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da Silva SM, Amaral C, Malta-Luís C, Grilo D, Duarte AG, Morais I, Afonso G, Faria N, Antunes W, Gomes I, Sá-Leão R, Miragaia M, Serrano M, Pimentel C. A one-step low-cost molecular test for SARS-CoV-2 detection suitable for community testing using minimally processed saliva. Biol Methods Protoc 2024; 9:bpae035. [PMID: 38835855 PMCID: PMC11147803 DOI: 10.1093/biomethods/bpae035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The gold standard for coronavirus disease 2019 diagnostic testing relies on RNA extraction from naso/oropharyngeal swab followed by amplification through reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with fluorogenic probes. While the test is extremely sensitive and specific, its high cost and the potential discomfort associated with specimen collection made it suboptimal for public health screening purposes. In this study, we developed an equally reliable, but cheaper and less invasive alternative test based on a one-step RT-PCR with the DNA-intercalating dye SYBR Green, which enables the detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) directly from saliva samples or RNA isolated from nasopharyngeal (NP) swabs. Importantly, we found that this type of testing can be fine-tuned to discriminate SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. The saliva RT-PCR SYBR Green test was successfully used in a mass-screening initiative targeting nearly 4500 asymptomatic children under the age of 12. Testing was performed at a reasonable cost, and in some cases, the saliva test outperformed NP rapid antigen tests in identifying infected children. Whole genome sequencing revealed that the antigen testing failure could not be attributed to a specific lineage of SARS-CoV-2. Overall, this work strongly supports the view that RT-PCR saliva tests based on DNA-intercalating dyes represent a powerful strategy for community screening of SARS-CoV-2. The tests can be easily applied to other infectious agents and, therefore, constitute a powerful resource for an effective response to future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia M da Silva
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Catarina Amaral
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Malta-Luís
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Diana Grilo
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Américo G Duarte
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Inês Morais
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Afonso
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Nuno Faria
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Wilson Antunes
- Centro de Investigação da Academia Militar (CINAMIL), Unidade Militar Laboratorial de Defesa Biológica e Química (UMLDBQ), Av. Dr Alfredo Bensaúde, Lisboa, 1849-012, Portugal
| | - Inês Gomes
- Centro de Investigação da Academia Militar (CINAMIL), Unidade Militar Laboratorial de Defesa Biológica e Química (UMLDBQ), Av. Dr Alfredo Bensaúde, Lisboa, 1849-012, Portugal
| | - Raquel Sá-Leão
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Maria Miragaia
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Mónica Serrano
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
| | - Catarina Pimentel
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, 2780-157, Portugal
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Bakshi SS, Mangayarkarasi V, Dash D, Das S, Ramesh S, Jayam C, Kalidoss VK. Comparative study on Saliva and Nasopharyngeal swabs and the outcome of RT-PCR test in patients with mild symptoms of SARS-CoV-2. ACTA OTORRINOLARINGOLOGICA ESPANOLA 2023; 74:315-319. [PMID: 36965822 DOI: 10.1016/j.otoeng.2023.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 03/27/2023]
Abstract
AIM A simple and reliable method for diagnosing COVID 19 infections is the needed. The role of saliva in the transmission of the infection has already been established. METHOD Saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs from patients suspected to have COVID 19 infections were taken simultaneously, and the results of the RT-PCR were compared. RESULT Total 405 samples were collected, of which 250 males and 155 females. In the 391 samples included for analysis, 370 (94.63%) samples were found to have concordance results, and 21 (5.37%) samples had discordant results. CONCLUSION The use of saliva to diagnose COVID 19 infection is reliable, and its use can be recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satvinder Singh Bakshi
- Department of ENT and Head & Neck Surgery, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - V Mangayarkarasi
- Department of Microbiology, AIIMS Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Debabrata Dash
- Department of Microbiology, AIIMS Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Soumyajit Das
- Department of ENT and Head & Neck Surgery, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Seepana Ramesh
- Department of ENT and Head & Neck Surgery, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Cheeranjeevi Jayam
- Department of Dentistry, AIIMS Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
| | - Vinoth Kumar Kalidoss
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, AIIMS Mangalagiri, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India.
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McPhillips L, MacSharry J. Saliva as an alternative specimen to nasopharyngeal swabs for COVID-19 diagnosis: Review. Access Microbiol 2022; 4:acmi000366. [PMID: 36003360 PMCID: PMC9394527 DOI: 10.1099/acmi.0.000366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Almost 2 years ago, the novel coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) was discovered to be the causative agent of the disease COVID-19. Subsequently, SARS-CoV-2 has spread across the world infecting millions of people, resulting in the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. The current 'gold standard' for COVID-19 diagnosis involves obtaining a nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) from the patient and testing for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in the specimen using real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR). However, obtaining a NPS specimen is an uncomfortable and invasive procedure for the patient and is limited in its applicability to mass testing. Interest in saliva as an alternative diagnostic specimen is of increasing global research interest due to its malleability to mass testing, greater patient acceptability and overall ease of specimen collection. However, the current literature surrounding the sensitivity of saliva compared to NPS is conflicting. The aim of this review was to analyse the recent literature to assess the viability of saliva in COVID-19 diagnosis. We hypothesize that the discrepancies in the current literature are likely due to the variations in the saliva collection and processing protocols used between studies. The universal adaptation of an optimised protocol could alleviate these discrepancies and see saliva specimens be as sensitive, if not more, than NPS for COVID-19 diagnosis. Whilst saliva specimens are more complimentary to mass-testing, with the possibility of samples being collected from home, the RT-qPCR diagnostic process remains to be the rate-limiting step and therefore interest in salivary rapid antigen tests, which negate the wait-times of RT-qPCR with results available within 15-30 min, may be an answer to this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah McPhillips
- School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Present address: Department of Molecular Microbiology, The John Innes Centre, Norwich, UK
| | - John MacSharry
- School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- School of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- The APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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Okoturo E, Amure M. SARS-CoV-2 saliva testing using RT-PCR: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2022; 121:166-171. [PMID: 35577250 PMCID: PMC9136484 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2022.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There remain challenges in using SARS-CoV-2 RNA diagnostic assays in the respiratory tract in a pandemic. More so certain countries such as Hong Kong have already included saliva as part of their mass-testing protocol. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic review on the alternate use of saliva as a SARS-CoV-2 RNA testing specimen in the context of mass screening with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction. METHODS Our search methodology was modeled after the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) checklist, and the risk of bias of the selected studies was qualitatively assessed. The percentage individual positive and percentage agreement of both index (saliva) and reference (nasopharyngeal swab), in preference to specificity and sensitivity, were estimated using Kappa statistics. RESULTS A total of 44 studies met the inclusion criteria. The average percentage positive saliva cases was 72.7% (95% confidence interval), which was lower but not substantially different from the percentage positive NPS of 78.7% (95% confidence interval), and there was an average overall agreement of 89.7% (95% confidence interval). CONCLUSION Although the literature supports nasopharyngeal swab as a superior testing specimen, an alternative clinical specimen in saliva may offer potential benefits such that a potentially reduced accuracy may be tolerated, especially in low socioeconomic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eyituoyo Okoturo
- Head & Neck Cancer Division, Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery Department, Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria; Molecular Oncology Program, Medical Research Centre, Lagos State University College of Medicine, Lagos, Nigeria.
| | - Mary Amure
- Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery Department, Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria
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Ahmadieh A, Dincer S, Navazesh M. Is saliva collected passively without forceful coughing sensitive to detect SARS-CoV-2 in ambulatory cases? A systematic review. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 2022; 133:530-538. [PMID: 35227640 PMCID: PMC8743389 DOI: 10.1016/j.oooo.2022.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This systematic review was conducted to assess the sensitivity rate of SARS-CoV-2 detection in the saliva of ambulatory asymptomatic and mildly symptomatic patients, with saliva being collected passively without any forceful coughing. STUDY DESIGN A literature search was performed from January 2020 to July 2021. Prospective studies excluding letters to editors were included in our review only if saliva and nasopharyngeal samples were collected simultaneously and sensitivity was reported using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic ambulatory cases. RESULTS A total of 436 studies were assessed; 10 (4 cohorts and 6 cross-sectional) studies met our inclusion criteria. The sensitivity rate of saliva to detect SARS-CoV-2 varied from 85.7% to 98.6% in all except for 3 studies. Lower sensitivity levels were attributed to low viral load (51.9% and 63.8%) or lack of supervision while collecting saliva (66.7%). CONCLUSIONS Passively collected saliva in the absence of coughing has a high sensitivity rate to detect SARS-CoV-2 in asymptomatic and mildly symptomatic patients compared with nasopharyngeal swabs. Limitations of previous studies, such as lack of attention to the method of saliva collection, stages, and severity of the disease at the time of sample collection, can be researched in future investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Ahmadieh
- Clinical Assistant Professor of Dentistry, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Corresponding author
| | - Sibel Dincer
- Clinical Assistant Professor of Dentistry, Division of Biomedical Sciences, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Mahvash Navazesh
- Executive Associate Dean for Academic, Faculty & Student Affairs, Division of Periodontology, Diagnostic Sciences & Dental Hygiene, Professor of Diagnostic Sciences, Herman Ostrow School of Dentistry of USC, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Saliva versus Upper Respiratory Swabs: Equivalent for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 University Screening while Saliva Positivity Is Prolonged After Symptom Onset in Coronavirus Disease 2019 Hospitalized Patients. J Mol Diagn 2022; 24:727-737. [PMID: 35489695 PMCID: PMC9044746 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmoldx.2022.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Reopening of schools and workplaces during the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic requires affordable and convenient population-wide screening methods. Although upper respiratory swab is considered the preferable specimen for testing, saliva offers several advantages, such as easier collection and lower cost. In this study, we compared the performance of saliva with upper respiratory swab for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) detection. Paired saliva and anterior nares specimens were collected from a largely asymptomatic cohort of students, faculty, and staff from the University of Pennsylvania. Paired saliva and combined nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal (NP/OP) specimens were also collected from hospitalized patients with symptomatic COVID-19 following confirmatory testing. All study samples were tested by real-time PCR in the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania. In the university cohort, positivity rates were 37 of 2500 for saliva (sensitivity, 86.1%) and 36 of 2500 for anterior nares (sensitivity, 83.7%), with an overall agreement of 99.6%. In the hospital study cohort, positivity rates were 35 of 49 for saliva (sensitivity, 89.3%) and 28 of 49 for NP/OP (sensitivity, 75.8%), with an overall agreement of 75.6%. A larger proportion of saliva than NP/OP samples tested positive after 4 days of symptom onset in hospitalized patients. Our results show that saliva has an acceptable sensitivity and is comparable to upper respiratory swab, supporting the use of saliva for SARS-CoV-2 detection in both symptomatic and asymptomatic populations.
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Bulfoni M, Sozio E, Marcon B, De Martino M, Cesselli D, De Carlo C, Martinella R, Migotti A, Vania E, Zanus-Fortes A, De Piero J, Nencioni E, Tascini C, Isola M, Curcio F. Validation of a Saliva-Based Test for the Molecular Diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection. DISEASE MARKERS 2022; 2022:6478434. [PMID: 35035611 PMCID: PMC8759915 DOI: 10.1155/2022/6478434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since the beginning of the pandemic, clinicians and researchers have been searching for alternative tests to improve the screening and diagnosis of the SARS-CoV-2 infection. Currently, the gold standard for virus identification is the nasopharyngeal (NP) swab. Saliva samples, however, offer clear, practical, and logistical advantages but due to a lack of collection, transport, and storage solutions, high-throughput saliva-based laboratory tests are difficult to scale up as a screening or diagnostic tool. With this study, we aimed to validate an intralaboratory molecular detection method for SARS-CoV-2 on saliva samples collected in a new storage saline solution, comparing the results to NP swabs to determine the difference in sensitivity between the two tests. METHODS In this study, 156 patients (cases) and 1005 asymptomatic subjects (controls) were enrolled and tested simultaneously for the detection of the SARS-CoV-2 viral genome by RT-PCR on both NP swab and saliva samples. Saliva samples were collected in a preservative and inhibiting saline solution (Biofarma Srl). Internal method validation was performed to standardize the entire workflow for saliva samples. RESULTS The identification of SARS-CoV-2 conducted on saliva samples showed a clinical sensitivity of 95.1% and specificity of 97.8% compared to NP swabs. The positive predictive value (PPV) was 81% while the negative predictive value (NPV) was 99.5%. Test concordance was 97.6% (Cohen's Kappa = 0.86; 95% CI 0.81-0.91). The LoD of the test was 5 viral copies for both samples. CONCLUSIONS RT-PCR assays conducted on a stored saliva sample achieved similar performance to those on NP swabs, and this may provide a very effective tool for population screening and diagnosis. Collection of saliva in a stabilizing solution makes the test more convenient and widely available; furthermore, the denaturing properties of the solution reduce the infective risks belonging to sample manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Bulfoni
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
- Institute of Pathology, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | - Emanuela Sozio
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | | | | | - Daniela Cesselli
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
- Institute of Pathology, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | - Chiara De Carlo
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | | | | | - Eleonora Vania
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | | | - Jessica De Piero
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | | | - Carlo Tascini
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
- Infectious Disease Unit, Department of Medicine, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | - Miriam Isola
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Francesco Curcio
- Department of Medicine, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
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Holm A, Møller A, Aabenhus R. Management of symptomatic patients with suspected mild-moderate COVID-19 in general practice. What was published within the first year of the pandemic? A scoping review. Eur J Gen Pract 2021; 27:339-345. [PMID: 34789061 PMCID: PMC8604528 DOI: 10.1080/13814788.2021.2002295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most COVID-19 patients experience a mild course of the disease and can be managed in general practice. However, in the early pandemic, most research was conducted in secondary care. OBJECTIVES This scoping review aimed to identify original research published within the first year of the pandemic relevant to general practice regarding symptomatic, non-hospitalised patients with mild to moderate COVID-19 disease to provide an overview of published research. METHODS PubMed was searched for studies written in English, Swedish, Danish, or Norwegian published before 1 April 2021. Two authors screened all titles and abstracts and identified full texts. RESULTS We screened 1303 titles and abstracts and retrieved 128 full texts. An additional 44 full-texts were obtained from references. After full-text reading, 79 articles were included, six of which were conducted in general practice, 20 in the community, 42 in hospitals, and 11 in other settings. Therapy and harm were investigated in randomised controlled trials in 11 out of 17 studies; the diagnosis was investigated using a diagnostic accuracy design in four out of 26 studies and prognosis in prospective studies in 10 out of 21 studies. The remaining 15 studies had other research questions. CONCLUSION Although general practitioners in most countries must have been involved in managing patients with COVID-19, little research has been published from general practice during the first year of the pandemic. General practice research environments must be able to respond quickly in case of future pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Holm
- Research Unit for General Practice, Department of General Practice, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne Møller
- Research Unit for General Practice, Department of General Practice, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Rune Aabenhus
- Research Unit for General Practice, Department of General Practice, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Diagnostic Performance of Self-Collected Saliva Versus Nasopharyngeal Swab for the Molecular Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in the Clinical Setting. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0046821. [PMID: 34730436 PMCID: PMC8567243 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00468-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19)-caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-has spread rapidly around the world. The global shortage of equipment and health care professionals, diagnostic cost, and difficulty in collecting nasopharyngeal swabs (NPSs) necessitate the use of an alternative specimen type for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis. In this study, we investigated the use of saliva as an alternative specimen type for SARS-CoV-2 detection. Participants presenting COVID-19 symptoms and their contacts were enrolled at the COVID-19 Screening Unit of Dhaka Hospital of the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), from July to November 2020. Paired NPS and saliva specimens were collected from each participant. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was performed to detect SARS-CoV-2. Of the 596 suspected COVID-19-positive participants, 231 (38.7%) were detected as COVID-19 positive by RT-qPCR from at least 1 specimen type. Among the positive cases, 184 (79.6%) patients were identified to be positive for SARS-CoV-2 based on NPS and saliva samples, whereas 45 (19.65%) patients were positive for SARS-CoV-2 based on NPS samples but negative for SARS-CoV-2 based on the saliva samples. Two (0.5%) patients were positive for SARS-CoV-2 based on saliva samples but negative for SARS-CoV-2 based on NPS samples. The sensitivity and specificity of the saliva samples were 80.3% and 99.4%, respectively. SARS-CoV-2 detection was higher in saliva (85.1%) among the patients who visited the clinic after 1 to 5 days of symptom onset. A lower median cycle threshold (CT) value indicated a higher SARS-CoV-2 viral load in NPS than that in saliva for target genes among the positive specimens. The study findings suggest that saliva can be used accurately for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 early after symptom onset in clinical and community settings. IMPORTANCE As the COVID-19 pandemic erupted, the WHO recommended the use of nasopharyngeal or throat swabs for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 etiology of COVID-19. The collection of NPS causes discomfort because of its invasive collection procedure. There are considerable risks to health care workers during the collection of these specimens. Therefore, an alternative, noninvasive, reliable, and self-collected specimen was explored in this study. This study investigated the feasibility and suitability of saliva versus NPS for the detection of SARS-CoV-2. Here, we showed that the sensitivity of saliva specimens was 80.35%, which meets the WHO criteria. Saliva is an easy-to-get, convenient, and low-cost specimen that yields better results if it is collected within the first 5 days of symptom onset. Our study findings suggest that saliva can be used in low-resource countries, community settings, and vulnerable groups, such as children and elderly people.
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10
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De Santi C, Jacob B, Kroich P, Doyle S, Ward R, Li B, Donnelly O, Dykes A, Neelakant T, Neary D, McGuinness R, Cafferkey J, Ryan K, Quadu V, McGrogan K, Garcia Leon A, Mallon P, Fitzpatrick F, Humphreys H, De Barra E, Kerrigan SW, Cavalleri GL. Concordance between PCR-based extraction-free saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs for SARS-CoV-2 testing. HRB Open Res 2021; 4:85. [PMID: 34522839 PMCID: PMC8408542 DOI: 10.12688/hrbopenres.13353.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Saliva represents a less invasive alternative to nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) detection. SalivaDirect is a nucleic acid extraction-free method for detecting SARS-CoV2 in saliva specimens. Studies evaluating the concordance of gold standard NPS and newly developed SalivaDirect protocols are limited. The aim of our study was to assess SalivaDirect as an alternative method for COVID-19 testing. Methods: Matching NPS and saliva samples were analysed from a cohort of symptomatic (n=127) and asymptomatic (n=181) participants recruited from hospital and university settings, respectively. RNA was extracted from NPS while saliva samples were subjected to the SalivaDirect protocol before RT-qPCR analysis. The presence of SARS-Cov-2 was assessed using RdRp and N1 gene targets in NPS and saliva, respectively. Results: Overall we observed 94.3% sensitivity (95% CI 87.2-97.5%), and 95.9% specificity (95% CI 92.4-97.8%) in saliva when compared to matching NPS samples. Analysis of concordance demonstrated 95.5% accuracy overall for the saliva test relative to NPS, and a very high level of agreement (κ coefficient = 0.889, 95% CI 0.833-0.946) between the two sets of specimens. Fourteen of 308 samples were discordant, all from symptomatic patients. Ct values were >30 in 13/14 and >35 in 6/14 samples. No significant difference was found in the Ct values of matching NPS and saliva sample ( p=0.860). A highly significant correlation (r = 0.475, p<0.0001) was also found between the Ct values of the concordant positive saliva and NPS specimens. Conclusions: Use of saliva processed according to the SalivaDirect protocol represents a valid method to detect SARS-CoV-2. Accurate and less invasive saliva screening is an attractive alternative to current testing methods based on NPS and would afford greater capacity to test asymptomatic populations especially in the context of frequent testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara De Santi
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Benson Jacob
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Patricia Kroich
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sean Doyle
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Rebecca Ward
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brian Li
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Owain Donnelly
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Amy Dykes
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Trisha Neelakant
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - David Neary
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ross McGuinness
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Kieran Ryan
- Department of Surgical Affairs, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Veronica Quadu
- Mercer's Medical Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Killian McGrogan
- Mercer's Medical Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alejandro Garcia Leon
- Centre for Experimental Pathogen Host Research (CEPHR), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Patrick Mallon
- Centre for Experimental Pathogen Host Research (CEPHR), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Fidelma Fitzpatrick
- Department of Microbiology, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Hilary Humphreys
- Department of Microbiology, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Eoghan De Barra
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Steve W. Kerrigan
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Gianpiero L. Cavalleri
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
- SFI FutureNeuro Research Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
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11
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Feasibility and Diagnostic Accuracy of Saliva-Based SARS-CoV-2 Screening in Educational Settings and Children Aged <12 Years. Diagnostics (Basel) 2021; 11:diagnostics11101797. [PMID: 34679495 PMCID: PMC8534592 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics11101797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Children have been disproportionately affected during the COVID-19 pandemic. We aimed to assess a saliva-based algorithm for SARS-CoV-2 testing to be used in schools and childcare institutions under pandemic conditions. A weekly SARS-CoV-2 sentinel study in primary schools, kindergartens, and childcare facilities was conducted over a 12-week-period. In a sub-study covering 7 weeks, 1895 paired oropharyngeal and saliva samples were processed for SARS-CoV-2 rRT-PCR testing in both asymptomatic children (n = 1243) and staff (n = 652). Forty-nine additional concurrent swab and saliva samples were collected from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients (patient cohort). The Salivette® system was used for saliva collection and assessed for feasibility and diagnostic performance. For children, a mean of 1.18 mL saliva could be obtained. Based on results from both cohorts, the Salivette® testing algorithm demonstrated the specificity of 100% (95% CI 99.7–100) and sensitivity of 94.9% (95% CI 81.4–99.1) with oropharyngeal swabs as reference. Agreement between sampling systems was 100% for moderate to high viral load situations (defined as Ct-values <33 from oropharyngeal swabs). Comparative analysis of Ct-values derived from saliva vs. oropharyngeal swabs demonstrated a significant difference (mean 4.23; 95% CI 2.48–6.00). In conclusion, the Salivette® system proved to be an easy-to-use, safe and feasible saliva collection method and a more pleasant alternative to oropharyngeal swabs for SARS-CoV-2 testing in children aged 3 years and above.
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12
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Kritikos A, Caruana G, Brouillet R, Miroz JP, Abed-Maillard S, Stieger G, Opota O, Croxatto A, Vollenweider P, Bart PA, Chiche JD, Greub G. Sensitivity of Rapid Antigen Testing and RT-PCR Performed on Nasopharyngeal Swabs versus Saliva Samples in COVID-19 Hospitalized Patients: Results of a Prospective Comparative Trial (RESTART). Microorganisms 2021; 9:1910. [PMID: 34576805 PMCID: PMC8464722 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9091910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Saliva sampling could serve as an alternative non-invasive sample for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis while rapid antigen tests (RATs) might help to mitigate the shortage of reagents sporadically encountered with RT-PCR. Thus, in the RESTART study we compared antigen and RT-PCR testing methods on nasopharyngeal (NP) swabs and salivary samples. We conducted a prospective observational study among COVID-19 hospitalized patients between 10 December 2020 and 1 February 2021. Paired saliva and NP samples were investigated by RT-PCR (Cobas 6800, Roche-Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland) and by two rapid antigen tests: One Step Immunoassay Exdia® COVID-19 Ag (Precision Biosensor, Daejeon, Korea) and Standard Q® COVID-19 Rapid Antigen Test (Roche-Switzerland). A total of 58 paired NP-saliva specimens were collected. A total of 32 of 58 (55%) patients were hospitalized in the intensive care unit, and the median duration of symptoms was 11 days (IQR 5-19). NP and salivary RT-PCR exhibited sensitivity of 98% and 69% respectively, whereas the specificity of these RT-PCRs assays was 100%. The NP RATs exhibited much lower diagnostic performance, with sensitivities of 35% and 41% for the Standard Q® and Exdia® assays, respectively, when a wet-swab approach was used (i.e., when the swab was diluted in the viral transport medium (VTM) before testing). The sensitivity of the dry-swab approach was slightly better (47%). These antigen tests exhibited very low sensitivity (4% and 8%) when applied to salivary swabs. Nasopharyngeal RT-PCR is the most accurate test for COVID-19 diagnosis in hospitalized patients. RT-PCR on salivary samples may be used when nasopharyngeal swabs are contraindicated. RATs are not appropriate for hospitalized patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonios Kritikos
- Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (G.C.); (R.B.); (O.O.); (A.C.)
| | - Giorgia Caruana
- Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (G.C.); (R.B.); (O.O.); (A.C.)
| | - René Brouillet
- Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (G.C.); (R.B.); (O.O.); (A.C.)
| | - John-Paul Miroz
- Intensive Care Unit, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (J.-P.M.); (S.A.-M.); (G.S.); (J.-D.C.)
| | - Samia Abed-Maillard
- Intensive Care Unit, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (J.-P.M.); (S.A.-M.); (G.S.); (J.-D.C.)
| | - Geraldine Stieger
- Intensive Care Unit, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (J.-P.M.); (S.A.-M.); (G.S.); (J.-D.C.)
| | - Onya Opota
- Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (G.C.); (R.B.); (O.O.); (A.C.)
| | - Antony Croxatto
- Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (G.C.); (R.B.); (O.O.); (A.C.)
| | - Peter Vollenweider
- Service of Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (P.V.); (P.-A.B.)
| | - Pierre-Alexandre Bart
- Service of Internal Medicine, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (P.V.); (P.-A.B.)
| | - Jean-Daniel Chiche
- Intensive Care Unit, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (J.-P.M.); (S.A.-M.); (G.S.); (J.-D.C.)
| | - Gilbert Greub
- Institute of Microbiology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland; (G.C.); (R.B.); (O.O.); (A.C.)
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13
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De Santi C, Jacob B, Kroich P, Doyle S, Ward R, Li B, Donnelly O, Dykes A, Neelakant T, Neary D, McGuinness R, Cafferkey J, Ryan K, Quadu V, McGrogan K, Garcia Leon A, Mallon P, Fitzpatrick F, Humphreys H, De Barra E, Kerrigan SW, Cavalleri GL. Concordance between PCR-based extraction-free saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs for SARS-CoV-2 testing. HRB Open Res 2021; 4:85. [PMID: 34522839 PMCID: PMC8408542 DOI: 10.12688/hrbopenres.13353.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Saliva represents a less invasive alternative to nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) detection. SalivaDirect is a nucleic acid extraction-free method for detecting SARS-CoV2 in saliva specimens. Studies evaluating the concordance of gold standard NPS and newly developed SalivaDirect protocols are limited. The aim of our study was to to assess SalivaDirect as an alternative method for COVID-19 testing. Methods: Matching NPS and saliva samples were analysed from a cohort of symptomatic (n=127) and asymptomatic (n=181) participants recruited from hospital and university settings, respectively. RNA was extracted from NPS while saliva samples were subjected to the SalivaDirect protocol before RT-qPCR analysis. The presence of SARS-Cov-2 was assessed using RdRP and N1 gene targets in NPS and saliva, respectively. Results: Overall we observed 94.3% sensitivity (95% CI 87.2-97.5%), and 95.9% specificity (95% CI 92.4-97.8%) in saliva when compared to matching NPS samples. Analysis of concordance demonstrated 95.5% accuracy overall for the saliva test relative to NPS, and a very high level of agreement (κ coefficient = 0.889, 95% CI 0.833-0.946) between the two sets of specimens. Fourteen of 308 samples were discordant, all from symptomatic patients. Ct values were >30 in 13/14 and >35 in 6/14 samples. No significant difference was found in the Ct values of matching NPS and saliva sample ( p=0.860). A highly significant correlation (r = 0.475, p<0.0001) was also found between the Ct values of the concordant positive saliva and NPS specimens. Conclusions: Use of saliva processed according to the SalivaDirect protocol represents a valid method to detect SARS-CoV-2. Accurate and less invasive saliva screening is an attractive alternative to current testing methods based on NPS and would afford greater capacity to test asymptomatic populations especially in the context of frequent testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara De Santi
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Benson Jacob
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Patricia Kroich
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sean Doyle
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Rebecca Ward
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Brian Li
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Owain Donnelly
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Amy Dykes
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Trisha Neelakant
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - David Neary
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Ross McGuinness
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Kieran Ryan
- Department of Surgical Affairs, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Veronica Quadu
- Mercer's Medical Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Killian McGrogan
- Mercer's Medical Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Alejandro Garcia Leon
- Centre for Experimental Pathogen Host Research (CEPHR), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Patrick Mallon
- Centre for Experimental Pathogen Host Research (CEPHR), University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Fidelma Fitzpatrick
- Department of Microbiology, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Hilary Humphreys
- Department of Microbiology, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Clinical Microbiology, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Eoghan De Barra
- Department of International Health and Tropical Medicine, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Beaumont Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Steve W. Kerrigan
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Gianpiero L. Cavalleri
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
- SFI FutureNeuro Research Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
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14
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Migueres M, Vellas C, Abravanel F, Da Silva I, Dimeglio C, Ferrer V, Raymond S, Mansuy JM, Izopet J. Testing individual and pooled saliva samples for sars-cov-2 nucleic acid: a prospective study. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 101:115478. [PMID: 34364098 PMCID: PMC8279932 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2021.115478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Control of the rapid spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus requires efficient testing. We collected paired nasopharyngeal swab (NPs) and saliva samples from 303 subjects (52.8% symptomatic) at a drive-through testing center; 18% of whom tested positive. The NPs, salivas and five saliva pools were tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA using the Aptima™ assay and a laboratory-developed test (LDT) on the Panther-Fusion™ Hologic® platform. The saliva sensitivity was 80% (LDT) and 87.5% (Aptima™) whereas that of NPs was 96.4% in both assays. The pooled saliva sensitivity of 72.7% (LDT) and 75% (Aptima™) was not significantly different of that of individual saliva testing. Saliva specimens appear to be suitable for sensitive non-invasive assays to detect SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid; pooling them for a single test will improve laboratory throughput.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Migueres
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France; Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), INSERM UMR1291 - CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse, France; Department of Virology, Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France.
| | - Camille Vellas
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France; Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), INSERM UMR1291 - CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse, France; Department of Virology, Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Florence Abravanel
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France; Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), INSERM UMR1291 - CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse, France; Department of Virology, Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Chloé Dimeglio
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France
| | - Venicia Ferrer
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France
| | - Stéphanie Raymond
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France; Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), INSERM UMR1291 - CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse, France; Department of Virology, Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Jacques Izopet
- CHU Toulouse, Hôpital Purpan, Virology Laboratory, France; Institut Toulousain des Maladies Infectieuses et Inflammatoires (Infinity), INSERM UMR1291 - CNRS UMR5051, Toulouse, France; Department of Virology, Université Toulouse III Paul-Sabatier, Toulouse, France
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15
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Burdett A, Toumazou C, Sahoo R, Mujan A, Hon TK, Bedzo-Nutakor J, Casali N, Karvela M, Sohbati M, Cooke GS, Davies GW, Moore LSP. Pooled sputum to optimise the efficiency and utility of rapid, point-of-care molecular SARS-CoV-2 testing. BMC Infect Dis 2021; 21:665. [PMID: 34238234 PMCID: PMC8265726 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-021-06316-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background As SARS-CoV-2 testing expands, particularly to widespread asymptomatic testing, high sensitivity point-of-care PCR platforms may optimise potential benefits from pooling multiple patients’ samples. Method We tested patients and asymptomatic citizens for SARS-CoV-2, exploring the efficiency and utility of CovidNudge (i) for detection in individuals’ sputum (compared to nasopharyngeal swabs), (ii) for detection in pooled sputum samples, and (iii) by modelling roll out scenarios for pooled sputum testing. Results Across 295 paired samples, we find no difference (p = 0.1236) in signal strength for sputum (mean amplified replicates (MAR) 25.2, standard deviation (SD) 14.2, range 0–60) compared to nasopharyngeal swabs (MAR 27.8, SD 12.4, range 6–56). At 10-sample pool size we find some drop in absolute strength of signal (individual sputum MAR 42.1, SD 11.8, range 13–60 vs. pooled sputum MAR 25.3, SD 14.6, range 1–54; p < 0.0001), but only marginal drop in sensitivity (51/53,96%). We determine a limit of detection of 250 copies/ml for an individual test, rising only four-fold to 1000copies/ml for a 10-sample pool. We find optimal pooled testing efficiency to be a 12–3-1-sample model, yet as prevalence increases, pool size should decrease; at 5% prevalence to maintain a 75% probability of negative first test, 5-sample pools are optimal. Conclusion We describe for the first time the use of sequentially dipped sputum samples for rapid pooled point of care SARS-CoV-2 PCR testing. The potential to screen asymptomatic cohorts rapidly, at the point-of-care, with PCR, offers the potential to quickly identify and isolate positive individuals within a population “bubble”. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-021-06316-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Burdett
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK.
| | - Christofer Toumazou
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK.,Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
| | - Rashmita Sahoo
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Adam Mujan
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Tsz-Kin Hon
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Judith Bedzo-Nutakor
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Nicola Casali
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Maria Karvela
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Mohammadreza Sohbati
- DnaNudge Ltd, Imperial College White City Campus, The Translation and Innovation Hub, Level 11, 84 Wood Lane, London, W12 0BZ, UK
| | - Graham S Cooke
- North West London Pathology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Fulham Palace Road, London, W6 8RF, UK.,NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infections & Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK
| | - Gary W Davies
- Chelsea and Westminster NHS Foundation Trust, 369 Fulham Road, London, SW10 9NH, UK
| | - Luke S P Moore
- North West London Pathology, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Fulham Palace Road, London, W6 8RF, UK. .,NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Healthcare Associated Infections & Antimicrobial Resistance, Imperial College London, Du Cane Road, London, W12 0NN, UK. .,Chelsea and Westminster NHS Foundation Trust, 369 Fulham Road, London, SW10 9NH, UK.
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16
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Ibrahimi N, Delaunay-Moisan A, Hill C, Le Teuff G, Rupprecht JF, Thuret JY, Chaltiel D, Potier MC. Screening for SARS-CoV-2 by RT-PCR: Saliva or nasopharyngeal swab? Rapid review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0253007. [PMID: 34111196 PMCID: PMC8191978 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0253007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Diagnosis of COVID-19 in symptomatic patients and screening of populations for SARS-CoV-2 infection require access to straightforward, low-cost and high-throughput testing. The recommended nasopharyngeal swab tests are limited by the need of trained professionals and specific consumables and this procedure is poorly accepted as a screening method In contrast, saliva sampling can be self-administered. METHODS In order to compare saliva and nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal samples for the detection of SARS-CoV-2, we designed a meta-analysis searching in PubMed up to December 29th, 2020 with the key words "(SARS-CoV-2 OR COVID-19 OR COVID19) AND (salivary OR saliva OR oral fluid)) NOT (review[Publication Type]) NOT (PrePrint[Publication Type])" applying the following criteria: records published in peer reviewed scientific journals, in English, with at least 15 nasopharyngeal/orapharyngeal swabs and saliva paired samples tested by RT-PCR, studies with available raw data including numbers of positive and negative tests with the two sampling methods. For all studies, concordance and sensitivity were calculated and then pooled in a random-effects model. FINDINGS A total of 377 studies were retrieved, of which 50 were eligible, reporting on 16,473 pairs of nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal and saliva samples. Meta-analysis showed high concordance, 92.5% (95%CI: 89.5-94.7), across studies and pooled sensitivities of 86.5% (95%CI: 83.4-89.1) and 92.0% (95%CI: 89.1-94.2) from saliva and nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal swabs respectively. Heterogeneity across studies was 72.0% for saliva and 85.0% for nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal swabs. INTERPRETATION Our meta-analysis strongly suggests that saliva could be used for frequent testing of COVID-19 patients and "en masse" screening of populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nusaïbah Ibrahimi
- Service de Biostatistique et d’Épidémiologie, Institut Gustave Roussy, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Agnès Delaunay-Moisan
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Catherine Hill
- Service de Biostatistique et d’Épidémiologie, Institut Gustave Roussy, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Gwénaël Le Teuff
- Service de Biostatistique et d’Épidémiologie, Institut Gustave Roussy, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Jean-François Rupprecht
- Aix Marseille Univ, Université de Toulon, CNRS, Centre de Physique Théorique, Turing Center for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Yves Thuret
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Dan Chaltiel
- Service de Biostatistique et d’Épidémiologie, Institut Gustave Roussy, Université Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
| | - Marie-Claude Potier
- Institut du Cerveau (ICM), CNRS UMR 7225 – Inserm U1127, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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17
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Alkhateeb KJ, Cahill MN, Ross AS, Arnold FW, Snyder JW. The reliability of saliva for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients: Insights on the diagnostic performance and utility for COVID-19 screening. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 101:115450. [PMID: 34284319 PMCID: PMC8180088 DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2021.115450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Current literature has focused on testing saliva in symptomatic patients, and little information is available regarding saliva performance in asymptomatic severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. We compared paired saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs (NPS) collected from 33 symptomatic and 12 asymptomatic known SARS-CoV-2-positive patients. Saliva had an overall sensitivity of 59%, a specificity of 95%, and a negative predictive value of 98%. Saliva demonstrated higher sensitivity in symptomatic (80%) vs. asymptomatic individuals (36%) (P = 0.006), and in high-risk (symptomatic, febrile and/or with comorbidities) (82%) vs. low-risk (asymptomatic, afebrile, and no comorbidities) (22%) patients (P = 0.0002). Cycle threshold (Ct) values in NPS specimens were higher in saliva-negative vs. saliva-positive cases (P = 0.02 and <0.001). Overall, these findings show that despite saliva's low sensitivity in asymptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infections, it can detect infections with lower Ct values and a potentially higher chance of viral transmission. Additional studies are warranted to fully evaluate saliva as a screening test for coronavirus disease-2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled J Alkhateeb
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.
| | - Meredith N Cahill
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, The University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA; Center of Excellence for Research in Infectious Diseases, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Adam S Ross
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Forest W Arnold
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, The University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA; Center of Excellence for Research in Infectious Diseases, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - James W Snyder
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.
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18
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Caixeta DC, Oliveira SW, Cardoso-Sousa L, Cunha TM, Goulart LR, Martins MM, Marin LM, Jardim ACG, Siqueira WL, Sabino-Silva R. One-Year Update on Salivary Diagnostic of COVID-19. Front Public Health 2021; 9:589564. [PMID: 34150692 PMCID: PMC8210583 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.589564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a global health problem, which is challenging healthcare worldwide. In this critical review, we discussed the advantages and limitations in the implementation of salivary diagnostic platforms of COVID-19. The diagnostic test of COVID-19 by invasive nasopharyngeal collection is uncomfortable for patients and requires specialized training of healthcare professionals in order to obtain an appropriate collection of samples. Additionally, these professionals are in close contact with infected patients or suspected cases of COVID-19, leading to an increased contamination risk for frontline healthcare workers. Although there is a colossal demand for novel diagnostic platforms with non-invasive and self-collection samples of COVID-19, the implementation of the salivary platforms has not been implemented for extensive scale testing. Up to date, several cross-section and clinical trial studies published in the last 12 months support the potential of detecting SARS-CoV-2 RNA in saliva as a biomarker for COVID-19, providing a self-collection, non-invasive, safe, and comfortable procedure. Therefore, the salivary diagnosis is suitable to protect healthcare professionals and other frontline workers and may encourage patients to get tested due to its advantages over the current invasive methods. The detection of SARS-CoV-2 in saliva was substantial also in patients with a negative nasopharyngeal swab, indicating the presence of false negative results. Furthermore, we expect that salivary diagnostic devices for COVID-19 will continue to be used with austerity without excluding traditional gold standard specimens to detect SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas Carvalho Caixeta
- Innovation Center in Salivary Diagnostic and Nanotheranostics, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
| | - Stephanie Wutke Oliveira
- Innovation Center in Salivary Diagnostic and Nanotheranostics, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
- School of Dentistry, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
| | - Leia Cardoso-Sousa
- Innovation Center in Salivary Diagnostic and Nanotheranostics, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
| | | | - Luiz Ricardo Goulart
- Institute of Genetics and Biochemistry, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
| | - Mario Machado Martins
- Institute of Genetics and Biochemistry, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
| | - Lina Maria Marin
- College of Dentistry, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Ana Carolina Gomes Jardim
- Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Biomedical Science, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
- São Paulo State University, Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences, São José Do Rio Preto, Brazil
| | | | - Robinson Sabino-Silva
- Innovation Center in Salivary Diagnostic and Nanotheranostics, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Federal University of Uberlandia, Uberlandia, Brazil
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19
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Plantamura J, Bousquet A, Otto MP, Bigaillon C, Legland AM, Delacour H, Vest P, Astier H, Valero E, Bylicki O, Renard C, Martin S, Verret C, Garnotel E, Foissaud V, Mérens A, Janvier F. Performances, feasibility and acceptability of nasopharyngeal swab, saliva and oral-self sampling swab for the detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2021; 40:2191-2198. [PMID: 33987804 PMCID: PMC8118679 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-021-04269-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Molecular diagnosis on nasopharyngeal swabs (NPS) is the current standard for COVID-19 diagnosis, but saliva may be an alternative specimen to facilitate access to diagnosis. We compared analytic performances, feasibility and acceptability of NPS, saliva, and oral-self sampling swab for the detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). A prospective, multicenter study was conducted in military hospitals in France among adult outpatients attending COVID-19 diagnosis centers or hospitalized patients. For each patient, all samples were obtained and analyzed simultaneously with RT-PCR or transcription-mediated amplification method. Clinical signs, feasibility, and acceptability for each type of sample were collected. A total of 1220 patients were included, corresponding to 1205 NPS and saliva and 771 OS. Compared to NPS, the sensitivity, specificity, and kappa coefficient for tests performed on saliva were 87.8% (95% CI 83.3–92.3), 97.1% (95% CI 96.1–98.1), and 0.84 (95% CI 0.80–0.88). Analytical performances were better in symptomatic patients. Ct values were significantly lower in NPS than saliva. For OS, sensitivity was estimated to be 61.1% (95% CI 52.7–69.4) and Kappa coefficient to be 0.69 (95% CI 0.62–0.76). OS was the technique preferred by the patients (44.3%) before saliva (42.4%) and NPS (13.4%). Instructions were perceived as simple by patients (> 90%) for saliva and OS. Finally, the painful nature was estimated to be 0.9 for OS, on a scale from 0 to 10, and to be 5.3 for NPS. Performances of OS are not sufficient. Saliva is an acceptable alternative to NPS for symptomatic patient but the process required additional steps to fluidize the sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Plantamura
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Sainte Anne, Toulon, France
| | - Aurore Bousquet
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Bégin, Saint-Mandé, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Otto
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Sainte Anne, Toulon, France
| | - Christine Bigaillon
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Bégin, Saint-Mandé, France
| | | | - Hervé Delacour
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Bégin, Saint-Mandé, France.,Ecole du Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Vest
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Percy, Clamart, France
| | - Hélène Astier
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Laveran, Marseille, France
| | - Elodie Valero
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Sainte Anne, Toulon, France
| | - Olivier Bylicki
- Clinical research unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Sainte Anne, Toulon, France
| | - Christophe Renard
- Ecole du Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.,Department of training research training and innovation of French Military Health Service, Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France
| | - Solenne Martin
- Department of training research training and innovation of French Military Health Service, Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Verret
- Department of training research training and innovation of French Military Health Service, Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France
| | - Eric Garnotel
- Ecole du Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.,Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Laveran, Marseille, France
| | - Vincent Foissaud
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Percy, Clamart, France
| | - Audrey Mérens
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Bégin, Saint-Mandé, France.,Ecole du Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France
| | - Frédéric Janvier
- Microbiology unit, Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées Sainte Anne, Toulon, France. .,Ecole du Val-de-Grâce, Paris, France.
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20
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Lee RA, Herigon JC, Benedetti A, Pollock NR, Denkinger CM. Performance of Saliva, Oropharyngeal Swabs, and Nasal Swabs for SARS-CoV-2 Molecular Detection: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol 2021; 59:JCM.02881-20. [PMID: 33504593 DOI: 10.1101/2020.11.12.20230748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Nasopharyngeal (NP) swabs are considered the highest-yield sample for diagnostic testing for respiratory viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. The need to increase capacity for SARS-CoV-2 testing in a variety of settings, combined with shortages of sample collection supplies, have motivated a search for alternative sample types with high sensitivity. We systematically reviewed the literature to understand the performance of alternative sample types compared to NP swabs. We systematically searched PubMed, Google Scholar, medRxiv, and bioRxiv (last retrieval 1 October 2020) for comparative studies of alternative specimen types (saliva, oropharyngeal [OP], and nasal [NS] swabs) versus NP swabs for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis using nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT). A logistic-normal random-effects meta-analysis was performed to calculate % positive alternative-specimen, % positive NP, and % dual positives overall and in subgroups. The QUADAS 2 tool was used to assess bias. From 1,253 unique citations, we identified 25 saliva, 11 NS, 6 OP, and 4 OP/NS studies meeting inclusion criteria. Three specimen types captured lower % positives (NS [82%, 95% CI: 73 to 90%], OP [84%, 95% CI: 57 to 100%], and saliva [88%, 95% CI: 81 to 93%]) than NP swabs, while combined OP/NS matched NP performance (97%, 95% CI: 90 to 100%). Absence of RNA extraction (saliva) and utilization of a more sensitive NAAT (NS) substantially decreased alternative-specimen yield of positive samples. NP swabs remain the gold standard for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2, although alternative specimens are promising. Much remains unknown about the impact of variations in specimen collection, processing protocols, and population (pediatric versus adult, late versus early in disease course), such that head-to head studies of sampling strategies are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose A Lee
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joshua C Herigon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrea Benedetti
- Department of Medicine and of Epidemiology, Biostatistics & Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nira R Pollock
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Claudia M Denkinger
- Division of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Center of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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21
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Lee RA, Herigon JC, Benedetti A, Pollock NR, Denkinger CM. Performance of Saliva, Oropharyngeal Swabs, and Nasal Swabs for SARS-CoV-2 Molecular Detection: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol 2021; 59:e02881-20. [PMID: 33504593 PMCID: PMC8091856 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02881-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 60.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nasopharyngeal (NP) swabs are considered the highest-yield sample for diagnostic testing for respiratory viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. The need to increase capacity for SARS-CoV-2 testing in a variety of settings, combined with shortages of sample collection supplies, have motivated a search for alternative sample types with high sensitivity. We systematically reviewed the literature to understand the performance of alternative sample types compared to NP swabs. We systematically searched PubMed, Google Scholar, medRxiv, and bioRxiv (last retrieval 1 October 2020) for comparative studies of alternative specimen types (saliva, oropharyngeal [OP], and nasal [NS] swabs) versus NP swabs for SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis using nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT). A logistic-normal random-effects meta-analysis was performed to calculate % positive alternative-specimen, % positive NP, and % dual positives overall and in subgroups. The QUADAS 2 tool was used to assess bias. From 1,253 unique citations, we identified 25 saliva, 11 NS, 6 OP, and 4 OP/NS studies meeting inclusion criteria. Three specimen types captured lower % positives (NS [82%, 95% CI: 73 to 90%], OP [84%, 95% CI: 57 to 100%], and saliva [88%, 95% CI: 81 to 93%]) than NP swabs, while combined OP/NS matched NP performance (97%, 95% CI: 90 to 100%). Absence of RNA extraction (saliva) and utilization of a more sensitive NAAT (NS) substantially decreased alternative-specimen yield of positive samples. NP swabs remain the gold standard for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2, although alternative specimens are promising. Much remains unknown about the impact of variations in specimen collection, processing protocols, and population (pediatric versus adult, late versus early in disease course), such that head-to head studies of sampling strategies are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose A Lee
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joshua C Herigon
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Andrea Benedetti
- Department of Medicine and of Epidemiology, Biostatistics & Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Nira R Pollock
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Claudia M Denkinger
- Division of Clinical Tropical Medicine, Center of Infectious Diseases, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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22
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Justo AFO, Bueno MS, Barbosa GR, Perosa AH, Carvalho JM, Bellei N. Comparison of viral load between saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs for SARS-CoV2: the role of days of symptoms onset on diagnosis. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2021; 116:e210018. [PMID: 33886872 PMCID: PMC8061341 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760210018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is highly infectious causing millions of deaths worldwide. Nasopharyngeal swabs are the primary sample of choice for the diagnosis of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), thus, to decrease the exposure to potentially infected samples through the collection is a key point to reduce the risk of infection in healthcare workers. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to evaluate the sensitivity and viral load of saliva specimens by days of symptoms onset comparing to nasopharyngeal swabs in subjects with mild symptoms. METHODS Saliva and nasopharyngeal swabs samples were collected from São Paulo Hospital workers presenting mild symptoms, such as fever, cough, sore throat, rhinorrhea, myalgia, headaches, anosmia, ageusia, and fatigue. To understand the positivity and viral load, reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed. FINDINGS Saliva specimens presented a sensitivity of 98.6% compared to nasopharyngeal swabs. Overall, saliva showed lower viral load compared to nasopharyngeal swabs, regarding days of symptoms onset on diagnosis, the first four days had significant changes in viral load and no significant difference was reported in the days five to nine. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Although RT-PCR of saliva has presented a lower viral load compared to nasopharyngeal swabs, saliva specimens are a potential and reliable candidate for COVID-19 diagnosis through RT-PCR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariana Sardinha Bueno
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Departamento de Medicina, Laboratório de Virologia Clínica, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Gabriela Rodrigues Barbosa
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Departamento de Medicina, Laboratório de Virologia Clínica, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | | | - Joseane Ma Carvalho
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Departamento de Medicina, Laboratório de Virologia Clínica, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Nancy Bellei
- Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Departamento de Medicina, Laboratório de Virologia Clínica, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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23
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Saliva for molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 in school-age children. Clin Microbiol Infect 2021; 27:1330-1335. [PMID: 33618013 PMCID: PMC7894096 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2021.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Objectives The high diagnostic accuracy indices for saliva severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) reported in adults has not been demonstrated in children, and adequately powered studies focused on the paediatric population are lacking. This study was carried out to determine the diagnostic accuracy of saliva for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR in ambulatory children. Methods During 1 to 23 October 2020, we recruited a population-based sample of children presenting for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) screening in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. Each child provided paired nasopharyngeal (NP) swab and saliva for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR N, E and RdRp gene detection. Results Paired NP swab and saliva samples were obtained from 476 children with mean ± standard deviation age of 10.8 ± 3.9 years, and 58.2% were male (277/476). Nine participants were sampled twice, so 485 pairs of NP swab/saliva were tested. Virus detection in at least one specimen type was reported in 17.9% (87/485), with similar detection in NP swab (16.7%, 81/485) and saliva (15.9%, 77/485). Sensitivity and specificity of saliva RT-PCR was 87.7% (95% confidence interval (CI) 78.5–93.9) and 98.5% (95% CI 96.8–99.5). The positive and negative predictive values were 92.2% (95% CI 84.2–96.3) and 97.6% (95% CI 95.7–98.6), with a kappa coefficient of 0.879 (95% CI 0.821–0.937). Concordance of findings between NP swab and saliva did not differ by age (p 0.67) or gender (p 0.29). Cycle threshold (Ct) values were significantly higher in NP swab/saliva pairs with discordant findings compared to those with both specimens positive. Conclusions In light of these findings, we recommend saliva as a diagnostic specimen for COVID-19 screening in children.
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24
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Barat B, Das S, De Giorgi V, Henderson DK, Kopka S, Lau AF, Miller T, Moriarty T, Palmore TN, Sawney S, Spalding C, Tanjutco P, Wortmann G, Zelazny AM, Frank KM. Pooled Saliva Specimens for SARS-CoV-2 Testing. J Clin Microbiol 2021; 59:e02486-20. [PMID: 33262219 PMCID: PMC8106731 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.02486-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated saliva (SAL) specimens for SARS-CoV-2 reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) testing by comparison of 459 prospectively paired nasopharyngeal (NP) or midturbinate (MT) swabs from 449 individuals with the aim of using saliva for asymptomatic screening. Samples were collected in a drive-through car line for symptomatic individuals (n = 380) and in the emergency department (ED) (n = 69). The percentages of positive and negative agreement of saliva compared to nasopharyngeal swab were 81.1% (95% confidence interval [CI], 65.8% to 90.5%) and 99.8% (95% CI, 98.7% to 100%), respectively. The percent positive agreement increased to 90.0% (95% CI, 74.4% to 96.5%) when considering only samples with moderate to high viral load (cycle threshold [CT ] for the NP, ≤34). Pools of five saliva specimens were also evaluated on three platforms, bioMérieux NucliSENS easyMAG with ABI 7500Fast (CDC assay), Hologic Panther Fusion, and Roche Cobas 6800. The average loss of signal upon pooling was 2 to 3 CT values across the platforms. The sensitivities of detecting a positive specimen in a pool compared with testing individually were 94%, 90%, and 94% for the CDC 2019-nCoV real-time RT-PCR, Panther Fusion SARS-CoV-2 assay, and Cobas SARS-CoV-2 test, respectively, with decreased sample detection trending with lower viral load. We conclude that although pooled saliva testing, as collected in this study, is not quite as sensitive as NP/MT testing, saliva testing is adequate to detect individuals with higher viral loads in an asymptomatic screening program, does not require swabs or viral transport medium for collection, and may help to improve voluntary screening compliance for those individuals averse to various forms of nasal collections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bidisha Barat
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Sanchita Das
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Valeria De Giorgi
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - David K Henderson
- Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Stacy Kopka
- Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Anna F Lau
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Tracey Miller
- Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Tara N Palmore
- Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Shari Sawney
- MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Chris Spalding
- Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | - Adrian M Zelazny
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Karen M Frank
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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25
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Manabe YC, Reuland C, Yu T, Azamfirei R, Hardick JP, Church T, Brown DM, Sewell TT, Antar A, Blair PW, Heaney CD, Pekosz A, Thomas DL. Self-Collected Oral Fluid Saliva Is Insensitive Compared With Nasal-Oropharyngeal Swabs in the Detection of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 in Outpatients. Open Forum Infect Dis 2021; 8:ofaa648. [PMID: 33604399 PMCID: PMC7798743 DOI: 10.1093/ofid/ofaa648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic control will require widespread access to accurate diagnostics. Salivary sampling circumvents swab supply chain bottlenecks, is amenable to self-collection, and is less likely to create an aerosol during collection compared with the nasopharyngeal swab. METHODS We compared real-time reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction Abbott m2000 results from matched salivary oral fluid (gingival crevicular fluid collected in an Oracol device) and nasal-oropharyngeal (OP) self-collected specimens in viral transport media from a nonhospitalized, ambulatory cohort of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients at multiple time points. These 2 sentences should be at the beginning of the results. RESULTS There were 171 matched specimen pairs. Compared with nasal-OP swabs, 41.6% of the oral fluid samples were positive. Adding spit to the oral fluid percent collection device increased the percent positive agreement from 37.2% (16 of 43) to 44.6% (29 of 65). The positive percent agreement was highest in the first 5 days after symptoms and decreased thereafter. All of the infectious nasal-OP samples (culture positive on VeroE6 TMPRSS2 cells) had a matched SARS-CoV-2 positive oral fluid sample. CONCLUSIONS In this study of nonhospitalized SARS-CoV-2-infected persons, we demonstrate lower diagnostic sensitivity of self-collected oral fluid compared with nasal-OP specimens, a difference that was especially prominent more than 5 days from symptom onset. These data do not justify the routine use of oral fluid collection for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 despite the greater ease of collection. It also underscores the importance of considering the method of saliva specimen collection and the time from symptom onset especially in outpatient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukari C Manabe
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Carolyn Reuland
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Tong Yu
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Razvan Azamfirei
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Justin P Hardick
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Taylor Church
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Diane M Brown
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Thelio T Sewell
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Annuka Antar
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Paul W Blair
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Chris D Heaney
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew Pekosz
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - David L Thomas
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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26
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Hanson KE, Caliendo AM, Arias CA, Hayden MK, Englund JA, Lee MJ, Loeb M, Patel R, El Alayli A, Altayar O, Patel P, Falck-Ytter Y, Lavergne V, Morgan RL, Murad MH, Sultan S, Bhimraj A, Mustafa RA. The Infectious Diseases Society of America Guidelines on the Diagnosis of COVID-19: Molecular Diagnostic Testing. Clin Infect Dis 2021:ciab048. [PMID: 33480973 PMCID: PMC7929045 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciab048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Accurate molecular diagnostic tests are necessary for confirming a diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Direct detection of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) nucleic acids in respiratory tract specimens informs patient, healthcare institution and public health level decision-making. The numbers of available SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid detection tests are rapidly increasing, as is the COVID-19 diagnostic literature. Thus, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) recognized a significant need for frequently updated systematic reviews of the literature to inform evidence-based best practice guidance. OBJECTIVE The IDSA's goal was to develop an evidence-based diagnostic guideline to assist clinicians, clinical laboratorians, patients and policymakers in decisions related to the optimal use of SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid amplification tests. In addition, we provide a conceptual framework for understanding molecular diagnostic test performance, discuss the nuance of test result interpretation in a variety of practice settings and highlight important unmet research needs in the COVID-19 diagnostic testing space. METHODS IDSA convened a multidisciplinary panel of infectious diseases clinicians, clinical microbiologists, and experts in systematic literature review to identify and prioritize clinical questions and outcomes related to the use of SARS-CoV-2 molecular diagnostics. Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology was used to assess the certainty of evidence and make testing recommendations. RESULTS The panel agreed on 17 diagnostic recommendations. CONCLUSIONS Universal access to accurate SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid testing is critical for patient care, hospital infection prevention and the public response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Information on the clinical performance of available tests is rapidly emerging, but the quality of evidence of the current literature is considered moderate to very low. Recognizing these limitations, the IDSA panel weighed available diagnostic evidence and recommends nucleic acid testing for all symptomatic individuals suspected of having COVID-19. In addition, testing is recommended for asymptomatic individuals with known or suspected contact with a COVID-19 case. Testing asymptomatic individuals without known exposure is suggested when the results will impact isolation/quarantine/personal protective equipment (PPE) usage decisions, dictate eligibility for surgery, or inform solid organ or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation timing. Ultimately, prioritization of testing will depend on institutional-specific resources and the needs of different patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly E Hanson
- Department of Internal Medicine and Pathology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Angela M Caliendo
- Department of Medicine, Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Cesar A Arias
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Antimicrobial Resistance and Microbial Genomics, University of Texas Health McGovern Medical School, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Health School of Public Health, Houston, TX
| | - Mary K Hayden
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois; Department of Pathology, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Janet A Englund
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Mark J Lee
- Department of Pathology and Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Mark Loeb
- Divinsion of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
| | - Robin Patel
- Division of Clinical Microbiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Abdallah El Alayli
- Outcomes and Implementation Research Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
| | - Osama Altayar
- Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri
| | - Payal Patel
- Department of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Department of Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Yngve Falck-Ytter
- VA Northeast Ohio Healthcare System, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Valery Lavergne
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Vancouver General Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rebecca L Morgan
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario
| | - M Hassan Murad
- Division of Preventive Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Shahnaz Sultan
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis VA Healthcare System, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Adarsh Bhimraj
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Reem A Mustafa
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas
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27
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Huergo MAC, Thanh NTK. Current advances in the detection of COVID-19 and evaluation of the humoral response. Analyst 2021; 146:382-402. [PMID: 33410826 DOI: 10.1039/d0an01686a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The new outbreak caused by coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 started at the end of 2019 and was declared a pandemic in March 2020. Since then, several diagnostic approaches have been re-adapted, and also improved from the previous detections of SARS and MERS coronavirus. The best strategy to handle this situation seems to rely on a triad of detection methods: (i) highly sensitive and specific techniques as the gold standard method, (ii) easier and faster point of care tests accessible for large population screening, and (iii) serology assays to complement the direct detection and to use for surveillance. In this study, we assessed the techniques and tests described in the literature, their advantages and disadvantages, and the interpretation of the results. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is undoubtedly the gold standard technique utilized not only for diagnostics, but also as a standard for comparison and validation of newer approaches. Other nucleic acid amplification methods have been shown to be adequate as point of care (POC) diagnostic tests with similar performance as RT-qPCR. The analysis of seroconversion with immunotests shows the complexity of the immune response to COVID-19. The detection of anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies can also help to detect previously infected asymptomatic individuals with negative RT-qPCR tests. Nevertheless, more controlled serology cohort studies should be performed as soon as possible to understand the immune response to SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ana Cristina Huergo
- Theoretical and Applied Physical Chemical Research Institute (INIFTA), National Univesity of La Plata (UNLP), CONICET. Sucursal 4 Casilla de Correo 16, 1900 La Plata, Argentina.
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28
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Tsang NY, So HC, Ho HF, Leung GM, Ip DKM. Public perception and performance of different sampling approaches for the diagnosis of COVID-19. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2021; 15:420-422. [PMID: 33398924 PMCID: PMC8051699 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ngai Yung Tsang
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control, School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hau Chi So
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control, School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hiu Fai Ho
- Accident & Emergency Department, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Gabriel M Leung
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control, School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Dennis K M Ip
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control, School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China
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29
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Comparison of saliva and nasopharyngeal swab SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR testing in a community setting. J Infect 2020; 82:84-123. [PMID: 33217472 PMCID: PMC7670897 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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30
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Kivelä JM, Jarva H, Lappalainen M, Kurkela S. Saliva-based testing for diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection: A meta-analysis. J Med Virol 2020; 93:1256-1258. [PMID: 33079392 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.26613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jesper M Kivelä
- Clinical Microbiology, HUS Diagnostic Center, HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Jarva
- Clinical Microbiology, HUS Diagnostic Center, HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Translational Immunology Research Program, Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maija Lappalainen
- Clinical Microbiology, HUS Diagnostic Center, HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Satu Kurkela
- Clinical Microbiology, HUS Diagnostic Center, HUSLAB, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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31
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Berenger BM, Conly JM, Fonseca K, Hu J, Louie T, Schneider AR, Singh T, Stokes W, Ward L, Zelyas N. Saliva collected in universal transport media is an effective, simple and high-volume amenable method to detect SARS-CoV-2. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 27:656-657. [PMID: 33160035 PMCID: PMC7641592 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Byron M Berenger
- Alberta Public Health Laboratory, Alberta Precision Laboratories, Calgary, Canada; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada.
| | - John M Conly
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases and Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada; Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary and Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada; Infection Prevention and Control, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - Kevin Fonseca
- Alberta Public Health Laboratory, Alberta Precision Laboratories, Calgary, Canada; Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases and Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Jia Hu
- Department of Community Health Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada; Communicable Diseases, Public Health, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - Thomas Louie
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectious Diseases and Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada; Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary and Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada; Infection Prevention and Control, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - Angela R Schneider
- Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary and Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - Takshveer Singh
- Department of Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary and Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - William Stokes
- Alberta Public Health Laboratory, Alberta Precision Laboratories, Calgary, Canada
| | - Linda Ward
- Infection Prevention and Control, Alberta Health Services, Calgary, Canada
| | - Nathan Zelyas
- Alberta Public Health Laboratory, Alberta Precision Laboratories, Calgary, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
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32
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Medeiros da Silva RC, Nogueira Marinho LC, de Araújo Silva DN, Costa de Lima K, Pirih FQ, Luz de Aquino Martins AR. Saliva as a possible tool for the SARS-CoV-2 detection: A review. Travel Med Infect Dis 2020; 38:101920. [PMID: 33220456 PMCID: PMC7674016 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Salivary tests for the new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) diagnosis have been suggested as alternative methods for the nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal tests. METHOD Two reviewers independently performed a search in the following electronic databases: PubMed, Medline, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Embase and Scopus to identify cross-sectional and cohort studies that used saliva samples for SARS-CoV-2 detection. The search strategy was: ("saliva") and ("SARS-CoV-2" or "coronavirus" or "COVID-1"). RESULTS A total of 363 studies were identified and 39 were selected for review. Salivary samples for SARS-CoV-2 detection was as consistent and sensitive as the nasopharyngeal swabs in most studies, having been effective in detecting asymptomatic infections previously tested negative in nasopharyngeal samples. Viral nucleic acids found in saliva obtained from the duct of the salivary gland may indicate infection in that gland. Live viruses could be detected in saliva by viral culture. CONCLUSIONS Salivary samples show great potential in SARS-CoV-2 detection and may be recommended as a simple and non-invasive alternative.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Kenio Costa de Lima
- Dentistry Department, Rio Grande Do Norte Federal University, Natal, RN, Brazil.
| | - Flavia Queiroz Pirih
- Dentistry Department, Rio Grande Do Norte Federal University, Natal, RN, Brazil.
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33
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Barat B, Das S, De Giorgi V, Henderson DK, Kopka S, Lau AF, Miller T, Moriarty T, Palmore TN, Sawney S, Spalding C, Tanjutco P, Wortmann G, Zelazny AM, Frank KM. Pooled Saliva Specimens for SARS-CoV-2 Testing. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2020:2020.10.02.20204859. [PMID: 33052363 PMCID: PMC7553188 DOI: 10.1101/2020.10.02.20204859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated saliva (SAL) specimens for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR testing by comparison of 459 prospectively paired nasopharyngeal (NP) or mid-turbinate (MT) swabs from 449 individuals with the aim of using saliva for asymptomatic screening. Samples were collected in a drive-through car line for symptomatic individuals (N=380) and in the emergency department (ED) (N=69). The percent positive and negative agreement of saliva compared to nasopharyngeal swab were 81.1% (95% CI: 65.8% - 90.5%) and 99.8% (95% CI: 98.7% - 100%), respectively. The sensitivity increased to 90.0% (95% CI: 74.4% - 96.5%) when considering only samples with moderate to high viral load (Cycle threshold (Ct) for the NP <=34). Pools of five saliva specimens were also evaluated on three platforms: bioMérieux NucliSENS easyMAG with ABI 7500Fast (CDC assay), Hologic Panther Fusion, and Roche COBAS 6800. The median loss of signal upon pooling was 2-4 Ct values across the platforms. The sensitivity of detecting a positive specimen in a pool compared with testing individually was 100%, 93%, and 95% for CDC 2019-nCoV Real-Time RT-PCR, Panther Fusion® SARS-CoV-2 assay, and cobas® SARS-CoV-2 test respectively, with decreased sample detection trending with lower viral load. We conclude that although pooled saliva testing, as collected in this study, is not quite as sensitive as NP/MT testing, saliva testing is adequate to detect individuals with higher viral loads in an asymptomatic screening program, does not require swabs or viral transport media for collection, and may help to improve voluntary screening compliance for those individuals averse to various forms of nasal collections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bidisha Barat
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sanchita Das
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Valeria De Giorgi
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - David K Henderson
- Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Stacy Kopka
- Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Anna F Lau
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Tracey Miller
- Clinical Monitoring Research Program Directorate, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | - Tara N Palmore
- Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Shari Sawney
- MedStar Washington Hospital Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Chris Spalding
- Hospital Epidemiology Service, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | | | | | - Adrian M Zelazny
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Karen M Frank
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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34
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Senok A, Alsuwaidi H, Atrah Y, Al Ayedi O, Al Zahid J, Han A, Al Marzooqi A, Al Heialy S, Altrabulsi B, AbdelWareth L, Idaghdour Y, Ali R, Loney T, Alsheikh-Ali A. Saliva as an Alternative Specimen for Molecular COVID-19 Testing in Community Settings and Population-Based Screening. Infect Drug Resist 2020; 13:3393-3399. [PMID: 33061486 PMCID: PMC7534854 DOI: 10.2147/idr.s275152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose With the easing of restriction measures, repeated community-based sampling for tracking new COVID-19 infections is anticipated for the next 6 to 12 months. A non-invasive, self-collected specimen like saliva will be useful for such public health surveillance. Investigations on the use of saliva for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR have largely been among COVID-19 in-pa\tients and symptomatic ambulatory patients with limited work in a community-based screening setting. This study was carried out to address this paucity of data and reported discrepancies in diagnostic accuracy for saliva samples. Patients and Methods From 29th June to 14th July 2020, adults presenting for COVID-19 testing at a community-based screening facility in Dubai, United Arab Emirates were recruited. Clinical data, nasopharyngeal swab in universal transport media and drooling saliva in sterile containers were obtained. Reverse transcriptase PCR amplification of SARS-CoV-2 RdRp and N genes was used to detect the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Results Of the 401 participants, 35 (8.7%) had viral detection in at least one specimen type and the majority (n=20/35; 57.1%) were asymptomatic. Both swab and saliva were positive in 19 (54.2%) patients, while 7 (20.0%) patients had swab positive/saliva negative results. There were 9 (25.7%) patients with saliva positive/swab negative result and this included 5 asymptomatic COVID-19 patients undergoing repeat screening. Using the swab as the reference gold standard, the sensitivity and specificity of saliva were 73.1% (95% CI 52.2-88.4%) and 97.6% (95% CI 95.5-98.9%) while the positive and negative predictive values were 67.9% (95% CI 51.5-80.8%) and 98.1% (95% CI 96.5-99.0%), respectively. Conclusion The findings suggest good diagnostic accuracy for saliva and feasibility of utilization of specimen without transport media for SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR. Saliva represents a potential specimen of choice in community settings and population-based screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abiola Senok
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Hanan Alsuwaidi
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Yusrah Atrah
- Molecular Department, Unilabs UAE, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Ola Al Ayedi
- Al Khawaneej Health Center, Dubai Health Authority, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Janan Al Zahid
- Molecular Department, Unilabs UAE, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Aaron Han
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Asma Al Marzooqi
- Al Khawaneej Health Center, Dubai Health Authority, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Saba Al Heialy
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.,Meakins-Christie Laboratories, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Center, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | | | - Laila AbdelWareth
- National Reference Laboratory, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.,Pathology and Laboratory Medicine Institute, Cleveland Clinic Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Youssef Idaghdour
- Public Health Research Center, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Raghib Ali
- Public Health Research Center, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Tom Loney
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Alawi Alsheikh-Ali
- College of Medicine, Mohammed Bin Rashid University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
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35
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Rutkowski JL. Salivary Testing for SARS-CoV-2 Detection: Will It Help the Implant Dentist? J ORAL IMPLANTOL 2020; 46:363. [DOI: 10.1563/aaid-joi-d-20-editorial.4604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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