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Llewellyn MJ, Griffin EK, Caspar RJ, Timshina AS, Bowden JA, Miller CJ, Baker BB, Baker TR. Identification and quantification of novel per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) contamination in a Great Lakes urban-dominated watershed. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 941:173325. [PMID: 38797403 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large group of synthetic organic fluoro-compounds that are oil-, water-, and flame-resistant, making them useful in a wide range of commercial and consumer products, as well as resistant to environmental degradation. To assess the impact of urbanization and wastewater treatment processes, surface water and sediment samples were collected at 27 sites within the Great Lakes in the Lake Huron to Lake Erie corridor (HEC), an international waterway including the highly urbanized Detroit and Rouge Rivers. Samples were analyzed for 92 PFAS via UHPLC-MS/MS. Our previous data in the HEC found the highest amount of PFAS contamination at the Rouge River mouth. In addition to evaluating the input of the Rouge River into the HEC, we evaluated the transport of PFAS into the HEC from other major tributaries. PFAS were detected in both surface water and sediment at all sites in this study, with a total of 10 congeners quantified in all surface water samples and 16 congeners quantified in all sediment samples, indicating ubiquitous contamination. Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were pervasive in the HEC as these two compounds were detected in all sites and matrices, often at concentrations above the US EPA's recommended lifetime interim updated health advisories. Surface water samples contained more perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) than any other congener, with average aqueous PFHxA across all surface water samples exceeding the average concentration previously reported in the Great Lakes. Sediment samples were dominated by PFOS, but novel congeners, notably 3-Perfluoropentyl propanoic acid (FPePA), were also quantified in sediment. The Rouge River and other tributaries contribute significantly to the PFAS burden in the HEC including Lake Erie. Overall, our results indicate the need for expanding toxicological research and risk assessment focused on congeners such as PFHxA and PFAS mixtures, as well as regulation that is tighter at the onset of production and encompasses PFAS as a group at a national level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mallory J Llewellyn
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States of America.
| | - Emily K Griffin
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States of America.
| | - Rachel J Caspar
- Department of Biology, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Florida, United States of America
| | - Alina S Timshina
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering, University of Florida, United States of America.
| | - John A Bowden
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States of America.
| | - Carol J Miller
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, College of Engineering, Wayne State University, United States of America.
| | - Bridget B Baker
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, United States of America.
| | - Tracie R Baker
- Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology, Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, United States of America; Department of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, United States of America.
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2
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Vázquez Loureiro P, Nguyen KH, Rodríguez Bernaldo de Quirós A, Sendón R, Granby K, Niklas AA. Identification and quantification of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) migrating from food contact materials (FCM). CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 360:142360. [PMID: 38761829 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) can be added to food contact materials (FCM) to increase their water and/or grease repellent properties. Some well-known PFAS are perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCA), perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSA), and polyfluorinated telomer alcohols (FTOH). Due to the strength of the carbon-fluorine bond, PFAS are chemically very stable and highly resistant to biological degradation, posing a risk to human health and the environment. To examine the presence of PFAS in paper-based FCM, various samples were collected, including popcorn bags, muffin cups, and pizza boxes with high total organic fluorine (TOF) content from the Danish and Spanish markets. The FCM composition was characterised by FTIR. Quantification of some well-known PFAS such as PFCA, PFSA, and FTOH was performed in food simulants using LC-MS/MS, and in addition a non-targeted screening approach was performed by LC-Orbitrap-HRMS. Among analysed samples, the highest concentrations of PFAS were found in a muffin cup made of cellulose (PFCA ∼ 1.41 μg kg-1 food, FTOH ∼ 11.5 μg kg-1 food), and the results were used to estimate dietary exposures to PFAS migrated from this FCM. Compared to measured TOF value in this sample, the fluorine from all quantified PFAS accounted for only 0.6%. Thus, a more powerful analytical approach was used to further investigate PFAS occurrence in this sample. Using non-targeted screening, an additional twenty compounds were identified, among them five with confidence level 1 and ten with confidence level 2. Many of them were either fluorotelomer carboxylic acids or sulfonic acids or ether-containing compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Vázquez Loureiro
- Technical University of Denmark, National Food Institute, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark; Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Khanh-Hoang Nguyen
- Technical University of Denmark, National Food Institute, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Ana Rodríguez Bernaldo de Quirós
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Raquel Sendón
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Santiago de Compostela, 15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Kit Granby
- Technical University of Denmark, National Food Institute, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Agnieszka A Niklas
- Technical University of Denmark, National Food Institute, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
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3
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Timshina AS, Robey NM, Oldnettle A, Barron S, Mehdi Q, Cerlanek A, Townsend TG, Bowden JA. Investigating the sources and fate of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in food waste compost. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 180:125-134. [PMID: 38564913 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2024.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Composting municipal food waste is a key strategy for beneficially reusing methane-producing waste that would otherwise occupy landfill space. However, land-applied compost can cycle per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) back into the food supply and the environment. We partnered with a pilot-scale windrow composting facility to investigate the sources and fate of 40 PFAS in food waste compost. A comparison of feedstock materials yielded concentrations of ∑PFAS under 1 ng g-1 in mulch and food waste and at 1380 ng g-1 in leachate from used compostable food contact materials. Concentrations of targeted ∑PFAS increased with compost maturity along the windrow (1.85-23.1 ng g-1) and in mature stockpiles of increasing curing age (12.6-84.3 ng g-1). Among 15 PFAS quantified in compost, short-chain perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) - C5 and C6 PFCAs in particular - led the increasing trend, suggesting biotransformation of precursor PFAS into these terminal PFAS through aerobic decomposition. Several precursor PFAS were also measured, including fluorotelomer carboxylic acids (FTCAs) and polyfluorinated phosphate diesters (PAPs). However, since most targeted analytical methods and proposed regulations prioritize terminal PFAS, testing fully matured compost would provide the most relevant snapshot of PFAS that could be land applied. In addition, removing co-disposed food contact materials from the FW feedstock onsite yielded only a 37 % reduction of PFAS loads in subsequent compost, likely due to PFAS leaching during co-disposal. Source-separation of food contact materials is currently the best management practice for meaningful reduction of PFAS in food waste composts intended for land application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina S Timshina
- University of Florida, Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Nicole M Robey
- Innovative Technical Solutions, Inc., Gainesville, FL 32606, USA
| | - Allison Oldnettle
- University of Florida, Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | | | - Qaim Mehdi
- University of Florida, Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology & Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Allison Cerlanek
- University of Florida, Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Timothy G Townsend
- University of Florida, Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - John A Bowden
- University of Florida, Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, College of Engineering, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA; University of Florida, Center for Environmental and Human Toxicology & Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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4
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Phelps D, Parkinson LV, Boucher JM, Muncke J, Geueke B. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Food Packaging: Migration, Toxicity, and Management Strategies. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:5670-5684. [PMID: 38501683 PMCID: PMC10993423 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c03702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
PFASs are linked to serious health and environmental concerns. Among their widespread applications, PFASs are known to be used in food packaging and directly contribute to human exposure. However, information about PFASs in food packaging is scattered. Therefore, we systematically map the evidence on PFASs detected in migrates and extracts of food contact materials and provide an overview of available hazard and biomonitoring data. Based on the FCCmigex database, 68 PFASs have been identified in various food contact materials, including paper, plastic, and coated metal, by targeted and untargeted analyses. 87% of these PFASs belong to the perfluorocarboxylic acids and fluorotelomer-based compounds. Trends in chain length demonstrate that long-chain perfluoroalkyl acids continue to be found, despite years of global efforts to reduce the use of these substances. We utilized ToxPi to illustrate that hazard data are available for only 57% of the PFASs that have been detected in food packaging. For those PFASs for which toxicity testing has been performed, many adverse outcomes have been reported. The data and knowledge gaps presented here support international proposals to restrict PFASs as a group, including their use in food contact materials, to protect human and environmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drake
W. Phelps
- Independent
Consultant, Raleigh, North Carolina 27617, United States
| | | | | | - Jane Muncke
- Food
Packaging Forum Foundation, 8045 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Birgit Geueke
- Food
Packaging Forum Foundation, 8045 Zürich, Switzerland
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5
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Lee AE, Featherstone J, Martens J, McMahon TB, Hopkins WS. Fluorinated Propionic Acids Unmasked: Puzzling Fragmentation Phenomena of the Deprotonated Species. J Phys Chem Lett 2024; 15:3029-3036. [PMID: 38466046 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c03400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Environmental contamination by per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) is an emerging concern for the public. In this study, short-chain PFAS such as deprotonated per- and polyfluorinated propionic acids are investigated using a combination of infrared multiple-photon dissociation (IRMPD) spectroscopy, collision-induced dissociation (CID), and density functional theory calculations. IRMPD and CID proceed via multiple competing pathways: (1) production of fluoroformate (FCO2-) and the associated ethylene derivative, (2) production of HF and the associated carbanion, or (3) loss of CO2 and the associated carbanion. Fluorinated propionic acids with at least one fluorine atom bound to the terminal carbon yield FCO2-, whereas loss of HF is observed in polyfluorinated species with at least one fluorine atom bound to the α-carbon. To explore the reaction pathways of the various fluorinated propionic acids, the nudged elastic band method is employed. The relative energy of the four-membered ring transition state leading to FCO2- dictates which product channel is observed in dissociation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur E Lee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Josh Featherstone
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Jonathan Martens
- Radboud University, Institute for Molecules and Materials, FELIX Laboratory, Toernooiveld 7, 6525ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Terrance B McMahon
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - W Scott Hopkins
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
- Watermine Innovation, Waterloo, Ontario N0B 2T0, Canada
- Centre for Eye and Vision Research, Hong Kong Science Park, New Territories 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
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6
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Chen YF, Liu T, Hu LX, Chen CE, Yang B, Ying GG. Unveiling per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance contamination in Chinese paper products and assessing their exposure risk. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 185:108540. [PMID: 38428191 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024]
Abstract
The contamination characteristics, migration patterns and health risks of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) were investigated in 66 Chinese paper products by using target and non-target screening methods. Among 57 target PFASs, 5 and 6 PFASs were found in the hygiene paper products (
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Fei Chen
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ting Liu
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Li-Xin Hu
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Chang-Er Chen
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Bin Yang
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Guang-Guo Ying
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
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7
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Tolaymat T, Robey N, Krause M, Larson J, Weitz K, Parvathikar S, Phelps L, Linak W, Burden S, Speth T, Krug J. A critical review of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) landfill disposal in the United States. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:167185. [PMID: 37734620 PMCID: PMC10842600 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Landfills manage materials containing per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from municipal solid waste (MSW) and other waste streams. This manuscript summarizes state and federal initiatives and critically reviews peer-reviewed literature to define best practices for managing these wastes and identify data gaps to guide future research. The objective is to inform stakeholders about waste-derived PFAS disposed of in landfills, PFAS emissions, and the potential for related environmental impacts. Furthermore, this document highlights data gaps and uncertainties concerning the fate of PFAS during landfill disposal. Most studies on this topic measured PFAS in liquid landfill effluent (leachate); comparatively fewer have attempted to estimate PFAS loading in landfills or other effluent streams such as landfill gas (LFG). In all media, the reported total PFAS heavily depends on waste types and the number of PFAS included in the analytical method. Early studies which only measured a small number of PFAS, predominantly perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), likely report a significant underestimation of total PFAS. Major findings include relationships between PFAS effluent and landfill conditions - biodegradable waste increases PFAS transformation and leaching. Based on the results of multiple studies, it is estimated that 84% of PFAS loading to MSW landfills (7.2 T total) remains in the waste mass, while 5% leaves via LFG and 11% via leachate on an annual basis. The environmental impact of landfill-derived PFAS has been well-documented. Additional research is needed on PFAS in landfilled construction and demolition debris, hazardous, and industrial waste in the US.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thabet Tolaymat
- The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Management, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA.
| | - Nicole Robey
- Innovative Technical Solutions, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Max Krause
- The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Management, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Judd Larson
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Keith Weitz
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Lara Phelps
- The Center for Environmental Measurements and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - William Linak
- The Center for Environmental Measurements and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Susan Burden
- Office of Science Advisor, Policy and Engagement, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Tom Speth
- The Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Management, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Jonathan Krug
- The Center for Environmental Measurements and Modeling, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
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Xing Y, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Lin X, Li J, Liu P, Lee HK, Huang Z. The sources and bioaccumulation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in animal-derived foods and the potential risk of dietary intake. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:167313. [PMID: 37742961 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have attracted increasing attention due to their environmental persistence and potential toxicity. Diet is one of the main routes of human exposure to PFAS, particularly through the consumption of animal-derived foods (e.g., aquatic products, livestock and poultry, and products derived from them). This review summarizes the source, bioaccumulation, and distribution of PFAS in animal-derived foods and key influential factors. In most environmental media, perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate are the dominant PFAS, with the levels of short-chain PFAS such as perfluorobutyric acid and perfluorohexane sulfonate surpassing them in some watersheds and coastal areas. The presence of PFAS in environmental media is mainly influenced by suspended particulate matter, microbial communities as well as temporal and spatial factors, such as season and location. Linear PFAS with long carbon chains (C ≥ 7) and sulfonic groups tend to accumulate in organisms and contribute significantly to the contamination of animal-derived foods. Furthermore, PFAS, due to their protein affinity, are prone to accumulate in the blood and protein-rich tissues such as the liver and kidney. Species differences in PFAS bioaccumulation are determined by diet, variances in protein content in the blood and tissues and species-specific activity of transport proteins. Carnivorous fish usually show higher PFAS accumulation than omnivorous fish. Poultry typically metabolize PFAS more rapidly than mammals. PFAS exposures in the processing of animal-derived foods are also attributable to the migration of PFAS from food contact materials, especially those in higher-fat content foods. The human health risk assessment of PFAS exposure from animal-derived foods suggests that frequent consumption of aquatic products potentially engender greater risks to women and minors than to adult males. The information and perspectives from this review would help to further identify the toxicity and migration mechanism of PFAS in animal-derived foods and provide information for food safety management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yudong Xing
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Yan Zhou
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Xia Lin
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Jiaoyang Li
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China
| | - Hian Kee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Zhenzhen Huang
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, PR China.
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Boisacq P, De Keuster M, Prinsen E, Jeong Y, Bervoets L, Eens M, Covaci A, Willems T, Groffen T. Assessment of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in commercially available drinking straws using targeted and suspect screening approaches. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2023; 40:1230-1241. [PMID: 37619405 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2023.2240908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Many food contact materials (FCMs) and reusable plastics in the food industry contain poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a group of synthetic pollutants that are known to be potentially harmful for wildlife, humans, and the environment. PFAS may migrate from FCMs to food consumed by humans. As a replacement for plastics, often paper and other plant-based materials are used in commercial settings. This also applies to drinking straws, where plant-based and other presumably eco-friendly straws are increasingly used to reduce plastic pollution. In order to make these materials water-repellent, PFAS are added during manufacturing but can also already be present early in the supply chain due to the use of contaminated raw materials. In the present study, we examined the PFAS concentrations in 39 different brands of straws, made from five materials (i.e. paper, bamboo, glass, stainless steel, and plastic) commercially available on the Belgian market. We combined both targeted and suspect-screening approaches to evaluate a wide range of PFAS. PFAS were found to be present in almost all types of straws, except for those made of stainless steel. PFAS were more frequently detected in plant-based materials, such as paper and bamboo. We did not observe many differences between the types of materials, or the continents of origin. The presence of PFAS in plant-based straws shows that they are not necessarily biodegradable and that the use of such straws potentially contributes to human and environmental exposure of PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Boisacq
- ECOSPHERE, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Maarten De Keuster
- ECOSPHERE, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Els Prinsen
- Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Yunsun Jeong
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
- Division for Environmental Health, Korea Environment Institute (KEI), Sejong, Republic of Korea
| | - Lieven Bervoets
- ECOSPHERE, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Tim Willems
- Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Thimo Groffen
- ECOSPHERE, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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10
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Zhou Y, Lin X, Xing Y, Zhang X, Lee HK, Huang Z. Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Personal Hygiene Products: The Implications for Human Exposure and Emission to the Environment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:8484-8495. [PMID: 37262408 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been related to reproductive toxicity in humans, but their occurrence in some specific personal hygiene products, i.e., sanitary pads, panty liners, tampons, paper diapers, menstrual cups, and bactericidal liquids, has not been extensively studied. This work investigated 31 representative PFAS in six categories of such personal hygiene products (n = 91). Perfluorinated carboxylic acids were the primary PFAS found in the samples, accounting for over 85% of the total concentrations of PFAS. Paper diapers contained the highest sum of PFAS concentrations (64.6 ng/g) followed by sanitary pads (52.3 ng/g) and menstrual cups (21.1 ng/g). The estimated exposure doses of perfluorooctanoic acid through dermal absorption from the use of menstrual cups and paper diapers for infants (adults) were 0.77 and 2.1 (1.2) ng/kg-bw/day, which contributed more than normal dust ingestion. The estimated emission of paper diapers and sanitary pads into the environment was 2.58 and 322 kg/year with an assumed leaching rate of 100%. The potential exposure of PFAS through the use of personal hygiene products observed in this work suggests a previously unreported exposure pathway of these chemicals to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhou
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Xia Lin
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Yudong Xing
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
| | - Hian Kee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Zhenzhen Huang
- Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P.R. China
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Hemsley B, Darcy S, Given F, Murray BR, Balandin S. Going thirsty for the turtles: Plastic straw bans, people with swallowing disability, and Sustainable Development Goal 14, Life Below Water. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SPEECH-LANGUAGE PATHOLOGY 2023; 25:15-19. [PMID: 36503285 DOI: 10.1080/17549507.2022.2127900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This paper relates to the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Life Below Water (SDG 14) and the need to consider Better Health and Well-Being (SDG 3) in interventions designed to reduce plastic straw waste. The aim of this paper is to explore the competing demands of saving the world's oceans and sea life from plastic straw waste, and simultaneously meeting the health and social needs of people with swallowing or physical disability who use plastic straws for drinking. RESULT In order to meet both SDG 14 and not compromise SDG 3 there is a need for collaborative and interdisciplinary, person-centred, inclusive innovation approaches to finding suitable and acceptable alternatives to plastic straws. Many people with swallowing disability will need a durable, flexible, and single-use straw that is resilient enough to withstand jaw closure without breaking. Co-design considerations include the alternative straw being (a) soft and flexible so as not to damage the teeth of people who bite to stabilise the jaw or who have a bite reflex; (b) suitable for both hot and cold drinks; (c) flexible for angling to the mouth; (d) readily, thoroughly and easily cleaned to a high standard of hygiene; (e) widely available for low or no cost wherever drinks are served; and (f) safe for people to use while reducing impact on the environment and being sustainable. CONCLUSION Plastic straws are an assistive technology critical for the social inclusion of people with disability. In an inclusive society, reaching a policy position on the provision of plastic straws must include seeking out and listening to the voices of people with sensory, intellectual, physical, or multiple disabilities who use plastic straws.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bronwyn Hemsley
- The University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, Australia and
| | - Simon Darcy
- The University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Fiona Given
- The University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Brad R Murray
- The University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Susan Balandin
- The University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia
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12
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Zimmermann L, Scheringer M, Geueke B, Boucher JM, Parkinson LV, Groh KJ, Muncke J. Implementing the EU Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability: The case of food contact chemicals of concern. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 437:129167. [PMID: 35897167 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The EU Chemicals Strategy for Sustainability (CSS) aims at removing the most harmful chemicals from consumer products, including from food contact materials (FCMs). If implemented as intended, the CSS has the potential to significantly improve the protection of public health by banning the use of chemicals of concern that are carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic to reproduction (CMRs), or persistent and bioaccumulative, or endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in FCMs. However, until now an overview of such food contact chemicals of concern (FCCoCs) has not been available, because the CSS is fairly recent. Therefore, we here systematically analyze the food contact chemicals listed for intentional use in FCMs and identify known FCCoCs. We present a list of 388 FCCoCs that should be phased-out from use. Of these, 352 are CMRs, four are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and 127 have empirical evidence for presence in FCMs. Importantly, 30 FCCoCs with evidence for presence are monomers of which 22 have evidence for migration into foodstuff showing that monomers in FCMs indeed become relevant for human exposure. Our findings justify moving away from a risk- towards a hazard-based approach to regulation of chemicals in FCMs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Scheringer
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Birgit Geueke
- Food Packaging Forum Foundation, 8045 Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Ksenia J Groh
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Jane Muncke
- Food Packaging Forum Foundation, 8045 Zürich, Switzerland
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13
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Li J, Peng G, Xu X, Liang E, Sun W, Chen Q, Yao L. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in groundwater from a contaminated site in the North China Plain: Occurrence, source apportionment, and health risk assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 302:134873. [PMID: 35551938 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are manmade chemicals that have wide industrial and commercial application. However, little research has been carried out on PFASs pollution in groundwater from a previously contaminated site. Here, we investigated 43 PFASs in a monitoring campaign from two different aquifers in the North China Plain. Our results revealed that total PFASs concentrations (∑43PFASs) ranged from 0.22 to 3,776.76 ng/L, with no spatial or compositional differences. Moreover, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluoroheptane sulfonate (PFHpS) were the dominant pollutants with mean concentrations of 177.33 ng/L and 51 ng/L, respectively. ∑43PFAS decreased with well depth due to the adsorption of PFASs to the aquifer materials. Water temperature, total organic carbon, dissolved oxygen, and total phosphorus concentrations were correlated to the PFAS concentrations. Principal component analysis indicated that the main sources of PFASs in groundwater were untreated industrial discharge, untreated domestic wastewater, food packaging, aqueous film forming foams and metal plating, and surface runoff, which overlapped with the industries that previously existed in a nearby city. Human health risks from drinking contaminated groundwater were low to the local residents, with children aged 1-2 years being the most sensitive group. One specific site with a high PFOA concentration was of concern, as it was several orders higher than the 70 ng/L recommended by US Environmental Protection Agency health advisory. This study provided baseline data for PFASs in a previously-contaminated site, which will help in the development of effective strategies for controlling PFASs pollution in the North China Plain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Li
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Special Functional Materials, Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Technology of Ceramics, Guangdong Research Center for Interfacial Engineering of Functional Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China; Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China; College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Guyu Peng
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Xuming Xu
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Enhang Liang
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Weiling Sun
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Qian Chen
- College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, The Key Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences, Ministry of Education, Beijing, 100871, China.
| | - Lei Yao
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Special Functional Materials, Shenzhen Engineering Laboratory for Advanced Technology of Ceramics, Guangdong Research Center for Interfacial Engineering of Functional Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China.
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14
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Gaines LGT. Historical and current usage of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): A literature review. Am J Ind Med 2022; 66:353-378. [PMID: 35614869 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.23362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have uniquely useful chemical and physical properties, leading to their extensive industrial, commercial, and consumer applications since at least the 1950s. Some industries have publicly reported at least some degree of information regarding their PFAS use, while other industries have reported little, if any, such information publicly. METHODS Publicly available sources were extensively researched for information. Literature searches were performed on key words via a variety of search mechanisms, including existing PFAS use and synthesis literature, patent databases, manufacturers' websites, public government databases, and library catalogs. Additional searches were conducted specifically for suspected or known uses. RESULTS PFAS have been used in a wide variety of applications, which are summarized into several industries and applications. The expanded literature search yielded additional references as well as greater details, such as concentrations and specific PFAS used, on several previously reported uses. CONCLUSIONS This knowledge will help inform which industries and occupations may lead to potential exposure to workers and to the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda G. T. Gaines
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington District of Columbia USA
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15
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Wang S, Cai Y, Ma L, Lin X, Li Q, Li Y, Wang X. Perfluoroalkyl substances in water, sediment, and fish from a subtropical river of China: Environmental behaviors and potential risk. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 288:132513. [PMID: 34634273 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water, sediment and fish were analyzed from a subtropical river, Jiulong River in the southeast of China, to character the sources, seasonal variations, bioconcentration and potential risk. PFAS in water, sediment, muscle and liver tissues of fish ranged from 2.5 to 410 ng L-1, 0.24-1.9 ng g-1 dw, 25-100 and 35-1100 ng g-1 ww, respectively. Generally, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) was the dominant compound in water, while, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) were the dominant compounds in sediment and fish tissues. High concentrations of PFAS in water were found near the machinery manufacturing and paper packaging plants in the north branch of Jiulong River. PFAS during the dry season were significantly (P < 0.01) higher than that during the normal season and wet season. The Kd of PFAS increased with the carbon chain length, and perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acids (PFSAs) exhibited higher Kd values than perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), indicating these long chain PFAS tended to be adsorbed by sediment. Long chain PFAS exhibited high bioconcentration factors (BCFs), while short and medium carbon chain PFAS had weak bioconcentration capacity. The hazard ratios (HR) suggested that frequent consumption of river fish may pose health risks to local population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siquan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yizhi Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Liya Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Xiaoping Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Qin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yongyu Li
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Xinhong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Coastal Ecology and Environmental Studies, College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China.
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16
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The Optimal Strategy of China’s Plastic Drinking Straws Ban Based on Consumer Heterogeneity and Retailer Competition. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14020745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The Chinese government has issued a new “Plastic Restriction Ban” requiring that, by the end of 2020, the food and beverage industry across the country bans the use of single-use, nondegradable plastic drinking straws. The governance of plastic drinking straws is a multi-dimensional and complex process. Therefore, based on the heterogeneity of consumers, this paper constructs a tripartite game model (the government, retailers, and consumers) for the governance of plastic drinking straws in China. Under this model, this research derives an optimal strategy in both monopoly and competitive markets, assuming the government has access to two policy tools, fines and subsidies. The research results suggest the following. (1) In monopoly markets, when (a) the fine or subsidy fee is high or (b) the fine or subsidy fee is low and the number of environment-conscious consumers is high, retailers are more inclined to provide biodegradable drinking straws. (2) Consumer heterogeneity has a certain impact on policy results; when there are enough environment-conscious consumers, policy costs can be reduced. (3) For high-quality products, the policy costs in competitive markets is lower than in monopoly markets; for low-quality products, the policy costs in competitive markets is higher than in monopoly markets. Based on the conclusions, this work suggests the government should focus on cultivating consumers’ environmental awareness and tighter control of products quality, in addition to the two policy tools, i.e., fines and subsidies, because these can reduce policy costs. Consumers should be aware of their own importance to China’s Plastic Drinking Straws Ban and adopt a refusal to accept plastic drinking straws and reduce the consumption of disposable plastics to support the policy. Retailers should also realize that proactively catering to consumer and government expectations can bring higher benefits to themselves; this can be achieved by providing high-quality biodegradable straws to support China’s Plastic Drinking Straws Ban. The model of this work could be applied to other corporate activities related to sustainability, such as plastic bags, plastic bottles, etc., and their connection to government policies.
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