The prevalence of iatrogenic underfeeding in the nutritionally 'at-risk' critically ill patient: Results of an international, multicenter, prospective study

Measurements of enteral feeding intolerance in critically ill children: a scoping review

Objective

To examine the measurements on enteral feeding intolerance (EFI) in critically ill children.

Methods

The Joanna Briggs Institute methods for conducting a scoping review were followed. Articles published since 2004 which assessed EFI in critically ill children were identified. A full search strategy was executed in seven English databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, JBI EBP, CINAHL) and four Chinese databases (CNKI, VIP, Wanfang, Sinomed). Two reviewers screened records according to our inclusion and exclusion criteria, and conducted a full-text review of selected articles. The reference lists of all studied selected were screened for additional sources. Relevant data was extracted using a researcher-developed tool.

Results

Of the 627 articles identified, 32 were included in this scoping review. Most articles focused on the measurement of high gastric residual volume (n = 22), followed by diarrhea (n = 20), and vomiting (n = 9). Most of the studies were of observational-analytic design (13/32) and experimental design (8/32).

Conclusion

This scoping review addressed the complexity and diversity of EFI measurements. Given the importance of adequacy of enteral nutrient intake, we highlighted the necessary to develop individual measurements of EFI, taking the age of children and disease condition into consideration. Further studies can also investigate accurate and objective physiological measurements of EFI to advance EN and improve outcomes in critically ill children.

Role of artificial intelligence in critical care nutrition support and research

Nutrition plays a key role in the comprehensive care of critically ill patients. Determining optimal nutrition strategy, however, remains a subject of intense debate. Artificial intelligence (AI) applications are becoming increasingly common in medicine, and specifically in critical care, driven by the data-rich environment of intensive care units. In this review, we will examine the evidence regarding the application of AI in critical care nutrition. As of now, the use of AI in critical care nutrition is relatively limited, with its primary emphasis on malnutrition screening and tolerance of enteral nutrition. Despite the current scarcity of evidence, the potential for AI for more personalized nutrition management for critically ill patients is substantial. This stems from the ability of AI to integrate multiple data streams reflecting patients' changing needs while addressing inherent heterogeneity. The application of AI in critical care nutrition holds promise for optimizing patient outcomes through tailored and adaptive nutrition interventions. A successful implementation of AI, however, necessitates a multidisciplinary approach, coupled with careful consideration of challenges related to data management, financial aspects, and patient privacy.

Enteral nutrition: An underappreciated source of patient safety events

Enteral nutrition (EN) therapies are prescribed for patients not able to maintain adequate nutrition through the oral route. Medical errors and close calls associated with the provision of EN therapy leading to actual and potential patient harm have been reported. The purpose of this study was to determine the number, type, and severity of safety events related to the provision of EN therapies reported to a national database and provide workable recommendations from the literature to improve safety. An interdisciplinary team queried the National Center for Patient Safety (NCPS) Joint Patient Safety Reporting (JPSR) system using keywords related to EN therapy use. The team reviewed the number, type, and severity of reported events and safety codes as categorized by the NCPS and then thematically classified the narratives using the Medication Use Process (MUP). Our query revealed 1227 safety events related to the EN keywords. Thematic analysis of the top five event subtypes (n = 1030) revealed that there were 691 EN safety reports directly related to an MUP step, and the majority fell into the steps of administering (31%), followed by monitoring (28%), dispensing (26%), prescribing (11%), and transcription (4%), with many events involving more than one MUP step. Safety events associated with the provision of EN therapies leading to patient harm have been reported to the JPSR system. To improve safety related to EN use, modifications to prescribing, transcribing/documenting, dispensing, administering, and monitoring of prescribed EN therapies are needed.

Anabolic Strategies for ICU-Acquired Weakness. What Can We Learn from Bodybuilders?

The study aimed to show the potential clinical application of supplements used among sportsmen for patients suffering from Intensive Care Unit-acquired Weakness (ICUAW) treatment. ICUAW is a common complication affecting approximately 40% of critically ill patients, often leading to long-term functional disability. ICUAW comprises critical illness polyneuropathy, critical illness myopathy, or a combination of both, such as critical illness polyneuromyopathy. Muscle degeneration begins shortly after the initiation of mechanical ventilation and persists post-ICU discharge until proteolysis and autophagy processes normalize. Several factors, including prolonged bedrest and muscle electrical silencing, contribute to muscle weakness, resulting from an imbalance between protein degradation and synthesis. ICUAW is associated with tissue hypoxia, oxidative stress, insulin resistance, reduced glucose uptake, lower adenosine triphosphate (ATP) formation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and increased free-radical production. Several well-studied dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals commonly used by athletes are proven to prevent the aforementioned mechanisms or aid in muscle building, regeneration, and maintenance. While there is no standardized treatment to prevent the occurrence of ICUAW, nutritional interventions have demonstrated the potential for its mitigation. The use of ergogenic substances, popular among muscle-building sociates, may offer potential benefits in preventing muscle loss and aiding recovery based on their work mechanisms.

Nutritional deficiencies in children

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The purpose of this review is to summarize commonly encountered nutritional deficiencies in children and their implications. Considering data suggesting that the majority of children with the United States consume unhealthy diets, the growing interest in the consumption of limiting diets, as well as the insidious clinical presentation of nutritional deficiencies, this is a timely and highly relevant review.

RECENT FINDINGS

The underlying socioeconomic and medical circumstances that predispose to nutritional deficiencies in the Western world are covered. The high index of suspicion required to recognize nutritional deficiencies and the limitations of available testing are also discussed. Finally, the need for the development of accurate nutritional biomarkers is presented as a future research priority.

SUMMARY

Nutritional deficiencies are not uncommon, even in high resource countries. Clinicians should remain vigilant and include nutritional deficiencies in the differential diagnoses of patients presenting with nonspecific symptoms.

Isocaloric nutritional support reduces ventilator duration time in major trauma patients

AIMS

Major trauma patients need adequate nutrition for recovery. This study aimed to evaluate the adequacy of nutritional supply and the correlation between nutritional supply and clinical outcome.

METHODS

A single-centre retrospective observational study was undertaken, describing the amounts of energy and proteins provided to 320 critically ill trauma patients during the first 10 days after admission. The data were collected from the electronic medical records of patients admitted to the trauma intensive care unit during the study period and descriptive statistical analyses were performed with the SPSS software.

RESULTS

The mean proportion of supplied energy to recommended energy during the first 10 days after admission was 57.5%, and the mean percentage of supplied protein to recommended protein intake was 51.3%. The patients were divided into those who received ≥70% (isocaloric nutrition group) and those who received <70% (hypocaloric nutrition group) of their estimated requirements. Both the duration of ventilator use (12.7 ± 10.5 vs. 16.0 ± 15.8 days, respectively, p = 0.009) and duration of parenteral nutrition (1.1 ± 1.4 vs. 2.0 ± 2.0 days, respectively, p = 0.001) were shorter in the isocaloric nutrition group (n = 83) than in the hypocaloric nutrition group (n = 237).

CONCLUSION

Total energy and the amount of protein supplied were insufficient compared to the recommended amount. The duration of ventilator use was shorter in the isocaloric nutrition group than in the hypocaloric nutrition group. The association between shortened ventilator use and isocaloric nutrition requires further investigation as a potential intervention to reduce the risk of complications such as ventilator-related pneumonia.

Factors associated with the need of parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients after the initiation of enteral nutrition therapy

Background and aims

Despite enteral nutrition (EN) is the preferred route of nutrition in patients with critical illness, EN is not always able to provide optimal nutrient provision and parenteral nutrition (PN) is needed. This is strongly associated with gastrointestinal (GI) complications, a feature of gastrointestinal dysfunction and disease severity. The aim of the present study was to investigate factors associated with the need of PN after start of EN, together with the use and complications associated with EN.

Methods

Adult patients admitted to 38 Spanish intensive care units (ICUs) between April and July 2018, who needed EN therapy were included in a prospective observational study. The characteristics of EN-treated patients and those who required PN after start EN were analyzed (i.e., clinical, laboratory and scores).

Results

Of a total of 443 patients, 43 (9.7%) received PN. One-third (29.3%) of patients presented GI complications, which were more frequent among those needing PN (26% vs. 60%, p = 0.001). No differences regarding mean energy and protein delivery were found between patients treated only with EN (n = 400) and those needing supplementary or total PN (n = 43). Abnormalities in lipid profile, blood proteins, and inflammatory markers, such as C-Reactive Protein, were shown in those patients needing PN. Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) on ICU admission (Hazard ratio [HR]:1.161, 95% confidence interval [CI]:1.053-1.281, p = 0.003) and modified Nutrition Risk in Critically Ill (mNUTRIC) score (HR:1.311, 95% CI:1.098-1.565, p = 0.003) were higher among those who needed PN. In the multivariate analysis, higher SOFA score (HR:1.221, 95% CI:1.057-1.410, p = 0.007) and higher triglyceride levels on ICU admission (HR:1.004, 95% CI:1.001-1.007, p = 0.003) were associated with an increased risk for the need of PN, whereas higher albumin levels on ICU admission (HR:0.424, 95% CI:0.210-0.687, p = 0.016) was associated with lower need of PN.

Conclusion

A higher SOFA and nutrition-related laboratory parameters on ICU admission may be associated with the need of PN after starting EN therapy. This may be related with a higher occurrence of GI complications, a feature of GI dysfunction.

Clinical trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03634943.

Optimizing Nutritional Status of Patients Prior to Major Surgical Intervention

In patients undergoing elective cardiovascular and thoracic surgery, malnutrition and the deterioration of nutritional status are associated with negative outcomes. Recognition of the contributory factors and the complications stemming from surgical stress is important for the prevention and management of these patients. We have reviewed the literature available and focused on the nutritional and metabolic aspects affecting surgical patients, with emphasis on the recommendations of enhanced recovery protocols. The implementation of enhanced recovery protocols and nutritional support guidelines focusing on the surgical patient as part of a multidisciplinary approach would improve the nutritional status of surgical patients at risk for negative outcomes.

Towards Achieving Nutrition Goal in Critically Ill Patients: Need a Simple Yet Effective Bedside Tool

How to cite this article: Wali S, Gutte SH, Gurjar M. Towards Achieving Nutrition Goal in Critically Ill Patients: Need a Simple Yet Effective Bedside Tool. Indian J Crit Care Med 2023;27(6):379-380.

Care practices for patients requiring mechanical ventilation more than seven days in Swedish intensive care units: A national survey

OBJECTIVE

To identify care practices in Swedish intensive care units specific to patients requiring mechanical ventilation for >7 days.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

We conducted a national cross-sectional survey inviting all adult Swedish ICUs (n = 79). Nurse managers were invited by email to complete a questionnaire by telephone. The questionnaire included seven domains: ventilator weaning, mobilisation, communication, nutrition, symptom assessment, psychosocial support and organisational characteristics.

RESULTS

We received responses from 77 units (response rate, 97%). Weaning protocols were available in 42 (55%) units, 52 (68%) used individualised weaning strategies and 50 (65%) involved physicians and nurses in collaborative decision making. In 48 units (62%), early mobilisation was prioritised using bed cycling but only 26 (34%) units had mobilisation protocols. Most of the intensive care units (74, 96%) had nutrition protocols but only 2 (3%) had dedicated dieticians. Delirium screening tools were available in 49 (64%) ICUs, 3 (4%) assessed anxiety and none assessed dyspnoea. Nineteen (25%) units employed a primary nursing model and 11 (14%) indicated person-centred care policies. Regular case conferences, including family participation, were held by 39 (51%) units.

CONCLUSION

We found that an individualised approach to ventilator weaning, decided by physicians and nurses in collaboration, was the predominant approach, although weaning protocols were available in some intensive care units. Most units prioritised early mobilisation, though few used protocols. Nutritional protocols were widely adopted, as few units had a dedicated dietician.

Improving Administration and Documentation of Enteral Nutrition Support Therapy in a Veteran Affairs Health Care System: Use of Medication Administration Record and Bar Code Scanning Technology

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this project was to evaluate and improve the ordering, administration, documentation, and monitoring of enteral nutrition therapies within the inpatient setting in a Veteran's Health Administration system.

METHODS

An interdisciplinary team of clinicians reviewed the literature for best practices and revised the process for enteral nutrition support for hospitalized veterans. Interventions included training staff, revising workflows to include scanning patients and products, including enteral nutrition orders within the medication administration record (MAR), and using the existing bar code medication administration system for administration, documentation, and monitoring. Baseline and postprocess improvement outcomes over a year period were collected and analyzed for quality improvement opportunities.

RESULTS

Before process change, only 60% (33/55) of reviewed enteral nutrition orders were documented and 40% (22/55) were not documented in the intake flowsheet of the electronic health record. In the year after adding enteral nutrition therapies to the MAR and using bar code scanning, a total of 3807 enteral nutrition products were evaluated. One hundred percent of patients were bar code scanned, 3106/3807 (82%) products were documented as given, 447/3807 (12%) were documented as held (with comments), 12/3807 (<1%) were documented as missing/unavailable, and 242/3807 (6%) were documented as refused.

CONCLUSIONS

Inclusion of enteral nutrition order sets on the MAR and using bar code scanning technology resulted in sustained improvements in safety, administration, and documentation of enteral therapies for hospitalized veterans.

Implementation of a best-practice guideline: Early enteral nutrition in a neuroscience intensive care unit

Current evidence suggests that early enteral nutrition is a best practice and leads to improved clinical outcomes. An evidence-based practice project was implemented in a busy neurointensive care unit in a midwestern tertiary care facility that was designed to improve care by implementing the early nutrition portion of Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of Nutrition Support Therapy in the Adult Critically Ill Patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine and the American Society for Enteral and Parenteral Nutrition. The Registered Nurses' Association of Ontario's (RNAO) Toolkit: Implementation of Best Practice Guidelines (BPGs) was selected and followed to guide implementation and achieve optimal results. During a 90-day implementation period, this project resulted in a 100% improvement in early nutrition. Interventions included the use of a series of cards that reminded the team to order enteral nutrition and prepacked bundles of nasogastric tube supplies. The RNAO toolkit served as a structured and effective step-by-step methodology for the implementation of a BPG.

Barriers to Delivery of Enteral Nutrition in Intensive Care Settings in Saudi Arabia: A Comparative Study of the Perceptions of Health Care Providers Working in Adult and Paediatric ICUs

Background and Aims

Achieving optimal nutrition prescription is challenging in critically ill patients. Many factors can hinder the adequate delivery of enteral nutrition (EN) in intensive care units (ICUs). In this study, we aim to describe EN barriers and compare the perceptions of health care practitioners working in adult and paediatric ICUs regarding these barriers.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study, data were collected via online survey. All physicians, dietitians, and nurses working in adult or paediatric ICUs across Saudi Arabia were eligible to participate. The survey contained 24 potential EN barriers and participants were asked to rate their importance on a scale from 1 to 5. A total Likert rating score of the 24 items was later calculated.

Results

We recruited 244 health care providers working in adult and paediatric ICUs. The most important perceived barriers were "Delay in physician ordering EN initiation" (3.33 ±1.32), and 'Waiting for dietitians to assess patients' (3.22 ±1.20). There was a statistical difference between the responses of health care providers based on their work settings for the following items; "Nurses failing to progress feeds according to feeding protocol" (p=0.006) and 'Feeding being held too far prior procedures or operating-room visits' (p=0.021). Profession significantly influenced the total Likert rating score of the 24 items (r=-0.234, p=0.001).

Conclusion

This study identified some barriers of EN delivery in ICUs and showed that participants' perceptions regarding these barriers were influenced by their roles. These findings shed light on the nutritional practices in Saudi hospitals and identify areas of improvement in EN practice and advancements in the field of critical care nutrition in the region.

Enteral nutrition improves the prognosis and immune nutritional status of patients in the cardiothoracic surgery recovery unit: A propensity score-matched analysis

BACKGROUND

It remains unclear whether enteral nutrition (EN) has an impact on prognosis and immune nutritional status for patients in the cardiothoracic surgery recovery unit (CSRU). We hypothesized that only patients with specific characteristics would benefit from EN and aimed to distinguish that specific population by examining a large database.

METHODS

Propensity-score matching (PSM) was used to eliminate the baseline imbalances between the EN and non-EN groups. The modified nutritional risk in the critically ill (mNUTRIC) score was used to assess the severity of patients' disease as well as their nutritional risk. Kaplan-Meier curves were used to compare the differences in 28- and 1000-day overall survival in the two groups after PSM. Generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) were used to show dynamic changes in neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratios (NLRs) and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratios (PLRs) in the two groups. Subgroup analysis was used to identify the specific population that could benefit from EN.

RESULTS

A total of 1823 patients (EN group, n = 395; non-EN group, n = 1428) were enrolled; after PSM, 320 pairs of patients remained. EN was found to reduce the 28-day mortality rate (adjusted hazard ratio [HR] = .56; 95% CI, .35-.91; P = .019) of patients, whereas it had no effect on 1000-day survival (adjusted HR = .97; 95% CI, .75-1.25; P = .797). Subgroup analyses indicated that patients with mNUTRIC equal to or greater than 4, body mass index (BMI) 25-30 kg/m², and vasopressor support were more likely to benefit from EN. NLR and PLR in the EN group decreased progressively over time compared with the non-EN group, suggesting that EN might improve clinical outcomes by regulating immune and inflammatory responses.

CONCLUSION

EN may improve the prognosis and immune nutritional status of patients in the CSRU. Patients who might benefit should be actively treated with EN.

Early versus delayed enteral nutrition in mechanically ventilated patients with circulatory shock: a nested cohort analysis of an international multicenter, pragmatic clinical trial

Introduction

Real-world evidence on the timing and efficacy of enteral nutrition (EN) practices in intensive care unit (ICU) patients with circulatory shock is limited. We hypothesized early EN (EEN), as compared to delayed EN (DEN), is associated with improved clinical outcomes in mechanically ventilated (MV) patients with circulatory shock.

Methods

We analyzed a dataset from an international, multicenter, pragmatic randomized clinical trial (RCT) evaluating protein dose in ICU patients. Data were collected from ICU admission, and EEN was defined as initiating < 48 h from ICU admission and DEN > 48 h. We identified MV patients in circulatory shock to evaluate the association between the timing of EN initiation and clinical outcomes. The regression analysis model controlled for age, mNUTRIC score, APACHE II score, sepsis, and Site.

Results

We included 626 patients, from 52 ICUs in 14 countries. Median age was 60 years [18–93], 55% had septic shock, 99% received norepinephrine alone, 91% received EN alone, and 50.3% were randomized to a usual protein dose. Forty-two percent of EEN patients had persistent organ dysfunction syndrome plus death at day 28, compared to 53% in the DEN group (p = 0.04). EEN was associated with more ICU-free days (9.3 ± 9.2 vs. 5.7 ± 7.9, p = 0.0002), more days alive and free of vasopressors (7.1 ± 3.1 vs. 6.3 ± 3.2, p = 0.007), and shorter duration of MV among survivors (9.8 ± 10.9 vs. 13.8 ± 14.5, p = 0.0002). This trend was no longer observed in the adjusted analysis. There were no differences in ICU/60-day mortality or feeding intolerance rates between groups.

Conclusion

In MV patients with circulatory shock, EEN, as compared to DEN, was associated with improved clinical outcomes, but no longer when adjusting for illness severity. RCTs comparing the efficacy of EEN to DEN in MV patients with circulatory shock are warranted.

Parenteral Nutrition Overview

Parenteral nutrition (PN) is a life-saving intervention for patients where oral or enteral nutrition (EN) cannot be achieved or is not acceptable. The essential components of PN are carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids, vitamins, trace elements, electrolytes and water. PN should be provided via a central line because of its hypertonicity. However, peripheral PN (with lower nutrient content and larger volume) can be administered via an appropriate non-central line. There are alternatives for the compounding process also, including hospital pharmacy compounded bags and commercial multichamber bags. PN is a costly therapy and has been associated with complications. Metabolic complications related to macro and micronutrient disturbances, such as hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, and electrolyte imbalance, may occur at any time during PN therapy, as well as infectious complications, mostly related to venous access. Long-term complications, such as hepatobiliary and bone disease are associated with longer PN therapy and home-PN. To prevent and mitigate potential complications, the optimal monitoring and early management of imbalances is required. PN should be prescribed for malnourished patients or high-risk patients with malnutrition where the feasibility of full EN is in question. Several factors should be considered when providing PN, including timing of initiation, clinical status, and risk of complications.

The role of nutrition rehabilitation in the recovery of survivors of critical illness: underrecognized and underappreciated

Many survivors of critical illness face significant physical and psychological disability following discharge from the intensive care unit (ICU). They are often malnourished, a condition associated with poor outcomes, and nutrition remains problematic particularly in the early phases of ICU recovery. Yet nutrition rehabilitation, the process of restoring or optimizing nutritional status following illness, is seldom prioritized, possibly because it is an underrecognized and underappreciated area in critical care rehabilitation and research. To date, 16 original studies have been published where one of the objectives includes measurement of indices relating to nutritional status (e.g., nutrition intake or factors impacting nutrition intake) in ICU survivors. The primary aim of this narrative review is to provide a comprehensive summary of key themes arising from these studies which form the basis of our current understanding of nutritional recovery and rehabilitation in ICU survivors. ICU survivors face a multitude of barriers in achieving optimal nutrition that are of physiological (e.g., poor appetite and early satiety), functional (e.g., dysphagia, reduced ability to feed independently), and psychological (e.g., low mood, body dysmorphia) origins. Organizational-related barriers such as inappropriate feeding times and meal interruptions frequently impact an ICU survivor’s ability to eat. Healthcare providers working on wards frequently lack knowledge of the specific needs of recovering critically ill patients which can negatively impact post-ICU nutrition care. Unsurprisingly, nutrition intake is largely inadequate following ICU discharge, with the largest deficits occurring in those who have had enteral nutrition prematurely discontinued and rely on an oral diet as their only source of nutrition. With consideration to themes arising from this review, pragmatic strategies to improve nutrition rehabilitation are explored and directions for future research in the field of post-ICU nutrition recovery and rehabilitation are discussed. Given the interplay between nutrition and physical and psychological health, it is imperative that enhancing the nutritional status of an ICU survivor is considered when developing multidisciplinary rehabilitation strategies. It must also be recognized that dietitians are experts in the field of nutrition and should be included in stakeholder meetings that aim to enhance ICU rehabilitation strategies and improve outcomes for survivors of critical illness.

Nutritional priorities in patients with severe COVID-19

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The COVID-19 pandemic has altered the profile of critical care services internationally, as professionals around the globe have struggled to rise to the unprecedented challenge faced, both in terms of individual patient management and the sheer volume of patients that require treatment and management in intensive care. This review article sets out key priorities in nutritional interventions during the patient journey, both in the acute and recovery phases.

RECENT FINDINGS

The current review covers the care of the acutely unwell patient, and the evidence base for nutritional interventions in the COVID-19 population. One of the biggest differences in caring for critically ill patients with acute respiratory failure from COVID-19 is often the time prior to intubation. This represents specific nutritional challenges, as does nursing patients in the prone position or in the setting of limited resources. This article goes on to discuss nutritional support for COVID-19 sufferers as they transition through hospital wards and into the community.

SUMMARY

Nutritional support of patients with severe COVID-19 is essential. Given the longer duration of their critical illness, combined with hypermetabolism and energy expenditure, patients with COVID-19 are at increased risk for malnutrition during and after their hospital stay.

A Narrative Review of Nutrition Therapy in Patients Receiving Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation

The use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) in patients with severe cardiorespiratory failure has seen significant growth in the last decade. Despite this, there is paucity of data surrounding the optimum nutritional management for ECMO patients. This review aimed to describe current nutrition practices in patients receiving ECMO, critically appraise available studies and identify areas for future research. A literature search was conducted in PubMed, MEDLINE, and CINAHL Plus to identify all randomized trials and observational studies published between July 2000 and July 2020 investigating nutrition practices in critically ill adults receiving ECMO. The primary outcomes were nutritional adequacy, gastrointestinal complications, and physical function. Secondary outcomes included mortality, length of stay, and duration on ECMO support. From a total of 31 studies identified, 12 met the inclusion criteria. Nine observational studies were reviewed following eligibility assessment. Early enteral nutrition was deemed safe and feasible for ECMO patients; however, meeting nutritional targets was challenging. Utilizing alternative nutrition routes is an option, although risks and benefits should be taken into consideration. Data on gastrointestinal complications and other clinical outcomes were inconsistent, and no data were identified investigating the effects of nutrition on the physical and functional recovery of ECMO patients. Nutrition therapy in ECMO patients should be provided in line with current guidelines for nutrition in critical illness until further data are available. Further prospective, randomized studies investigating optimum nutrition practices and effects on clinical and functional outcomes are urgently required.

Medical nutrition therapy and clinical outcomes in critically ill adults: a European multinational, prospective observational cohort study (EuroPN)

BACKGROUND

Medical nutrition therapy may be associated with clinical outcomes in critically ill patients with prolonged intensive care unit (ICU) stay. We wanted to assess nutrition practices in European intensive care units (ICU) and their importance for clinical outcomes.

METHODS

Prospective multinational cohort study in patients staying in ICU ≥ 5 days with outcome recorded until day 90. Macronutrient intake from enteral and parenteral nutrition and non-nutritional sources during the first 15 days after ICU admission was compared with targets recommended by ESPEN guidelines. We modeled associations between three categories of daily calorie and protein intake (low: < 10 kcal/kg, < 0.8 g/kg; moderate: 10-20 kcal/kg, 0.8-1.2 g/kg, high: > 20 kcal/kg; > 1.2 g/kg) and the time-varying hazard rates of 90-day mortality or successful weaning from invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV).

RESULTS

A total of 1172 patients with median [Q1;Q3] APACHE II score of 18.5 [13.0;26.0] were included, and 24% died within 90 days. Median length of ICU stay was 10.0 [7.0;16.0] days, and 74% of patients could be weaned from invasive mechanical ventilation. Patients reached on average 83% [59;107] and 65% [41;91] of ESPEN calorie and protein recommended targets, respectively. Whereas specific reasons for ICU admission (especially respiratory diseases requiring IMV) were associated with higher intakes (estimate 2.43 [95% CI: 1.60;3.25] for calorie intake, 0.14 [0.09;0.20] for protein intake), a lack of nutrition on the preceding day was associated with lower calorie and protein intakes (- 2.74 [- 3.28; - 2.21] and - 0.12 [- 0.15; - 0.09], respectively). Compared to a lower intake, a daily moderate intake was associated with higher probability of successful weaning (for calories: maximum HR 4.59 [95% CI: 1.5;14.09] on day 12; for protein: maximum HR 2.60 [1.09;6.23] on day 12), and with a lower hazard of death (for calories only: minimum HR 0.15, [0.05;0.39] on day 19). There was no evidence that a high calorie or protein intake was associated with further outcome improvements.

CONCLUSIONS

Calorie intake was mainly provided according to the targets recommended by the active ESPEN guideline, but protein intake was lower. In patients staying in ICU ≥ 5 days, early moderate daily calorie and protein intakes were associated with improved clinical outcomes. Trial registration NCT04143503 , registered on October 25, 2019.

Intragastric prepyloric enteral nutrition, bolus vs continuous in the adult patient: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Bolus and continuous nutrition are commonly used enteral nutrition (EN) administration methodologies. Currently, there is insufficient evidence to establish which is the most effective method for reducing gastrointestinal complications in adult patients. The aim of this review is to evaluate the impact of bolus/intermittent EN compared with continuous EN for the following outcomes: diarrhea, constipation, emesis/vomiting, gastric residual volume, aspiration, and glycemic control in adult patients receiving intragastric prepyloric EN in the hospital setting. Bibliographical research was performed on the following databases: PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The review included all randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials of patients aged ≥18 years with preserved gastrointestinal function. Meta-analysis was performed by Review Manager V.5.3. Seven studies including 551 patients were included in the meta-analysis. Five of these studies reported that the diarrhea rate was higher in the bolus feeding group (risk ratio [RR] = 2.50; 95% CI, 1.17-5.34; P = 0.02), and another five of these studies indicated that the aspiration rate was higher in the continuous feeding group (RR = 0.55; 95% CI, 0.35-0.87; P = 0.01). There were no significant differences for the other outcomes. In conclusion, intermittent EN appears to reduce the incidence of aspiration in the hospital setting; however, it may increase the risk of diarrhea. For future research, we hypothesize the joint use of continuous nutrition until the patient reaches tolerance and then passing to bolus nutrition, thus reducing the incidence of aspiration and enabling a physiological nutrition intake.

A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the effectiveness of continuous versus intermittent enteral nutrition in critically ill adults

BACKGROUND

Continuous Enteral Nutrition (CEN) remains standard practice in Intensive Care Units (ICUs) worldwide. Intermittent Enteral Nutrition (IEN) may be a suitable alternative method. This meta-analysis aims to investigate the safety, tolerance, and effectiveness of IEN compared to CEN in critically ill adults in the ICU.

METHODS

Medline, CINAHL, Scopus, Embase and Google Scholar were searched for studies published up until 30^th April 2020, along with manual searches in bibliographies. Eligible studies were trials that compared CEN versus IEN feeding in the ICU, and reported on at least one of the relevant outcomes - nutritional intake, gastric residual volume (GRV), aspiration pneumonia, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal distension, glycemic variability. Secondary outcomes were ICU length of stay (LOS) and mortality. The Cochrane risk-of-bias tool for randomized trials was used to assess methodological quality.

RESULTS

Ten studies with 664 participants were included in the meta-analysis. The majority of studies had an overall 'High' risk of bias. Incidence of vomiting was significantly higher in CEN as compared to IEN groups (Risk Ratio 2.76; 95% CI, 1.23 - 6.23). There were no significant differences between CEN and IEN groups for nutritional intake, GRV, the incidence of aspiration pneumonia, diarrhea, abdominal distension, ICU LOS, and mortality. Definition and reporting of outcome measures were not standardized across studies, hence this heterogeneity limits generalisability of results.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the safety, tolerance, and effectiveness of CEN and IEN were found to be comparable. Future studies should explore monitoring larger sample sizes to determine best feeding practices in ICU. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Relationship Between Nutrition Intake and Outcome After Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: Results From the International Nutritional Survey

BACKGROUND

A previous study suggested an association between low caloric intake(CI), negative nitrogen balance, and poor outcome after subarachnoid hemorrhage(SAH). Objective of this multinational, multicenter study was to investigate whether clinical outcomes vary by protein intake(PI) or CI in SAH patients adjusting for the nutritional risk as judged by the modified NUTrition Risk in the Critically Ill (mNUTRIC) score.

METHODS

The International Nutrition Survey(INS) 2007-2014 was utilized to describe the characteristics, outcomes and nutrition use. A subgroup of patients from 2013 and 2014(when NUTRIC score was captured) examined the association between CI and PI and time to discharge alive(TTDA) from hospital using Cox regression models, adjusting for nutrition risk classified by the mNUTRIC score as low(0-4) or high(5-9).

RESULTS

There were 489 SAH patients(57% female with a mean ± SD age 57.5 ± 13.9 years, BMI of 25.9 ± 5.3 kg/m² and APACHE-2 score 19.4 ± 7.0. Majority(85%) received enteral nutrition(EN) only, with a time to initiation of EN of 35.4 ± 35.2 hours. 64% had EN interrupted. Patients received a CI of 14.6 ± 7.1 calories/kg/day and PI 0.7 ± 0.3 grams/kg/day corresponding to 59% and 55% of total prescribed CI and PI respectively. In the 2013 and 2014 subgroup there were 226 SAH patients with a mNUTRIC score of 3.4 ± 1.8. Increased CI and PI were associated with faster TTDA among high mNUTRIC patients(HR per 20% of prescription received = 1.34[95% CI,1.03 -1.76] for CI and 1.44[1.07 -1.93] for PI), but not low mNUTRIC patients(CI: HR = 0.95[0.77 -1.16] PI:0.95[0.78 -1.16]).

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this multicenter study found that SAH patients received under 60% of their prescribed CI and PI. Further, achieving greater CI and PI in hi risk SAH patients was associated with improved TTDA. mNUTRIC serves to identify SAH patients that benefit most from artificial nutrition and efforts to optimize protein and caloric delivery in this subpopulation should be maximized.

Medical nutrition therapy for patients with malnutrition post-intensive care unit discharge: A case report of recovery from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)

Patients discharged from an intensive care unit (ICU) are frequently malnourished and experience ongoing inadequate nutrition intake because of a variety of barriers, which may lead to further declines in nutrition status. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has drawn increased awareness to this vulnerable patient population and the importance of nutrition rehabilitation to promote optimal recovery from acute illness. Despite this, there are no formal guidelines addressing medical nutrition therapy during the post-ICU recovery phase. This review provides an overview of the nutrition management of patients during the post-ICU recovery phase with a specific focus on COVID-19. A case study will demonstrate how medical nutrition therapy improved the nutrition status and quality of life for a patient who became severely malnourished after a prolonged hospitalization for COVID-19.

How to Increase Muscle Mass in Critically Ill Patients: Lessons Learned from Athletes and Bodybuilders

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Decades of research on nutrition and exercise on athletes and bodybuilders has yielded various strategies to promote anabolism and improve muscle health and growth. We reviewed these interventions in the context of muscle loss in critically ill patients.

RECENT FINDINGS

For critically ill patients, ensuring optimum protein intake is important, potentially using a whey-containing source and supplemented with vitamin D and leucine. Agents like hydroxyl β-methylbutyrate and creatine can be used to promote muscle synthesis. Polyunsaturated fatty acids stimulate muscle production as well as have anti-inflammatory properties that may be useful in critical illness. Adjuncts like oxandralone promote anabolism. Resistance training has shown mixed results in the ICU setting but needs to be explored further with specific outcomes. Critically ill patients suffer from severe proteolysis during hospitalization as well as persistent inflammation, immunosuppression, and catabolism syndrome after discharge. High protein supplementation, ergogenic aids, anti-inflammatories, and anabolic adjuncts have shown potential in alleviating muscle loss and should be used in intensive care units to optimize patient recovery.

Replacing protein via enteral nutrition in a stepwise approach in critically ill patients: A pilot randomized controlled trial (REPLENISH pilot trial)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The optimal amount of protein intake in critically ill patients is unclear. The objective of this pilot trial is to assess the feasibility of a large randomized controlled trial testing higher versus lower protein intake in critically ill patients.

METHODS

In this pilot randomized controlled trial (REPLacing Protein via Enteral Nutrition in a Stepwise ApproacH in critically ill patients: A pilot randomized controlled trial (REPLENISH pilot trial), critically ill patients underwent 2-step screening for eligibility on ICU day 1 and 5. Patients with renal disease were excluded. Eligible patients were randomized into REPLENISH group (target protein 1.8-2.2 g kg/day) and Standard group (target protein 0.8-1.0 g/kg/day) from day 6-14 after ICU admission. Dietitians adjusted caloric and protein intake throughout the study period (Day 1-14) to maintain similar caloric targets of permissive underfeeding (40-60% of estimated energy expenditure) in both study groups.

RESULTS

Of 704 patients screened at 3 centers in Saudi Arabia from May 2018 to May 2019, only 63 (8.9%) were eligible and 40 (5.7% of screened) were randomized with an average of 2 patients enrolled in the trial per month. Among eligible patients, the consenting rate was high at 89%. During the intervention period, patients in the REPLENISH group (N = 21) had a modestly higher protein intake (median of 1.30 g/kg/day (Q1 Q3: 1.11, 1.57)) than those in the standard group (median of 0.77 g/kg/day (Q1 Q3: 0.57, 1.00); P = 0.0004). Only 31.4% of patients in the whole cohort had >80% of prescribed protein. The duration of daily interruption of feeding was almost 4 h in both groups. The 90-day mortality for the patient study cohort was 20.5%. Anthropometric and muscle strength measurements were performed in less than 50% of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot trial highlighted several areas for improvement in the study protocol before launching a large randomized controlled trial. The restrictive eligibility criteria, the complex adjustments of protein and energy and some of the outcome measurements were identified as targets for modifications, to improve enrollment and generalizability and to enhance adherence to study interventions and measurements.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

CLINICALTRIALS.

GOV IDENTIFIER

NCT03480555.

Initial development and validation of a novel nutrition risk, sarcopenia, and frailty assessment tool in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients: The NUTRIC-SF score

BACKGROUND

Nutrition risk, sarcopenia, and frailty are interrelated. They may be due to suboptimal or prevented by optimal nutrition intake. The combination of nutrition risk (modified nutrition risk in the critically ill [mNUTRIC]), sarcopenia (SARC-F combined with calf circumference [SARC-CALF]), and frailty (clinical frailty scale [CFS]) in a single score may better predict adverse outcomes and prioritize resources for optimal nutrition in the intensive care unit (ICU) METHODS: This is a retrospective analysis of a single-center prospective observational study that enrolled mechanically ventilated adults with expected ≥96 h of ICU stay. SARC-F and CFS questionnaires were administered to patient's next-of-kin and mNUTRIC were calculated. Right calf circumference was measured. Nutrition data were collected from nursing record. The high-risk scores (mNUTRIC ≥ 5, SARC-CALF > 10, or CFS ≥ 4) of these variables were combined to become the nutrition risk, sarcopenia, and frailty (NUTRIC-SF) score (range: 0-3).

RESULTS

Eighty-eight patients were analyzed. Increasing mNUTRIC was independently associated with 60-day mortality, whereas increasing SARC-CALF and CFS showed a strong trend towards a higher 60-day mortality. Discriminative ability of NUTRIC-SF for 60-day mortality is better than its component (C-statistics, 0.722; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.677-0.868). Every increment of 300 kcal/day and 30 g/day is associated with a trend towards higher rate of discharge alive for high (≥2; adjusted hazard ratio, 1.453 [95% CI, 0.991-2.130] for energy; 1.503 [0.936-2.413] for protein) but not low (<2) NUTRIC-SF score.

CONCLUSION

NUTRIC-SF may be a clinically relevant risk stratification tool in the ICU.

Understanding the Need for Tools and Resources to Manage Enteral Nutrition Intolerance: An On-line Survey

Purpose: Enteral nutrition intolerance (ENI) is a common complication among tube-fed patients, associated with reduced volumes of nutrition delivered, and may contribute to malnutrition risk. This research aimed to obtain insights about dietitians' needs and preferences related to tools and resources to help identify and manage ENI.Methods: An online survey was administered to registered dietitians (RD) engaged in enteral nutrition (EN) management, recruited from a list of attendees at a national webinar. The 16-question survey asked about participant's experience with ENI and interest in resources to manage ENI.Results: Of the 219 surveys completed (25% response rate), 86% identified ENI as an issue/concern that interferes with adequate nutrition or hydration for their patients. Ninety-seven percent reported being interested in having tools/resources to manage ENI. The symptoms identified as most pressing to manage were diarrhea (73%), bloating/abdominal discomfort (42%), and nausea (32%). Preferred types of tools were hard-copy resources (70%), algorithms (67%), and web-based instruments (62%).Conclusions: ENI remains an issue for clinicians working with tube-fed patients and RDs are interested in management tools. These results have implications for the development of evidence-based resources to help improve EN delivery and ultimately may contribute to clinician's efforts at reducing malnutrition.

Safety and tolerance of enteral nutrition in COVID-19 critically ill patients, a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of evidence about the tolerance of enteral nutrition (EN) in COVID-19 critically ill patients. However, several gastrointestinal manifestations related to COVID-19 have been described. The aims of this study were to analyze the incidence of gastrointestinal intolerance (GI) associated to EN (diarrhea, vomiting, gastroparesis and constipation) and to describe energy/protein provision along with biochemical alterations during the first week of EN.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort of COVID-19 critically ill patients under mechanical ventilation. We reported daily enteral nutrition infusion and gastrointestinal manifestations within the first week of intubation and enteral nutrition initiation.

RESULTS

Fifty-two patients were included; 40.3% were overweight and 46.2% were obese. During the first 7 days of EN, manifestations of GI intolerance such as vomiting, diarrhea and gastroparesis were present in 18 patients (32.4%). Hypernatremia (39%) was the most frequent electrolyte abnormality. Only Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) diagnosis was associated with a higher energy deficit on day 7. No associations between drug prescription and GI intolerance were observed. On day 4, 94.5% of patients were receiving more than 80% of energy requirements and 94.2% of protein requirements. Accumulated energy and protein deficits at day 3 were 2171.2 ± 945 kcal and 114.9 ± 49.2 g, respectively; and 2586.4 ± 1151 kcal, 133.3 ± 60.4 g at day 7.

CONCLUSION

Enteral nutrition is feasible and well-tolerated in COVID-19 patients with mechanical ventilation within the first week of enteral nutrition initiation. More studies are needed to elucidate the impact of nutritional therapy on infection course and outcomes.

Nutritional Adequacy in Mechanically Ventilated Patient: Are We Doing Enough?

Background

Critically ill patients are under stress, leading to a catabolic response and higher energy expenditure. The associated malnutrition leads to adverse outcomes.

Aims and objectives

This study aims to assess the nutritional adequacy (>80% of prescribed calories) in mechanically ventilated (MV) patients and its effects on patients’ outcomes. It also aims to identify the causes of deviation from the nutrition prescription.

Materials and methods

This is a prospective observational study involving all adult critically ill patients requiring MV for >48 hours. Patients were prescribed enteral nutrition (EN) targeted to achieve 25 kcal/kg (IBW) of energy and 1.2 g/kg of proteins daily. Standard polymeric formula feeds were initiated as continuous infusion as per the feeding protocol in the intensive care unit (ICU). Data were collected on demography, body mass index (BMI), indication for ICU admission, admission category, and admission APACHE II and SOFA scores, and nutritional risk was captured with mNUTRIC score. Nutritional data on type of feed initiated, amount of calories prescribed/achieved, time taken to initiate feeds, reasons for not starting/delay in the initiation of feeds, time taken to achieve the prescribed calories, and reasons for interruptions of feeds were collected. Primary outcome analyzed was adequacy of nutrition (>80% prescribed dose), and secondary outcomes analyzed were ventilator days and ICU LOS.

Results

A total of 622 MV patients were analyzed. 36.1% of patients were at nutritional risk (mNUTRIC χ5). 89% of patients received EN, and the time taken to start EN in these patients was 10 hours (6-20) (median [IQR]). Only 29.6% of patients achieved nutritional adequacy. Time taken for this was 36 hours (median). On average, patients on MV received 63% (1025 kcal) and 57% (41 g) of their prescribed calories and proteins, respectively. The most common reasons for withholding feeds were airway-related procedures (68.2%) followed by GI intolerance (15%). Frequent interruptions of EN, patients on >1 vasopressors, and surgical admissions were reasons for nutritional inadequacy. Nutritional adequacy had no impact on clinical outcomes.

Conclusion

Despite following guidelines and feeding protocols, there exists a wide gap between prescribed nutrition and what is actually delivered in MV patients.

How to cite this article

Kalaiselvan MS, Arunkumar AS, Renuka MK, Sivakumar RL. Nutritional Adequacy in Mechanically Ventilated Patient: Are We Doing Enough? Indian J Crit Care Med 2021;25(2):166–171.

Pilot Study to Investigate Enteral Feeding Practices and the Incidence of Underfeeding Among Mechanically Ventilated Critically Ill Patients at a Specialist Tertiary Care Hospital in Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND

Enteral nutrition (EN) is an essential therapeutic intervention. Many studies internationally have reviewed feeding practices in intensive care units (ICUs) and recorded the incidence of underfeeding in these settings, yet none were performed in the Middle East, including Saudi Arabia. The purpose of the study is to assess the adequacy of EN delivery and investigate the enteral feeding practices in the ICU at a specialized tertiary care hospital in Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

In this observational study, we prospectively monitored energy and protein delivery for 6 consecutive days in critically ill patients. Malnutrition was assessed by Nutrition Risk Screening (NRS-2002) scores. Underfeeding was identified by comparing the intake against the calculated requirements. Patients were categorized into early and late EN starters to investigate whether the time of EN initiation impacts the cumulative nutrition intake.

RESULTS

This study included 43 patients. About 44% (19 of 43) of the patients were malnourished on admission to ICU, and the prevalence of underfeeding was >90%. The median cumulative intake of energy and protein was 39% and 31% of the estimated requirements, respectively. Patients who started early EN had statistically higher cumulative energy and protein intake (P-value = .00). Patients treated with inotropes received less energy and protein compared with those who did not receive inotropes (P-value = .00). Higher NRS-2002 score was associated with fewer ventilation-free hours (r = -0.369, P-value = .045).

CONCLUSION

Protein underfeeding remains a significant problem in ICU settings. The time of EN initiation plays a major role in determining when the nutrition requirements will be met. Therefore, it is crucial to implement effective feeding protocols to ensure early initiation of EN when permissible.

Effect of Supplemental Parenteral Nutrition Versus Enteral Nutrition Alone on Clinical Outcomes in Critically Ill Adult Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Enteral nutrition (EN) is considered the first feeding route for critically ill patients. However, adverse effects such as gastrointestinal complications limit its optimal provision, leading to inadequate energy and protein intake. We compared the clinical outcomes of supplemental parenteral nutrition added to EN (SPN + EN) and EN alone in critically ill adults. Electronic databases restricted to full-text randomized controlled trials available in the English language and published from January 1990 to January 2019 were searched. The risk of bias was evaluated using the Jadad scale, and the meta-analysis was conducted using the MedCalc software. A total of five studies were eligible for inclusion in the systematic review and meta-analysis. Compared to EN alone, SPN + EN decreased the risk of nosocomial infections (relative risk (RR) = 0.733, p = 0.032) and intensive care unit (ICU) mortality (RR = 0.569, p = 0.030). No significant differences were observed between SPN + EN and EN in the length of hospital stay, hospital mortality, length of ICU stay, and duration of mechanical ventilation. In conclusion, when enteral feeding fails to fulfill the energy requirements in critically ill adult patients, SPN may be beneficial as it helps in decreasing nosocomial infections and ICU mortality, in addition to increasing energy and protein intakes with no negative effects on other clinical outcomes.

First international meeting of early career investigators: Current opportunities, challenges and horizon in critical care nutrition research

BACKGROUND

Appropriate nutritional support is a key component of care for critically ill patients. While malnutrition increases complications, impacting long term outcomes and healthcare-related costs, uncertainties persist regarding optimal provision of nutritional support in this setting.

METHODS

An international group of healthcare providers (HCPs) from critical care specialties and nutrition researchers convened to identify knowledge gaps and learnings from studies in critical care nutrition. Clinical research needs were identified in order to better inform future nutrition practices.

RESULTS

Challenges in critical care nutrition arise, in part, from inconsistent outcomes in several large-scale studies regarding the optimal amount of calories and protein to prescribe, the optimal time to initiate nutritional support and the role of parental nutrition to support critically ill patients. Furthermore, there is uncertainty on how best to identify patients at nutritional risk, and the appropriate outcome measures for ICU nutrition studies. Given HCPs have a suboptimal evidence base to inform the nutritional management of critically ill patients, further well-designed clinical trials capturing clinically relevant endpoints are needed to address these knowledge gaps.

CONCLUSIONS

The identified aspects for future research could be addressed in studies designed and conducted in collaboration with an international team of interdisciplinary nutrition experts. The aim of this collaboration is to address the unmet need for robust clinical data needed to develop high-quality evidence-based nutritional intervention recommendations to better inform the future management of critically ill patients.

Impact of enteral nutrition interruptions on underfeeding in intensive care unit

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Malnutrition leads to poor outcomes for critically ill patients; however, underfeeding remains a prevalent issue in the intensive care unit (ICU). One of the reasons for underfeeding is enteral nutrition interruption (ENI). Our aim was to investigate the causes, frequency, and duration of ENIs and their association with underfeeding in critical care.

METHODS

This was a prospective observational study conducted at the Vilnius University Hospital Santaros Clinics, Lithuania, between December 2017 and February 2018. It included adult medical and surgical ICU patients who received enteral nutrition (EN). Data on ENIs and caloric, as well as protein intake were collected during the entire ICU stay. Nutritional goals were assessed using indirect calorimetry, where available.

RESULTS

In total 73 patients were enrolled in the study. Data from 1023 trial days and 131 ENI episodes were collected; 68% of the patients experienced ENI during the ICU stay, and EN was interrupted during 35% of the trial days. The main reasons for ENIs were haemodynamic instability (20%), high gastric residual volume (GRV) (17%), tracheostomy (16%), or other surgical interventions (16%). The median duration of ENI was 12 [6-24] h, and the longest ENIs were due to patient-related factors (22 [12-42] h). The rate of underfeeding was 54% vs. 15% in the trial days with and without ENI (p < 0.001), respectively. Feeding goal was achieved in 26% of the days with ENI vs. 45% of days without ENI (p < 0.001). The daily average caloric provision was 77 ± 36% vs. 106 ± 29% in the trial days with and without ENI (p < 0.001) and protein provision was 0.96 ± 0.5 vs. 1.3 ± 0.5 g/kg, respectively (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The episodes of ENI in critically ill patients are frequent and prolonged, often leading to underfeeding. Similar observations have been reported by other studies; however, the causes and duration of ENI vary, mainly because of different practices worldwide. Hence, safe and internationally recognised reduced-fasting guidelines and protocols for critically ill patients are needed in order to minimise ENI-related underfeeding and malnutrition.

Knowledge, attitudes and application of nutrition assessments by the veterinary health care team in small animal practice

OBJECTIVES

To assess the impact of the WSAVA Global Nutrition Committee's work in promoting nutrition as the fifth vital assessment and enhancing knowledge of nutrition. Further objectives were to ascertain use of existing Global Nutrition Committee assessment tools, identify potential new tools and determine which members of the veterinary health care team are responsible for carrying out nutrition assessments, planning and intervention in practice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A 16-question online questionnaire on the awareness, use and frequency of nutritional assessment was completed by 2740 veterinary health care team members. Statistical association was tested between the reported frequency of nutritional assessment in practice and the likely establishment of normal dietary regime, calculation of energy requirements and creation of nutritional plans.

RESULTS

Most respondents (95%) currently had responsibility for providing small animal nutrition education, yet only 27% were aware of the WSAVA guidelines. Over half (64%) recognised nutritional evaluation as the fifth vital assessment. Only 4% consistently used WSAVA tools to perform a systematic nutritional assessment. Veterinarians and veterinary nurses/technicians were the most frequent source of nutritional advice in practice, with the consultation recognised as the most important contact point with clients.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Awareness of nutritional assessment is apparent, yet implementation in practice is inconsistent. These findings will help the WSAVA Global Nutrition Committee prioritise future activities to support the veterinary health care team and pet owners with nutrition-related knowledge, tools and resources.

Nutrition Support After Cardiac Surgery: Lessons Learned From a Prospective Study

The importance of postoperative nutrition support (NS) has been poorly recognized in cardiac surgery. In this population, we aim to describe the delivery of NS, factors affecting calorie/protein delivery and NS-associated morbidity. From January 2015 to January 2017, we prospectively observed all cardiac surgery patients at a single institution who could not take nutrition orally, requiring postoperative NS, either enteral or parenteral, for the duration of NS up to 14 days. We compared outcomes to patients without NS and examined NS indications, factors affecting its delivery and its associated complications. Nine percent of patients (232/2603) required NS for a total of 1938 NS-days. The most common indication was mechanical ventilation. NS met 69% of daily caloric needs. On days when tube feeds (TFs) were held (mean of 13 hours), this decreased to 43%, compared to 96% when TFs were not held (P < 0.001). The most common reason for holding TFs was procedures. When TFs were supplemented with parenteral nutrition (TFs + PN), 86% of daily caloric needs were met. Even on days when TFs were held, this only dropped to 77% (TFs + PN), compared to 36% (TFs-only). By multivariable logistic regression, elemental and semielemental formulas, TF volume, and postpyloric feeds increased the risk of diarrhea, occurring in 28% of patients and 18% of TF-days. In cardiac surgery patients given postoperative NS, mortality and morbidity were an order of magnitude higher than those able to be fed orally. Enteral feeding delivered approximately two-thirds of needs, but PN supplementation dramatically improved this. Diarrhea was common, associated with the postpyloric route, increasing TF volume, and nonintact formula.

Nutritional adequacy in critically ill patients: Result of PNSI study

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Critically ill patients are provided with the intensive care medicine to prevent further complications, including malnutrition, disease progression, and even death. This study was intended to assess nutritional support and its' efficacy in the Intensive Care Units (ICUs) of Iran.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study assessed 50 ICU's patients out of 25 hospitals in the 10 major regions of Iran's health system and was performed using the multistage cluster sampling design. The data were collected from patient's medical records, ICU nursing sheets, patients or their relatives from 2017 to 2018. Nutritional status was investigated by modified NUTRIC score and food frequency checklist.

RESULTS

This study included 1321 ICU patients with the mean age of 54.8 ± 19.97 years, mean mNUTRIC score of 3.4 ± 2.14, and malnutrition rate of 32.6%. The mean time of first feeding was the second day and most of patients (66%) received nutrition support, mainly through enteral (57.2%) or oral (37%) route during ICU stay. The patients received 59.2 ± 37.78 percent of required calorie and 55.5 ± 30.04 percent of required protein. Adequate intake of energy and protein was provided for 16.2% and 10.7% of the patients, respectively. The result of regression analysis showed that the odds ratio of mNUTRIC score was 0.85 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.74-0.98) and APACHE II was 0.92 (95%CI = 0.89-0.95) for the prediction of energy deficiency. Nutrition intake was significantly different from patient's nutritional requirements both in terms of energy (p < 0.001) and protein (p < 0.001). Also, mean mNUTRIC score varied notably (p = 0.011) with changing in energy intake, defined as underfeeding, adequate feeding, and overfeeding.

CONCLUSION

The present findings shown that, provided nutritional care for ICU patients is not adequate for their requirements and nutritional status.

Guidelines for parenteral and enteral nutrition in geriatric patients in China

Based on the expert consensus on parenteral and enteral nutrition support for geriatric patients in China in 2013, domestic multidisciplinary experts were gathered to summarize the new evidence in the field of elderly nutritional support at home and abroad. The 2013 consensus was comprehensively updated and upgraded to a guideline by referring to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation system for grading evidence. These guidelines were divided into two parts: general conditions and common diseases. After discussion by all members of the academic group and consultation with relevant experts, 60 recommendations were ultimately established as standardized nutritional support in the field of geriatrics in China.

Association between nutrition support and acute gastrointestinal injury in critically ill patients during the first 72 hours

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The impact of nutrition support on patients with acute gastrointestinal injury (AGI) has not been fully determined. This study aimed to 1) investigate the relationship between nutrition support and AGI, as well as nutrition support and prognosis in critically ill AGI patients and 2) evaluate the prognostic benefits of nutrition support in different severity categories of AGI patients.

METHODS

This prospective study included 379 patients in whom AGI occurred in the first 72 h after admission from 12 teaching hospitals in China. Clinical characteristics including demographics, APACHE II score, modified NUTRIC score, SOFA score, calories of nutrition, and 7 and 28-day mortality were recorded. Multiple logistic regression analysis was applied to identify the risk factors for mortality. The survival benefit of nutrition support as reflected by calories of nutrition in 72 h was evaluated for patients categorized according to their APACHE II, modified NUTRIC, and SOFA scores.

RESULTS

Patients were classified into Grades I (n = 141), II (n = 173), III (n = 48), and IV (n = 17). Significant differences were observed among different AGI grade cohorts (I-IV) in terms of APACHE II, SOFA, and modified NUTRIC scores and calories of enteral nutrition (EN), parenteral nutrition (PN), and EN + PN. Ordinal logistic regression analysis showed that only SOFA score was an independent risk factor for AGI grades (P < 0.001). APACHE II score, mechanical ventilation (MV), AGI grades, and calories of EN + PN intake were independent risk factors for 28-d mortality. Increased nutritional intake was associated with reduced mortality in severely ill patients with APACHE II scores ≥15 (P = 0.007).

CONCLUSIONS

AGI grade affected the intake of calories and was one of the risk factors for 28-d mortality. The nutrition intake of patients with AGI grade III to IV was almost only PN. The positive association between nutrition support and prognosis was more apparent in AGI patients with higher APACHE II scores.

Outcomes Six Months after Delivering 100% or 70% of Enteral Calorie Requirements during Critical Illness (TARGET). A Randomized Controlled Trial

Rationale: The long-term effects of delivering approximately 100% of recommended calorie intake via the enteral route during critical illness compared with a lesser amount of calories are unknown.Objectives: Our hypotheses were that achieving approximately 100% of recommended calorie intake during critical illness would increase quality-of-life scores, return to work, and key life activities and reduce death and disability 6 months later.Methods: We conducted a multicenter, blinded, parallel group, randomized clinical trial, with 3,957 mechanically ventilated critically ill adults allocated to energy-dense (1.5 kcal/ml) or routine (1.0 kcal/ml) enteral nutrition.Measurements and Main Results: Participants assigned energy-dense nutrition received more calories (percent recommended energy intake, mean [SD]; energy-dense: 103% [28] vs. usual: 69% [18]). Mortality at Day 180 was similar (560/1,895 [29.6%] vs. 539/1,920 [28.1%]; relative risk 1.05 [95% confidence interval, 0.95-1.16]). At a median (interquartile range) of 185 (182-193) days after randomization, 2,492 survivors were surveyed and reported similar quality of life (EuroQol five dimensions five-level quality-of-life questionnaire visual analog scale, median [interquartile range]: 75 [60-85]; group difference: 0 [95% confidence interval, 0-0]). Similar numbers of participants returned to work with no difference in hours worked or effectiveness at work (n = 818). There was no observed difference in disability (n = 1,208) or participation in key life activities (n = 705).Conclusions: The delivery of approximately 100% compared with 70% of recommended calorie intake during critical illness does not improve quality of life or functional outcomes or increase the number of survivors 6 months later.

Nutritional therapy and outcomes in underweight critically ill patients

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Critically ill patients with body mass index (BMI) < 20 kg/m² have worse outcomes than normal/overweight patients possibly because underweight is a marker of malnutrition. To assess the effects of nutrition therapy in this population during the first week of an ICU stay.

METHODS

Prospective, 2-centre, observational study. Nutritional evaluations were performed between days 2 and 3 (first) and between days 5 and 7 (second) of ICU admission. In the first evaluation, patients were divided into non-fed (without nutritional support) and early-fed (those already receiving nutritional support) groups. In the second evaluation, patients were divided according to caloric intake (≥or<20 kcal/kg) and protein intake (≥or<1.3 g of protein/kg).

RESULTS

Of the 4236 patients screened and 342 were included in the cohort. Mortality was 58.5% (median 21 [11-38.25] days of follow-up). Unadjusted patient survival was worse in the non-fed group than in the early-fed group (HR 1.66; 95%CI, 1.18 to 2.32). There was no difference in mortality between groups after adjusting for the SOFA score on the day of the evaluation. At the second evaluation, unadjusted analysis showed better in-hospital survival in patients with higher caloric (HR0.58; 95%CI, 0.40 to 0.86) and protein intake (HR0.59; 95%CI, 0.42 to 0.82); there was no association between mortality and caloric or protein intake after adjusting for the SOFA score on the day of the evaluation.

CONCLUSION

Nutritional therapy in the first week of ICU stay did not affect vital outcome after adjusting for the SOFA score on the day of the evaluation in underweight critically ill patients.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY

ClinicalTrials.gov number NCT03398343.

Is slower advancement of enteral feeding superior to aggressive full feeding regimens in the early phase of critical illness

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

An excessive caloric intake during the acute phase of critical illness is associated with adverse effects, presumably related to overfeeding, inhibition of autophagy and refeeding syndrome. The purpose of this review is to summarize recently published clinical evidence in this area.

RECENT FINDINGS

Several observational studies, a few interventional trials, and systematic reviews/metaanalyses were published in 2017-2019. Most observational studies reported an association between caloric intakes below 70% of energy expenditure and a better vital outcome. In interventional trials, or systematic reviews, neither a benefit nor a harm was related to increases or decreases in caloric intake. Gastrointestinal dysfunction can be worsened by forced enteral feeding, whereas the absorption of nutrients can be impaired.

SUMMARY

Owing to the risks of the delivery of an excessive caloric intake, a strategy of permissive underfeeding implying a caloric intake matching a maximum of 70% of energy expenditure provides the best risk-to-benefit ratio during the acute phase of critical illness.