaping involved doubling the indoor concentrations of particles smaller than 10 μm, 5 μm, and 1 μm observed during no vaping. The increase of particle mass concentrations was probably produced from bulk ingredients of the e-liquid exhaled by the e-cigarette users. Black carbon concentrations in the indoor and outdoor air were similar in the presence and absence of electronic cigarette emissions. Changes in the qualitative composition of PAHs were observed when comparing vaping and non-vaping days. The nicotine concentrations were examined separately in the gas and in the particulate phases showing that most of the differences between both days were recorded in the former. The particulate phase should therefore be included in nicotine monitoring during vaping (and smoking). The concentration increases of nicotine and formaldehyde were small when compared with those described in other studies of indoor atmospheres or health regulatory thresholds. No significant changes were observed when comparing the concentrations of exhaled breath in vaping and no vaping days. Even the exhaled breath nicotine concentrations in both conditions were similar. As expected, toluene, xylenes, benzene, ethylbenzene, and naphthalene did not show increases in the vaping days since combustion was not involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barend L van Drooge
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
| | - Esther Marco
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Noemi Perez
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Joan O Grimalt
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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