Lethal and sublethal toxicity of abamectin and difenoconazole (individually and in mixture) to early life stages of zebrafish

Recent advances in the toxicological effects of difenoconazole: A focus on toxic mechanisms in fish and mammals

The toxicological study of pesticides at sub-lethal and environment-relevant concentrations has become increasingly crucial for human and environmental health. Toxic mechanisms of agrochemicals contribute to discovering green pesticides, assessing the hazards of pesticides comprehensively, and supporting legitimate regulatory decisions. However, the toxicological effects of difenoconazole are not yet fully understood despite being frequently detected in fruits, vegetables, waters, and soils and posing hazards to humans and the environment. This lack of knowledge could lead to flawed risk assessment and administrative oversight. Thus, the review aimed to provide some investigation perspectives for clarifying the toxicological effects of difenoconazole by synthesizing the toxic data of difenoconazole on various organisms, such as bees, Daphnia magna, fish, earthworms, mammals, and plants and summarizing the toxicological mechanisms of difenoconazole, especially in fish and mammals from peer-reviewed publications. Evidence revealed that difenoconazole caused multiple toxicological effects, including developmental toxicity, reproductive toxicity, endocrine disruption effects, neurotoxicity, and transgenerational toxicity. The toxic mechanisms involved in metabolic disturbance, oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and autophagy by activating reactive oxygen species-mediated signaling pathways and mitochondrial apoptosis routes, disturbing amino acids, lipid, and nucleotide metabolism, and regulating gene transcription and expression in mammals and fish. Based on the review, further studies better focus on the toxic differences of difenoconazole stereoisomers, the toxicological effects of transformation products of difenoconazole, and the mechanism of action of difenoconazole on sex-specific endocrine disruption effects, intestinal damage, and gut dysbacteriosis for its hazard assessment and management synthetically.

Combined effects of polyethylene terephthalate and abamectin on enzymatic activity and histopathology response in juvenile zebrafish (Danio rerio)

One of the most pressing global environmental issues is the widespread abundance and distribution of microplastics (MPs). MPs can act as vectors for other contaminants in the environment making these small plastic particles hazardous for ecosystems. The presence of MPs in aquatic environments may pose threats to aquatic organisms that ingest them. This study examined effects of abamectin (ABM) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) MP fragments on histopathological and enzymatic biomarkers in zebrafish (Danio rerio). Zebrafish were exposed for 96 h to pristine PET-MPs at concentrations of 5 mg/L and 10 mg/L, ABM alone at 0.006 mg/L, and the same concentration of ABM in the presence of PET-MPs in aquaria. Histopathological analysis revealed tissue content changes in liver and kidney in the presence of ABM individually and in combination with MPs. Results of enzymatic analysis showed that MPs increased the bioavailability and toxicity of pesticides due to inhibition of catalase (CAT) and acid phosphatase (ACP) enzymes. However, MPs did not affect the toxicity of ABM for glutathione s-transferase (GST) enzyme. Despite the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in MPs or ABM treatments, and some neurotoxicity, no change in activity of this enzyme and neurotoxicity was observed in the combined MPs and ABM treatments, although toxicity effects of MPs and ABM on zebrafish require more detailed studies.

Toward a tiered regulatory framework for the prospective aquatic effect assessment of pesticides in (Neo)tropical areas

Research and regulatory interest into (Neo)tropical aquatic pesticide ecotoxicology has increased considerably over the past few years. However, pesticide effect assessment frameworks in (Neo)tropical areas remain largely undeveloped and as such not implemented. The present study provides an overview of studies into the comparison of pesticide sensitivity between (Neo)tropical and temperate aquatic taxa. Recommended assessment factors to be applied to temperate toxicity data for use in tropical effect assessments differ significantly between these studies. Shortcomings and bottlenecks of available pesticide sensitivity comparison studies based on results from bioassays, species sensitivity distributions, and model ecosystem studies are scrutinized. Current data lacks and (subsequent) indications for future research are also covered. Ultimately, implications for procedures aimed at the derivation of regulatory acceptable concentrations for pesticides in (Neo)tropical edge-of-field surface waters are discussed. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:638-647. © 2022 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).

Pesticides at brain borders: Impact on the blood-brain barrier, neuroinflammation, and neurological risk trajectories

Pesticides are omnipresent, and they pose significant environmental and health risks. Translational studies indicate that acute exposure to high pesticide levels is detrimental, and prolonged contact with low concentrations of pesticides, as single and cocktail, could represent a risk factor for multi-organ pathophysiology, including the brain. Within this research template, we focus on pesticides' impact on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and neuroinflammation, physical and immunological borders for the homeostatic control of the central nervous system (CNS) neuronal networks. We examine the evidence supporting a link between pre- and postnatal pesticide exposure, neuroinflammatory responses, and time-depend vulnerability footprints in the brain. Because of the pathological influence of BBB damage and inflammation on neuronal transmission from early development, varying exposures to pesticides could represent a danger, perhaps accelerating adverse neurological trajectories during aging. Refining our understanding of how pesticides influence brain barriers and borders could enable the implementation of pesticide-specific regulatory measures directly relevant to environmental neuroethics, the exposome, and one-health frameworks.

Single and mixed exposure to distinct groups of pesticides suggests endocrine disrupting properties of imidacloprid in zebrafish embryos

Due to their selective toxicity to insects, nicotinoid compounds have been widely used to control pests in crops and livestock around the world. However, despite the advantages presented, much has been discussed about their harmful effects on exposed organisms, either directly or indirectly, with regards to endocrine disruption. This study aimed to evaluate the lethal and sublethal effects of imidacloprid (IMD) and abamectin (ABA) formulations, separately and combined, on zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos at different developmental stages. For this, Fish Embryo Toxicity (FET) tests were carried out, exposing two hours post-fertilization (hpf) zebrafish to 96 hours of treatments with five different concentrations of abamectin (0.5-11.7 mg L^-1), imidacloprid (0.0001-1.0 mg L^-1), and imidacloprid/abamectin mixtures (LC₅₀/2 - LC₅₀/1000). The results showed that IMD and ABA caused toxic effects in zebrafish embryos. Significant effects were observed regarding egg coagulation, pericardial edema, and lack of larvae hatching. However, unlike ABA, the IMD dose-response curve for mortality had a bell curve display, where medium doses caused more mortality than higher and lower doses. These data demonstrate the toxic influence of sublethal IMD and ABA concentrations on zebrafish, suggesting that these compounds should be listed for river and reservoir water-quality monitoring.

Abamectin promotes behavior changes and liver injury in zebrafish

The indiscriminate use of pesticides is a worldwide concern due to the environment contamination since it can cause deleterious effects to non-target organisms including the fishes. The effects of abamectin, a pesticide from the avermectin family, were evaluated in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio) after exposure to a commercial formula commonly used in Brazil. The animals were submitted to acute (96 h) and to a short-term chronic exposure (15 days) of distinct concentrations of abamectin. LC50 was determined and a histological study followed by an immunohistochemistry analysis for P-gp and HSP70 identification were performed on livers of the animals submitted to the acute and chronic treatment, respectively. Moreover, behavior patterns were observed daily in both trials. A LC50 value of 105.68 μg/L was determined. The histological analysis revealed a morphological alteration of the hepatocytes, glycogen accumulation, degeneration, and disorganization of the cytoplasm, and a pyknotic, irregular, and laterally located nuclei. The immunohistochemistry for HSP70 and P-gp showed strong staining in the hepatocytes of the control groups and progressive decrease as the concentration of abamectin increased. Changes were observed in body posture, movement around the aquarium, opercular activity, body color and search for food in the groups treated with abamectin. The results presented suggest that abamectin can affect the behavioral pattern of the animals, promote morphological changes, and decrease the expression of HSP70 and P-gp in zebrafish liver.

SAHmap: Synergistic-antagonistic heatmap to evaluate the combined synergistic effect of mixtures of three pesticides on multiple endpoints of Caenorhabditis elegans

The environmental pollution caused by toxic chemicals such as pesticides has become a global problem. The mixture of dichlorvos (DIC), dimethoate (DIM), aldicarb (ALD) poses potential risks to the environment and human health. To fully explore the interaction of complex mixtures on Caenorhabditis elegans behavioral toxicity endpoint. This study created a synergistic-antagonistic heatmap (SAHmap) based on the combination index to systematically describe the toxicological interaction prospect of the mixture system. It was shown that the three pesticides and their binary as well as ternary mixture rays have significant concentration-response relationship on three behavioral endpoints of nematodes, From the perspective of synergistic-antagonistic heatmaps, all the mixture rays in the DIC-DIM mixture system showed strong synergism on the three behavioral and lethal endpoints. In the ternary mixture system, the five mixture rays showed different interaction between the behavioral endpoint and the lethal endpoint, and showed slight synergism to two behavioral endpoints as a whole. The emergence of synergism should arouse our attention to these hazardous chemicals. In addition, the use of SAHmap and the significant linear correlation among three behavioral endpoints further improved the efficiency of the study on the behavioral toxicity of pesticide mixtures to Caenorhabditis elegans.

Difenoconazole disrupts the blood-brain barrier and results in neurotoxicity in carp by inhibiting the Nrf2 pathway mediated ROS accumulation

Excessive use of hard-to-degrade pesticides threatens the ecological health of aquatic systems. This study aimed to investigate difenoconazole (DFZ) residues in the environment induced neurotoxicity in carp and the underlying mechanisms. A total of thirty-six carps were divided into three groups and exposed to 0, 0.5, and 2.0 mg/L DFZ for 96 h, respectively. The alterations in behavior and blood-brain barrier (BBB) were examined, and potential mechanisms were explored using immunological assays and biochemical methods. The results showed that DFZ exposure caused behavioral freezing, reduced feeding, and neuronal necrosis in carp. Mechanistically, DFZ triggered ROS accumulation and destroyed the balance between oxidation and antioxidation with increased lipid peroxidation product MDA contents and reduced antioxidant enzymes SOD and CAT activities in the carp brain by inhibiting the NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway. The activation of oxidative stress further reduced tight junction proteins and MMP levels, thereby destroying BBB and leading to DFZ leakage into the brain. Increased BBB permeability additionally led to DFZ activation of nuclear factor kappa-B signaling-mediated inflammatory cytokine storm, exacerbating neuroinflammation. Meanwhile, DFZ exposure activated mitochondria-associated apoptosis in the carp's brain by up-regulating Bcl-2 associated X protein, cleaved-caspase3, and cytochrome C and decreasing B-cell lymphoma-2 levels. Interestingly, the carp's brain initiated a protective autophagic response via the PI3K/AKT/TOR pathway intending to counteract the neurotoxicity of DFZ. Overall, we concluded that accumulation of DFZ at high concentrations in the aquatic systems disrupted the BBB and resulted in neurotoxicity in carp through inhibition of Nrf2 pathway-mediated ROS accumulation. This study provides a reference for monitoring DFZ residues in the environment and a new target for the treatment of DFZ-induced neurotoxicity in carp.

Long-term effects of lithium and lithium-microplastic mixtures on the model species Daphnia magna: Toxicological interactions and implications to 'One Health'

Environmental contamination with lithium (Li) and microplastics (MP) has been steadily increasing and this trend is expected to continue in the future. Many freshwater ecosystems, which are crucial to reach the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, are particularly vulnerable to Li and MP contamination, and other pressures. The long-term effects of Li, either alone or combined with MP (Li-MP mixtures), were investigated using the freshwater zooplankton micro-crustacean Daphnia magna as model species. In the laboratory, D. magna females were exposed for 21 days to water concentrations of Li (0.02, 0.04, 0.08 mg/L) or Li-MP mixtures (0.02 Li + 0.04 MP, 0.04 Li + 0.09 MP mg/L, 0.08 Li + 0.19 MP mg/L). In the range of concentrations tested, Li and Li-MP mixtures caused parental mortality, and decreased the somatic growth (up to 20% and 40% reduction, respectively) and the reproductive success (up to 93% and 90% reduction, respectively). The 21-day EC₅₀s of Li and Li-MP mixtures on D. magna reproduction were 0.039 mg/L and 0.039 Li + 0.086 MP mg/L, respectively. Under exposure to the highest concentration of Li (0.08 mg/L) and Li-MP mixtures (0.08 Li + 0.19 MP mg/L), the mean of D. magna population growth rate was reduced by 67% and 58%, respectively. Based on the population growth rate and using data from a bioassay testing the same concentrations of MP alone and carried simultaneously, the toxicological interaction between Li and MP was antagonism under exposure to the lowest and the highest concentrations of Li-MP mixtures, and synergism under exposure to the medium concentration of Li-MP mixtures. These findings highlight the need of further investigating the combined effects of contaminants, and the threat of long-term environmental contamination with Li and MP to freshwater zooplankton, biodiversity, ecosystem services and 'One Health'.

Influence of temperature on the toxicity of the elutriate from a pesticide contaminated soil to two cladoceran species

Brazil has become one of the largest consumers of pesticides in the world. However, there are still few studies evaluating pesticide toxicity integrating local aquatic and terrestrial environments. In addition, there is growing concern about the influence of temperature conditions related with climate change on contaminants toxicity. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the elutriate toxicity of the insecticide Kraft^® 36 EC (a.i. abamectin), the fungicide Score^® 250 EC (a.i. difenoconazole) and their mixture to the cladocerans Ceriodaphnia silvestrii and Daphnia similis, using model ecosystems (mesocosms). To this end, mesocosms were filled with natural soil and subjected to the following treatments: Control (Milli-Q water), Kraft (10.8 g abamectin ha^-1), Score (20 g difenoconazole ha^-1), and Kraft + Score (10.8 g abamectin ha^-1 + 20 g difenoconazole ha^-1). The experiment lasted 18 days, and the applications were made on days 1, 8, and 15; the occurrence of rainfall was simulated on days 1, 8, and 15 after applications and only rainfall simulation on days 4, 11, and 18. The experiment was conducted under two different temperatures: 23 °C and 33 °C. At 23 °C, single Kraft treatment and in combination with Score showed high toxicity to both cladocerans. At 33 °C, elutriate of the Kraft^® and mixture treatments were highly toxic to D. similis but not to C. silvestrii. The results indicate that while Kraft had higher toxicity than Score to both cladocerans, this toxicity was counteracted at 33 °C only for the exotic species, D. similis. The results portray the complexity of pesticide toxicity when considering realistic experimental settings including different organisms and temperature treatments.

A critical review of effect modeling for ecological risk assessment of plant protection products

A wide diversity of plant protection products (PPP) is used for crop protection leading to the contamination of soil, water, and air, which can have ecotoxicological impacts on living organisms. It is inconceivable to study the effects of each compound on each species from each compartment, experimental studies being time consuming and cost prohibitive, and animal testing having to be avoided. Therefore, numerous models are developed to assess PPP ecotoxicological effects. Our objective was to provide an overview of the modeling approaches enabling the assessment of PPP effects (including biopesticides) on the biota. Six categories of models were inventoried: (Q)SAR, DR and TKTD, population, multi-species, landscape, and mixture models. They were developed for various species (terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates and invertebrates, primary producers, micro-organisms) belonging to diverse environmental compartments, to address different goals (e.g., species sensitivity or PPP bioaccumulation assessment, ecosystem services protection). Among them, mechanistic models are increasingly recognized by EFSA for PPP regulatory risk assessment but, to date, remain not considered in notified guidance documents. The strengths and limits of the reviewed models are discussed together with improvement avenues (multigenerational effects, multiple biotic and abiotic stressors). This review also underlines a lack of model testing by means of field data and of sensitivity and uncertainty analyses. Accurate and robust modeling of PPP effects and other stressors on living organisms, from their application in the field to their functional consequences on the ecosystems at different scales of time and space, would help going toward a more sustainable management of the environment. Graphical Abstract Combination of the keyword lists composing the first bibliographic query. Columns were joined together with the logical operator AND. All keyword lists are available in Supplementary Information at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.5775038 (Larras et al. 2021).

Toxicogenomic profiling after sublethal exposure to nerve- and muscle-targeting insecticides reveals cardiac and neuronal developmental effects in zebrafish embryos

For specific primary modes of action (MoA) in environmental non-target organisms, EU legislation restricts the usage of active substances of pesticides or biocides. Corresponding regulatory hazard assessments are costly, time consuming and require large numbers of non-human animal studies. Currently, predictive toxicology of development compounds relies on their chemical structure and provides little insights into toxicity mechanisms that precede adverse effects. Using the zebrafish embryo model, we characterized transcriptomic responses to a range of sublethal concentrations of six nerve- and muscle-targeting insecticides with different MoA (abamectin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, fipronil, imidacloprid & methoxychlor). Our aim was to identify affected biological processes and suitable biomarker candidates for MoA-specific signatures. Abamectin showed the most divergent signature among the tested insecticides, linked to lipid metabolic processes. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) after imidacloprid exposure were primarily associated with immune system and inflammation. In total, 222 early responsive genes to either MoA were identified, many related to three major processes: (1) cardiac muscle cell development and functioning (tcap, desma, bag3, hspb1, hspb8, flnca, myoz3a, mybpc2b, actc2, tnnt2c), (2) oxygen transport and hypoxic stress (alas2, hbbe1.1, hbbe1.3, hbbe2, hbae3, igfbp1a, hif1al) and (3) neuronal development and plasticity (npas4a, egr1, btg2, ier2a, vgf). The thyroidal function related gene dio3b was upregulated by chlorpyrifos and downregulated by higher abamectin concentrations. Important regulatory genes for cardiac muscle (tcap) and forebrain development (npas4a) were the most frequently ifferentially expressed across all insecticide treatments. We consider the identified gene sets as useful early warning biomarker candidates, i.e. for developmental toxicity targeting heart and brain in aquatic vertebrates. Our findings provide a better understanding about early molecular events in response to the analyzed MoA. Perceptively, this promotes the development for sensitive and informative biomarker-based in vitro assays for toxicological MoA prediction and AOP refinement, without the suffering of adult fish.

Developmental toxicity of fenbuconazole in zebrafish: effects on mitochondrial respiration and locomotor behavior

Triazole fungicides are used to control the disease of cereal crops but may also cause adverse effects on non-target organisms. There is a lack of toxicity data for some triazoles such as fenbuconazole in aquatic organisms. This research was conducted to evaluate the toxicity of fenbuconazole at environmentally relevant concentrations with attention on the mitochondria, antioxidant system, and locomotor activity in zebrafish. Zebrafish were exposed to one concentration of 5, 50, 200 or 500ng/L fenbuconazole for 96h. There was no effect on survival nor percentage of fish hatched, but exposure to 200 and 500ng/L fenbuconazole resulted in malformation and hypoactivity in zebrafish. Oxygen consumption rates (OCR) of embryos were measured to determine if the fungicide impaired mitochondrial respiration. Exposure to 500ng/L fenbuconazole reduced basal OCR and oligomycin-induced ATP linked respiration in exposed fish. Fenbuconazole reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and reduced the activities of mitochondrial Complex II and III. Transcript levels of both sdhc and cyc1, each related to Complex II and III, were also altered in expression by fenbuconazole exposure, consistent with mitochondrial dysfunction in embryos. Fenbuconazole activated the antioxidant system, based upon both transcriptional and enzymatic data in zebrafish. Consistent with mitochondrial impairment, molecular docking confirmed a strong binding capacity of the fungicide at the Q_i site of Complex III, revealing this complex is susceptible to fenbuconazole. This study reveals potential toxicity pathways related to fenbuconazole exposure in aquatic organisms; such data can improve risk assessments for triazole fungicides.

Effects of sublethal concentration of metamifop on hepatic lipid metabolism in adult zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Metamifop (MET) is an effective herbicide that has been extensively used in paddy fields. Previous research demonstrated that MET was highly toxic to zebrafish embryos, and this threat has caused great concern; moreover, 0.40 mg/L MET elevated the hepatosomatic index (HSI) in adult zebrafish without lethal effect after 21 d of exposure. In this study, we further determined the detailed impacts of MET on adult zebrafish at sublethal concentrations (0.025, 0.10 and 0.40 mg/L). We found that 0.40 mg/L MET caused liver injury by increasing the activity of aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase in plasma, the content of interleukin-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and mRNA expression level of genes associated with inflammatory response in liver of adult zebrafish. The hepatic triglyceride (TG), free fatty acid and fatty acid synthase levels were significantly elevated in 0.40 mg/L MET-treated group (1.55-, 2.20- and 2.30-fold, respectively), and the transcript of lipid accumulation-related genes (fabp10, fas, acc, chrebp, dagt2 and agpat4) were upregulated. Meanwhile, the total cholesterol content was decreased by 0.48-fold, bile acid level was increased by 2.44-fold, and levels of cholesterol metabolism-related genes (apoa-1a, hmgcra, cyp51, dhcr7 and cyp7a1) were increased, suggesting cholesterol metabolism disorder occurred in zebrafish. Furthermore, analysis of lipidomics revealed that 0.40 mg/L MET significantly increased the abundance of 91 lipids, which mainly belonged to TG lipid class and were enriched in pathways of glycerolipid metabolism, cholesterol metabolism, etc. These results suggested that MET exposure at sublethal concentrations would induce hepatic inflammation and lipid metabolism disorders in adult zebrafish.

The Toxic Effects of Glyphosate, Chlorpyrifos, Abamectin, and 2,4-D on Animal Models: A Systematic Review of Brazilian Studies

Brazil is a global agricultural commodity producer and the largest consumer of pesticides. Pesticide use in Brazil comprised 549 280 tons in 2018. In the country, soybean, corn, and sugar cane are extensively produced, which are the most pesticides demanding crops. In the last years, the records of new pesticides were the highest in the historical series. They can persist in soil or water, accumulate in organisms, and contaminate workers and the general population through the air, water, or food. This review aimed to gather toxicological data obtained by animal models exposed to 4 pesticides: glyphosate, chlorpyrifos, abamectin, and 2,4-D. An additional goal was to compose an overview of how this subject has been approached, surveying which research groups are working on this field, where they are located, and relations with pesticides used in those regions. We collected the papers from the platforms PubMed, Scopus, Scielo, and Web of Science, performed in Brazil from 2014 to 2019. After two-step blind selection using the software Rayyan QCRI by different authors, 67 studies were selected to extract data. We observed that research is more concentrated in the South region, followed by the Southeast and Midwest, with 43%, 32%, and 23% of the studies, respectively. The prevalent institutions are from the states of Rio Grande do Sul, São Paulo, and Goiás. The effects on a variety of biomarkers help predict the potential risks to humans and nontarget organisms. The prevalent animal model was fish (36%). Overall, the main toxic effects evaluated were mortality, abnormalities in the blood cells, developmental abnormalities, and behavior alterations. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2021;17:507-520. © 2020 SETAC.

Toxic effects in Aphanomyces brasiliensis and zebrafish embryos caused by oomyceticides

In fish farming, high losses occur during egg incubation and larviculture due to diseases caused by oomycetes. This study aimed to identify the oomycete species that occurs in zebrafish Danio rerio eggs and to evaluate the oomyceticidal effect of copper sulfate, bronopol and methylene blue on the mycelial growth of this organism, as well as to determine the lethal and sublethal toxicity of these compounds in embryos of D. rerio. The isolates were cultivated in yeast-starch medium to determine the concentration necessary to inhibit mycelial growth by 50% (IC50) and 100% (minimum oomyceticidal concentration) after a 96 h exposure to these compounds. In addition, tests with D. rerio eggs were conducted to determine the lethal concentrations for 50% of the organisms (96h-LC50), and the concentrations that inhibited 17% of the eggs hatching (96h-IC17) after 96 h. The organism responsible for the mortality of D. rerio eggs was classified by classical and molecular methods as Aphanomyces brasiliensis, representing the first report of this pathogen in zebrafish eggs. IC50 values could be determined for both bronopol and copper sulfate, whereas methylene blue had low effectiveness against the oomycete. Copper showed high toxicity to D. rerio eggs at low concentrations, while methylene blue and bronopol toxicity was low and similar to each other. The use of bronopol at a concentration of 4.8 mg l-1 for the treatment of zebrafish eggs allows controlling the pathology without causing deleterious effects to the treated organisms.

Combined toxic impacts of thiamethoxam and four pesticides on the rare minnow (Gobiocypris rarus)

To examine pesticide mixture toxicity to aqueous organisms, we assessed the single and combined toxicities of thiamethoxam and other four pesticides (chlorpyrifos, beta-cypermethrin, tetraconazole, and azoxystrobin) to the rare minnow (Gobiocypris rarus). Data from 96-h semi-static toxicity assays of various developmental phases (embryonic, larval, juvenile, and adult phases) showed that beta-cypermethrin, chlorpyrifos, and azoxystrobin had the highest toxicities to G. rarus, and their LC₅₀ values ranged from 0.0031 to 0.86 mg a.i. L^-1, from 0.016 to 6.38 mg a.i. L^-1, and from 0.39 to 1.08 mg a.i. L^-1, respectively. Tetraconazole displayed a comparatively high toxicity, and its LC₅₀ values ranged from 3.48 to 16.73 mg a.i. L^-1. By contrast, thiamethoxam exhibited the lowest toxic effect with LC₅₀ values ranging from 37.85 to 351.9 mg a.i. L^-1. Rare minnow larvae were more sensitive than embryos to all the pesticides tested. Our data showed that a pesticide mixture of thiamethoxam-tetraconazole elicited synergetic toxicity to G. rarus. Moreover, pesticide mixtures containing beta-cypermethrin in combination with chlorpyrifos or tetraconazole also had synergetic toxicities to fish. The majority of pesticides are presumed to have additive toxicity, while our data emphasized that the concurrent existence of some chemicals in the aqueous circumstance could cause synergetic toxic effect, leading to severe loss to the aqueous environments in comparison with their single toxicities. Thence, the synergetic impacts of chemical mixtures should be considered when assessing the ecological risk of chemicals.

Fipronil and 2,4-D effects on tropical fish: Could avoidance response be explained by changes in swimming behavior and neurotransmission impairments?

Brazil is the largest producer of sugarcane, a crop largely dependent on chemical control for its maintenance. The insecticide fipronil and herbicide 2,4-D stand out among the most commonly used pesticides and, therefore, environmental consequences are a matter of concern. The present study aimed to investigate the toxicity mechanisms of Regent® 800 WG (a.i. fipronil) and DMA® 806 BR (a.i. 2,4-D) pesticides using forced and non-forced exposures through an integrative approach: firstly, to assess whether contamination by fipronil and 2,4-D can trigger the avoidance behavior of the fish Danio rerio (zebrafish) and Hyphessobrycon eques (serpae tetra or mato-grosso). Additionally, the effects on fish were analyzed considering the swimming behavior together with a biomarker of neurotoxicity, the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE). In avoidance tests with pesticide gradients, D. rerio avoided the highest concentrations of the two compounds and H. eques avoided only the highest concentration of 2,4-D. The swimming behavior (distance moved) was reduced and AChE was inhibited when D. rerio was exposed to fipronil. The 2,4-D affected the swimming (maximum speed) of H. eques, but AChE was not altered. Avoidance response seemed not to have been affected by possible effects of contaminants on swimming behavior and Ache activity. This study showed the importance of knowing the avoidance capacity, swimming behavior and neurotoxic effects of pesticides on fish in an integrated and realistic context of exposure in environments contaminated with pesticides and can be useful as ecologically relevant tools for ecological risk assessment.

Assessment of the ecotoxicity of the pharmaceuticals bisoprolol, sotalol, and ranitidine using standard and behavioral endpoints

The pharmaceuticals bisoprolol (BIS), sotalol (SOT), and ranitidine (RAN) are among the most consumed pharmaceuticals worldwide and are frequently detected in different aquatic ecosystems. However, very few ecotoxicity data are available in the literature for them. To help fill these data gaps, toxicity tests with the algae Raphidocelis subcapitata, the macrophyte Lemna minor, the cnidarian Hydra attenuata, the crustacean Daphnia similis, and the fish Danio rerio were performed for assessing the ecotoxicity of these pharmaceuticals. Standard, as well as non-standard endpoint, was evaluated, including the locomotor behavior of D. rerio larvae. Results obtained for SOT and RAN showed that acute adverse effects are not expected to occur on aquatic organisms at the concentrations at which these pharmaceuticals are usually found in fresh surface waters. On the other hand, BIS was classified as hazardous to the environment in the acute III category. Locomotor behavior of D. rerio larvae was not affected by BIS and RAN. A disturbance on the total swimming distance at the dark cycle was observed only for larvae exposed to the highest test concentration of 500 mg L^-1 of SOT. D. similis reproduction was affected by BIS with an EC₁₀ of 3.6 (0.1-34.0) mg L^-1. A risk quotient (RQ) of 0.04 was calculated for BIS in fresh surface water, considering a worst-case scenario. To the best of our knowledge, this study presents the first chronic toxicity data with BIS on non-target organisms.

Single and mixture toxicity of four pharmaceuticals of environmental concern to aquatic organisms, including a behavioral assessment

Pharmaceuticals are frequently detected in aquatic environments as mixtures and can cause toxic effects to non-target organisms. We aimed to evaluate the single and mixture effects of the pharmaceuticals metformin, bisoprolol, ranitidine and sotalol using Daphnia similis and Danio rerio. In addition, we aimed to test the predictive accuracy of the mathematical models concentration addition and independent action and to evaluate the nature of the possible toxicological interactions among these pharmaceuticals using the combination index-isobologram model. The acute toxicity of these four pharmaceuticals individually and of their binary mixtures were evaluated using the D. similis tests. Developmental and behavioral effects induced by the pharmaceuticals in quaternary mixtures were evaluated using D. rerio embryos. We observed that most of the binary mixture effects were in the zone between the effects predicted by the concentration addition and the independent action model. The combination index-isobologram model showed to be adequate to describe the nature of possible interactions occurring between the combined pharmaceuticals. Developmental and behavioral acute adverse effects seem not to be induced by the joint action of the quaternary mixture of the evaluated pharmaceuticals on D. rerio embryos, at the concentrations at which they are usually found in surface fresh waters. However, from the results obtained with D. similis, we can conclude that assessing the ecological risk based on the effects of individual pharmaceuticals can underestimate the risk level posed by these environmental contaminants.

Glyphosate- and Fipronil-Based Agrochemicals and Their Mixtures Change Zebrafish Behavior

Environmental contamination caused by the human occupancy and economic activities that generate a wide range of contaminated effluents that reach natural water resources, is a current reality. Residues of agrichemicals used in plant production were detected in different environments and in different countries. Among these agrochemicals, we studied a glyphosate-based herbicide (GBH), a fipronil-based insecticide (FBI), and their mixtures (GBH + FBI). Zebrafish exposed to 3 and 5 mg/L of GBH spend more time in the top zone and less time in the bottom zone. Fish exposed to 0.009 and 0.018 mg/L of FBI spent less time in the bottom zone, whereas zebrafish exposed to the three GBH + FBI mixtures spend more time in the top zone compared with unexposed control fish. This clear anxiolytic pattern, in an environmental context, can directly impair the ability of fish to avoid or evade predators. We concluded that both glyphosate-based herbicide and fipronil-based insecticide and their mixtures alter zebrafish behavior, which may result in significant repercussions on the maintenance of the species as well as on the food chain and the ecosystem.

Propiconazole induces abnormal behavior and oxidative stress in zebrafish

The use of pesticides has been growing along with the demand for agricultural products. These compounds, however, are not restricted to the field, spreading easily through the soil, contaminating groundwater and reaching urban centers. Propiconazole is a triazole fungicide that has been increasingly used in agriculture. However, there are few data about its effects on non-target organisms. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of propiconazole in zebrafish. The animals were exposed for 96 h to different concentrations of propiconazole (425, 850, 1700, 8500 ng/L), then submitted to the novel tank test for behavioral analyses. The brains were collected for evaluation of oxidative stress parameters. Exposure to propiconazole (1700 and 8500 ng/L) decreased the number of crossings, entries, and time spent in the top, and increased the time spent in the bottom area of the tank. We also observed an increase in the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase in zebrafish brain exposed to propiconazole at 425, 850, and 1700 ng/L. We conclude that propiconazole alters normal fish behavior and disrupts oxidative status. More studies are necessary to elucidate the exact mechanism underlying the effects of propiconazole on non-target-organisms.

The use of gene expression to unravel the single and mixture toxicity of abamectin and difenoconazole on survival and reproduction of the springtail Folsomia candida

Pesticides risk assessments have traditionally focused on the effects on standard parameters, such as mortality, reproduction and development. However, one of the first signs of adverse effects that occur in organisms exposed to stress conditions is an alteration in their genomic expression, which is specific to the type of stress, sensitive to very low contaminant concentrations and responsive in a few hours. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the single and binary mixture toxicity of commercial products of abamectin (Kraft^® 36 EC) and difenoconazole (Score^® 250 EC) to Folsomia candida. Laboratory toxicity tests were conducted to access the effects of these pesticides on springtail survival, reproduction and gene expression. The reproduction assays gave EC₅₀ and EC₁₀ values, respectively, of 6.3 and 1.4 mg a.s./kg dry soil for abamectin; 1.0 and 0.12 mg a.s./kg dry soil for Kraft^® 36 EC; and 54 and 23 mg a.s./kg dry soil for Score^® 250 EC. Technical difenoconazole did not have any effect at the concentrations tested. No significant differences in gene expression were found between the abamectin concentrations tested (EC₁₀ and EC₅₀) and the solvent control. Exposure to Kraft^® 36 EC, however, significantly induced Cyp6 expression at the EC₅₀ level, while VgR was significantly downregulated at both the EC₁₀ and EC₅₀. Exposure to the simple pesticide mixture of Kraft^® 36 EC + Score^® 250 EC caused significant up regulation of ABC transporter, and significant down regulation of VgR relative to the controls. GABA receptor also showed significant down-regulation between the EC₁₀ and EC₅₀ mixture treatments. Results of the present study demonstrate that pesticide-induced gene expression effects precede and occur at lower concentrations than organism-level responses. Integrating "omic" endpoints in traditional bioassays may thus be a promising way forward in pesticide toxicity evaluations.