Vegetarianism as a social identity

Social impediments to meat-eaters' adherence to critical calls for a meat-free diet: An experimental test of social norm and message source effects

Reducing meat consumption is highly effective for reducing personal carbon emissions, yet most people in Western nations still eat meat. We build on recent research highlighting that group boundaries may impede dietary change by (a) promoting pro-meat norms and (b) prohibiting critical calls for a veg* diet (vegetarian and vegan, i.e., meat-free). Past research relied on self-reports and behavioural measures of engagement, leaving open whether these effects extend to food consumption settings and ad-hoc meal choice. We conducted two pre-registered experiments in which meat-eaters read critical calls to adopt a veg* diet, either by a vegan (outgroup) or a meat-eater (ingroup). In Experiment 2, participants moreover read an article either highlighting a veg* or a meat-eating norm. We then assessed actual (Experiment 1) or hypothetical (Experiment 2) meal choice as dependent variables. As predicted, intergroup criticism (i.e., voiced by veg*s) consistently led to message rejection in comparison to the same criticism voiced by meat eaters, but we did not observe effects on meal choice. Norms neither had a main nor interaction effect on self-reports and behaviour. We discuss potential intermediary processes between engagement with and adoption of a vegan diet and derive evidence-based recommendations for constructive communication across group boundaries.

Cultural sips: Exploring sociodemographic and dominance factors in French wine appraisal

This study investigates the intricate relationship between sociodemographic factors, social dominance orientation (SDO), and perceptions of wine in France. Emphasizing the symbolic role of wine in French culture, and employing a survey-based approach, the research explores how societal hierarchies and individual positioning within these structures influence the appraisal of rosé wine. The findings revealed that sociodemographic factors, particularly education level, significantly influence wine appraisal, while social dominance orientation serves as a mediating factor. This research contributes to the understanding of the cultural and social dynamics shaping wine consumption in France, highlighting the fact that wine appraisal is deeply embedded in societal structures.

Eating vegan due to cancer: A different social experience than other vegan dieters?

Many diagnosed with cancer change their diet in response to the diagnosis, with a vegan diet being a common choice. There may be health benefits to this, but research has demonstrated that following a vegan diet can have negative social ramifications. These social ramifications seem to be experienced to a lesser extent by those who following a vegan diet for health versus moral reasons, but this is a heterogeneous group; people may choose the diet for a myriad of different health reasons. In two pre-reregistered studies, we examined the social experience of those who adopt a vegan diet following a cancer diagnosis. Study 1, an experimental study, demonstrated that omnivores responded more positively to a friend who was vegan for cancer reasons than animal or general health reasons, which was explained by increased empathy. In Study 2, a cross-sectional survey study, those who adopted a vegan diet due to cancer reported (overall) less negative social experiences than those following a vegan diet more generally. These participants reported that cancer represented a greater social challenge than their diet. Taken together, these findings suggest that "vegan due to cancer" is a unique social identity and a unique social experience, relative to that of those motivated by other reasons, including general health reasons.

The relationship between the aspects of connectedness and sustainable consumption

Internal transformative qualities are essential contributing factors to sustainable behavior. Besides awareness, insight, purpose, and agency, connectedness is one of those inner qualities. In this study, we investigated the relationship between connectedness to oneself (self-love), towards the environment (connectedness to nature), towards other human beings (pro-socialness), and sustainable behavior towards clothes and food. One hundred thirty-nine mostly students participated. The results showed that self-love, connectedness to nature, and pro-socialness correlate. Sustainability behavior towards food was predicted by pro-socialness, the choice of diet, and environmental and ethical reasons for nutrition. Sustainable behavior towards clothes was predicted by connectedness to nature. This study hints that the factors of inner transformative qualities and the type of sustainable behavior must be investigated differently. It strengthens the multi-facet dimensions of sustainable behavior.

Spontaneous verbal descriptions of vegans, non-vegan vegetarians, and omnivores and relationships between these descriptions and perceivers' diets

Participants, 672 US collegians, listed four words/terms that first came to mind when thinking of vegans, non-vegan vegetarians, and omnivores. Participants generated 1264 unique descriptors, which two sets of raters, who were blind to the source of the descriptors, rated on 10 dimensions that included the valence of the descriptors (i.e., positive, negative). A series of multilevel models in which descriptors were nested within persons, found that descriptors referring to environmental issues and health were used more frequently when describing both vegans and vegetarians than when describing omnivores. Descriptors referring to deviance, lifestyle, and politics were used more frequently when describing both vegans and vegetarians than when describing omnivores. Overall, vegans were viewed more negatively than vegetarians who were viewed more negatively than omnivores. These differences were moderated by the extent to which participants restricted meat from their diet. Those who restricted meat from their diets to a greater extent had more negative perceptions and fewer positive perceptions of omnivores, whereas they had more positive perceptions of vegans and vegetarians, and fewer positive perceptions of omnivores. The present study is the first to use spontaneous verbal reports to examine attitudes and perceptions of people based on their eating habits. The results suggest that dietary habits can serve as a basis for social identity, which in turn affects perceptions of others.

Meta-analysis of personality trait differences between omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans

Vegetarian and vegan diets have been increasing in the Western world. Recent research has focused on personality trait differences between dietary groups, in part because personality traits are broad characteristics that can integrate findings about different factors that motivate vegetarian or vegan diets. Previous research on personality predictors of vegetarian and vegan (veg*n) diet, however, has yielded inconsistent results. The goal of this study was to integrate the existing results of Big Five personality differences between veg*ns and omnivores as well as between vegetarians and vegans. To this end, we meta-analyzed data from 15 studies and N = 69,576 individuals from several countries. Results indicated that veg*ns were significantly higher in Openness (d = 0.40) and Agreeableness (d = 0.17) than omnivores, while vegans were significantly higher in Openness (d = 0.14) than vegetarians. This work isolates Openness and Agreeableness as important trait predictors of plant-based diets and sets the stage for future work on the factors that motivate vegetarian or vegan diet. Personality traits can provide an integrative framework for conceptualizing dietary preferences, be used to make predictions about the sources, course and correlates of dietary choices, and potentially be useful for advocates and policymakers seeking to tailor meat-reduction interventions.

Increasing meat-free meal selections: The role of social identity salience and identity-related meal names

Avoiding meat overconsumption is good for the environment and people's health. Changing meal names represents a simple, cost-effective way of increasing meat-free meal selection in restaurants. In the past, however, this approach has shown limited effectiveness. The activation of different social identities may explain inconsistencies in prior findings and offer a powerful leverage point for influencing meal choices. We recruited participants (N = 899) who identified as "meat-eaters" for an online experiment in which they were asked to select a meal from a menu that included meat-free and meat-based burgers. We manipulated (1) social identity salience (meat-eater identity; sustainable identity; personal identity) and (2) the meal names on the menu (vegetarian name; sustainable name; neutral name). Our findings show that activating a sustainable identity significantly increases the odds of selecting a meat-free burger (22%) compared to alternative identity conditions (meat-eater identity 12%, personal identity 12%). Sustainable meal names outperform vegetarian but not neutral meal names (sustainable name 20%, vegetarian name 12%, neutral name 15%). When participants who previously selected a meat-based burger (N = 760) were limited to meat-free menu options, satisfaction and enjoyment ratings dropped steeply. This drop was significantly stronger in the meat-eater identity condition. Accounting for identity salience can lead to more targeted, improved interventions that increase meat-free meal selections by accounting for people's different social identities and the social context in which food consumption tends to occur.

Racialized Perceptions of Vegetarianism: Stereotypical Associations That Undermine Inclusion in Eating Behaviors

Shifting societal eating patterns toward a vegetarian diet offers promise for improving public health and environmental sustainability. Yet concerns exist about racial disparities in inclusion, as some sentiments suggest that vegetarianism is stereotypically associated with Whiteness. Through four studies (total N = 3,234), we investigated associations U.S. adults hold between race and vegetarianism, along with implications for behavior change and belongingness among Black individuals. Participants, across racial backgrounds, strongly associated vegetarianism with Whiteness, both explicitly and implicitly. A race prime led Black participants to report lower interest in becoming a vegetarian, whereas a prime of race-vegetarianism associations decreased Black participants' feelings of belongingness in the vegetarian community. Exposure to racially inclusive messaging about vegetarianism, meanwhile, increased belongingness among Black participants. These findings provide the first quantitative insights into racial stereotypes about vegetarianism and pose future directions for theory, research, and practice at the intersections of race and eating behavior.

Vegetarian diets and diets which restrict animal-source foods during childhood in high-income countries

Increasing numbers of populations in the West are restricting their intake of meat and other animal products for reasons relating to health or ethics; in many countries, these restrictions are already common for cultural, religious, or socio-economic reasons. By following their parent's diet, children are exposed in parallel. This narrative review aims at assessing current data regarding vegetarian diets in children from birth to 18 years of age, which include, by increasing degree of restriction, flexitarian, lacto-ovo-vegetarian, lacto-vegetarian, pescatarian, vegan and macrobiotic diets. The 202 references include 45 studies in children. The more restrictive the diet and the younger the child, the greater the risk of nutritional deficiency. Of particular concern are vitamin B12, iron, zinc, calcium, n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, and protein and energy intake, especially in pregnant and nursing women, infants and young children. Providing an adequate lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet is relatively easy, whereas the maintenance of more restrictive diets may be challenging. The benefits and risks of vegetarian diets in adults are relatively well documented, but data for children are scarce. Vegan and macrobiotic diets should be discouraged in pregnant and lactating mothers as well as in young children, who, otherwise, should pay careful attention to ensuring nutritional adequacy, blood testing and appropriate supplementation. The health consequences of a chosen diet should be discussed with parents and adolescents to ensure the best possible adherence to advice and prescriptions. There is a need for well conducted studies in children but also for better knowledge of nutrition in healthcare professionals.Abbreviations: ALA: α-linolenic acid; ARA: arachidonic acid; ASF: animal source foods; BMC: bone mineral content; BMD: bone mineral density; DHA: docosahexaenoic acid; DRV: dietary reference value; EPA: eicosapentaenoic acid; FLD: flexitarian diet; LA: linoleic acid; LC-PUFA: long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids; LOVD: lacto-ovo-vegetarian diet; LVD: lacto-vegetarian diet; MAD: macrobiotic diet; OMD: omnivorous diet; PSF: plant-source foods; SFA: saturated fatty acids; VGD: vegetarian diets; VND: vegan diet.

Overview and Challenges of Large-Scale Cultivation of Photosynthetic Microalgae and Cyanobacteria

Microalgae and cyanobacteria are diverse groups of organisms with great potential to benefit societies across the world. These organisms are currently used in food, feed, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. In addition, a variety of novel compounds are being isolated. Commercial production of photosynthetic microalgae and cyanobacteria requires cultivation on a large scale with high throughput. However, scaling up production from lab-based systems to large-scale systems is a complex and potentially costly endeavor. In this review, we summarise all aspects of large-scale cultivation, including aims of cultivation, species selection, types of cultivation (ponds, photobioreactors, and biofilms), water and nutrient sources, temperature, light and mixing, monitoring, contamination, harvesting strategies, and potential environmental risks. Importantly, we also present practical recommendations and discuss challenges of profitable large-scale systems associated with economical design, effective operation and maintenance, automation, and shortage of experienced phycologists.

Conservative consumer disinterest in plant-based meat: A problem of message incongruence

The drive to encourage consumers to reduce animal meat protein has resulted in a substantial market for plant-based meat products. Despite willingness and acceptance among certain sectors of the population, there remains a large proportion of consumers unwilling to try plant-based meat. Through the lens of political ideology and applying message congruence theory, we demonstrate that current message framing is incongruent to conservative consumers in the USA. A pre-test (n = 262), using political ideology to predict willingness to try plant-based meat, revealed a significant effect such that conservatives were significantly less likely to want to learn about plant-based meat or to try it. A content analysis (n = 82) of press releases from a major plant-based meat company highlights that plant-based meat is promoted based on three key benefits: taste, health and the environment. Finally, in an experiment, conservative participants (n = 200) were randomly assigned to view an advertisement for a plant-based meat company that either cited environmental benefits or did not. Results demonstrate the presence of incongruence in messaging, where environmental benefits are shown to be less effective for conservative leaning consumers.

Selected plants producing mucilage: Overview, composition, and their potential as functional ingredients in the development of plant-based foods

The increase in the preference for vegan and vegetarian diets is directly related to changing eating habits and the need for plant-based alternatives to animal-based products, which are better for health, due to the high content of essential amino acids and lipid profile rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, and have lower environmental impacts. In this scenario, there is a growing demand for plant-based foods, making it necessary to find new plant-based ingredients for application in foods and beverages. Flaxseed, chia seed, and Barbados gooseberry contain mucilage, a component with potential application in plant-based products. These hydrocolloids can be used as gelling agents, texture modifiers, stabilizers, and emulsifiers in solid and semi-solid foods. This review presents the extraction, characterization, and application of flaxseed, chia seed, and Barbados gooseberry mucilage for use in plant-based foods. It was found that mucilage composition varies due to the extraction method used, extraction conditions, and geographic location of the seed or leaf. However, applications in plant-based foods are currently limited, mainly focused on applying chia mucilage in bakery products and packaging. Research on applying flaxseed and Barbados gooseberry mucilage to plant-based products is limited, though it has been shown to have potential applications in packaging. Mucilage may also increase the nutritional profile of the product and provide better technological, functional, and sensory characteristics. Therefore, because of mucilage's excellent functional and technological properties, it is a promising candidate to act as an ingredient in plant-based food products.

The motivations and practices of vegetarian and vegan Saudis

In the Middle East, particularly in Saudi Arabia, the offering of a meat dish to guests is a deeply embedded cultural tradition, and a meat-based diet is the standard in Saudi Arabia. Thus, the rise of veganism and vegetarianism within Saudi Arabia is surprising and worthy of attention, as is understanding the perceptions and motivations behind this phenomenon, particularly as they relate to food and sustainability. This research was designed to investigate this emerging phenomenon and to identify key differences in dietarian identity between Saudi vegetarians and vegans using Rosenfeld and Burrow's Dietarian Identity Questionnaire. Among other results, the vegan group scored significantly higher on the prosocial motivation construct, suggesting the desire to help society as a whole is a stronger motivating factor for vegans. As well, the vegan cohort scored higher in the personal motivation category. From an environmental and public health perspective, understanding the key factors motivating individuals to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet in a meat-based culture like Saudi Arabia can be used to encourage others to pursue more healthy and sustainable food behaviors.

You are what you eat: an introduction to the special issue on the social psychology of vegetarianism and meat restriction: implications of conceptualizing dietary habit as a social identity

People's diets can serve as a basis for social identity, and the papers in this special issue examine the social psychological implications of vegetarianism as a social identity. The papers run the gamut from examining how vegetarians are viewed by the omnivorous majority to examining interventions designed to reduce meat consumption. In this paper I provide background information to provide a context for understanding the articles. This information includes a discussion of definitions of vegetarianism, people's motives for adopting a vegetarian diet, and some of the individual differences other than diet that distinguish vegetarians and non-vegetarians.

Plant-based and vegetarian diets: an overview and definition of these dietary patterns

PURPOSE

This paper aims to present an overview of the definitions of "plant-based and "vegetarian diets" adopted by different organizations worldwide, proposing new standard definitions and discussing the notion of vegetarianism as a restrictive dietary pattern.

METHODS

An extensive literature review on the different definitions of vegetarian and plant-based diets was conducted. Definitions of different international vegetarian and vegan organizations were also taken into account. Objective definitions for vegetarian and plant-based diets, as well as for their subcategories, were proposed. Other aspects related to how vegetarian diets are viewed and defined were also discussed.

RESULTS

We proposed that a vegetarian diet should be defined as "a dietary pattern that excludes meat, meat-derived foods, and, to different extents, other animal products". This definition would include, among others, ovolactovegetarian and vegan diets. The proposed definition for a plant-based diet was "a dietary pattern in which foods of animal origin are totally or mostly excluded". Other types of diets, such as flexitarian and pescetarian diets, could be considered plant-based. A vegetarian diet should not be considered restrictive. Instead, terms such as alternative or non-conventional could be used to define it and to distinguish it from the conventional diet adopted by most of the Western population.

CONCLUSION

This paper was able to elaborate objective definitions of vegetarian and plant-based diets. Standardizing nomenclatures may reduce misinterpretation and confusion in this field of study.

When meat-eaters expect vegan food to taste bad: Veganism as a symbolic threat

People who eat meat generally expect vegan food to taste bad. We theorize that this expectation stems in part from the perception that veganism is symbolically threatening; devaluing vegan food may enable meat-eaters to defend in-group values and defuse symbolic threat. We conducted four studies (total N = 1,563) on meat-eaters residing in the US. In Studies 1a and 1b, participants who most strongly endorsed carnism—the ideology that humans have a right to eat animals and their byproducts as food—were most likely to expect vegan food to taste bad. In Study 2, perceptions of veganism as symbolically threatening explained the relationship between carnism and taste expectations. In Study 3, experimentally increasing the salience of symbolic threat worsened taste expectations. Attachment to dominant group values and perceptions of intergroup threat may be barriers to the acceptance of veganism.

The costs of ideological prosociality: Analyses of the European Social Survey from 2002 to 2018 find negative relationships between endorsing universalistic values and well-being and social capital

Traditionally, prosociality has been conceptualized in terms of the interpersonal domain, for example, helping behavior. Nevertheless, people can be prosocial in terms of ideological domains, for example, social policies they support. The present study examined the utility of distinguishing interpersonal and ideological prosocial values as predictors of well-being and social capital. Data from nine European Social Surveys were combined. The Universalism and Benevolence values of Schwartz's basic human values were treated as measures of ideological and interpersonal prosocial values. Relationships between Universalism and Benevolence and well-being and social capital were examined with multilevel models, persons nested with rounds, rounds nested within countries. Respondent sex, age, and education were included as covariates. These analyses found that Benevolence was positively related to satisfaction with life and happiness, whereas Universalism was negatively related to satisfaction with life and happiness. Although endorsing both values was positively related to attitudinal measures of social capital (e.g., people can be trusted), Universalism was negatively related to self-reports of social activity, whereas Benevolence was either positively related or unrelated to self-reports of social activity. Being ideologically prosocial appears to be associated with reduced well-being. Future research is needed to explain the mechanisms responsible for this relationship.

Association between meatless diet and depressive episodes: A cross-sectional analysis of baseline data from the longitudinal study of adult health (ELSA-Brasil)

BACKGROUND

The association between vegetarianism and depression is still unclear. We aimed to investigate the association between a meatless diet and the presence of depressive episodes among adults.

METHODS

A cross-sectional analysis was performed with baseline data from the ELSA-Brasil cohort, which included 14,216 Brazilians aged 35 to 74 years. A meatless diet was defined from in a validated food frequency questionnaire. The Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised (CIS-R) instrument was used to assess depressive episodes. The association between meatless diet and presence of depressive episodes was expressed as a prevalence ratio (PR), determined by Poisson regression adjusted for potentially confounding and/or mediating variables: sociodemographic parameters, smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, several clinical variables, self-assessed health status, body mass index, micronutrient intake, protein, food processing level, daily energy intake, and changes in diet in the preceding 6 months.

RESULTS

We found a positive association between the prevalence of depressive episodes and a meatless diet. Meat non-consumers experienced approximately twice the frequency of depressive episodes of meat consumers, PRs ranging from 2.05 (95%CI 1.00-4.18) in the crude model to 2.37 (95%CI 1.24-4.51) in the fully adjusted model.

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional design precluded the investigation of causal relationships.

CONCLUSIONS

Depressive episodes are more prevalent in individuals who do not eat meat, independently of socioeconomic and lifestyle factors. Nutrient deficiencies do not explain this association. The nature of the association remains unclear, and longitudinal data are needed to clarify causal relationship.

Differences among vegans, non-vegan vegetarians, pescatarians, and omnivores in perceived social disapproval and approval as a function of diet and source of treatment

In studies conducted in the US and Poland, vegans, non-vegan vegetarians, pescatarians, and omnivores described how they perceived they were treated by others as a function of their diet. We found that vegans thought that others treated them more negatively because of their diets than vegetarians or pescatarians did, and pescatarians thought that others treated them less negatively than vegans and vegetarians did. In Study 1 (N = 96), we found that vegans, vegetarians, and pescatarians thought that others treated them more negatively because of their diet than omnivores did. Moreover, perceptions of negative treatment were positively related to how much participants' diets differed from an omnivorous diet. We replicated these findings in Study 2 (N = 1744), and we also found that vegans, vegetarians, and pescatarians thought that others treated them more positively in some ways compared to omnivores. In Study 3 (N = 1322), we found that differences in perceptions of negative treatment by strangers among vegans, vegetarians, and pescatarians were larger than differences in perceptions of treatment by friends and family members.

Understanding Italian Consumers' Perception of Safety in Animal Food Products

The concept of food safety is still underexplored among consumers, especially in relationship with the perception of food technology. Through an online survey (n = 489), this study explored: I, how perceived safety is related to products obtained with different technological treatments and described with different commercial information; II, the role of food technology neophobia (FTN) in consumers' safety perception of animal food products. The technological transformation and commercial information significantly affected the perceived safety in all product categories. Milk and eggs were associated with a high number of perceived hazards (with similar patterns), while honey to the lowest. The certification 'organic' positively affected the safety perception of eggs and honey. With the increase of the distance in product origin (local/regional vs. Extra-European) the perceived safety consistently decreased. FTN affected the perceived safety of milk and eggs, depending on the degree of familiarity with the technologies of production. Highly FT neophobic people are perceived as less safe than low FT neophobic people with few familiar products with a higher technological degree of transformation. Results expand the knowledge in people's attitude towards animal products, particularly considering the technology perception. The outputs may interest policy-makers and food companies, in rethinking the communication strategy concerning food safety.

Vegan stereotypes and person perception in a job application situation – differences depending on the type of job and the gender of the candidate

The objective of the study was to examine the influence of vegan stereotypes on person perception in the context of a job application. The study was conducted online on a representative sample of Polish adults (N = 838). Participants evaluated a fictitious CV of a candidate applying for a job. The CV varied in three dimensions: (a) diet of the candidate (vegan or not); (b) gender of the candidate; and (c) job position (stereotypically male or female). The candidate was evaluated on the dimensions of warmth and competence (based on the stereotype content model). A three-way analysis of variance (2x2x2) showed that in the case of a male candidate applying for a stereotypically male job (financial analyst), information about veganism lowered his perception on the competence dimension (stereotype inconsistency). These results indicate that vegans are targets of ambivalent stereotypes and that bias toward this group depends on the gender of the person following a vegan diet.

Plant-based default nudges effectively increase the sustainability of catered meals on college campuses: Three randomized controlled trials

Background

Literature suggests limiting consumption of animal products is key to reducing emissions and adverse planetary impacts. However, influencing dietary behavior to achieve planetary health targets remains a formidable problem.

Objective

We investigated the effect of changing the default meal option at catered events–from meat to plant-based–on participants' meal choices using three parallel-group, balanced, randomized controlled trials (RCT), and use these experimental results to project differences in plant-based default vs. meat default events on greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) (kg CO2 − eq), land use (m2), nitrogen (g N), and phosphorus (g P) footprint.

Methods

Data collection was performed at three catered events (n = 280) across two college campuses. The selected experimental sites used convenience sampling. Events consisted of a graduate orientation, sorority dinner, and academic conference. Eligibility of individual participants included being 18 years or older and an invitation to RSVP for an enrolled event. Participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups: the control group received a RSVP form that presented a meat meal as the default catering option; whereas the intervention group received a form that presented a plant-based meal as the default. The primary outcome of interest in each group was the proportion of participants who selected plant-based meals. To explore environmental impacts, we modeled the footprints of four hypothetical meals. Using these meals and RCT results, the impact (GHGE, land use, nitrogen, phosphorus) of two hypothetical 100-person events was calculated and compared.

Results

In all, participants assigned to the plant-based default were 3.52 (95% CI: [2.44, 5.09]) times more likely to select plant-based meals than those assigned to the meat default. Using these results, a comparison of hypothetical events serving modeled meat-based and plant-based meals showed a reduction of up to 42.3% in GHGEs as well as similar reductions in land use (41.8%), nitrogen (38.9%), and phosphorus (42.7%).

Conclusion

Results demonstrated plant-based default menu options are effective, providing a low-effort, high-impact way to decrease consumption of animal products in catered events. These interventions can reduce planetary impact while maintaining participant choice.

The traditional vegetarians – improving attitudes toward vegetarians through emphasizing similarities between vegetarianism and traditional fasting

The modern choices of diet are often perceived at odds with the traditional worldviews. This study aimed to test the possibility of improving attitudes toward vegetarians by emphasizing the similarity between vegetarianism and religious fasting. We expected the effects of induction to be moderated by endorsement of right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation (SDO-D and SDO-E). Participants (N = 246) were randomly divided into three groups that all read a text about a traditional birthday celebration. The control group read a text about the celebration with meat-based meals, one experimental group read about a celebration with meatless dishes. In the second experimental group it was emphasized that the host became a vegetarian after years of religious fasting. Both inductions improved attitudes toward vegetarians. Only SDO-D proved to be a significant moderator, with induction exhibiting a significant effect at higher levels of SDO-D. The findings inform public communications about reducing meat consumption.

Meat-eating justification and relationship closeness with veg*n family, friends, and romantic partners

A study of 190 omnivores examined their meat-eating justification (MEJ) beliefs and relationship closeness with veg*n friends, family members, and romantic partners; and how relationship closeness changes after veg*n diets are adopted. Denial and dissociation MEJs predicted lower closeness, whereas the hierarchical MEJ predicted higher closeness. Results also showed that relationship closeness significantly decreased for frequency and diversity of activities after adoption of veg*n diets. Closeness in terms of strength significantly increased after adoption of veg*n diets. A significant interaction was found between relationship type and time in which frequency of interactions decreased for friends and family after adoption of veg*n diets but did not change for romantic partners. These results suggest that only MEJs with moral considerations that elicit meat-related cognitive dissonance reduce relationship closeness after the adoption of veg*n diets; and that relationship closeness decreases after the adoption of veg*n diets only with friends or family members.

The Nutritional Adequacy and Diet Quality of Vegetarian Menu Substitutions in Urban Kansas Childcare Centers

While plant-based eating has become increasingly popular, little is known of how this trend has impacted childcare center meals. The purpose of this study was to measure the nutrient content and diet quality of vegetarian alternative lunches and compare these measures to those of standard childcare lunches and nutrient benchmarks representing one-third of the Dietary Reference Intake for 3-year-olds and 4–5-year-olds. Menu data were obtained from seven urban Kansas childcare centers participating in the Child and Adult Care Food Program and regularly providing a vegetarian alternative lunch. The centers provided detailed menu information for 27 days’ worth of meals. The most common vegetarian substitution was cheese, which was used to fulfill all or part of the meat/meat alternative requirement in over three-quarters of the vegetarian alternative meals (n = 22). Compared to the standard meals, the vegetarian alternative meals were higher in calories, fat, saturated fat, calcium, and sodium and lower in protein, choline, and diet quality (p = 0.05). Both lunch options met the benchmarks for vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin B12, calcium, and protein. Iron content for both (95% CI: standard 1.61–2.17 mg; vegetarian 1.37–2.7 mg) was below the benchmark. Although additional research is needed to better understand how vegetarianism has impacted childcare meals in the U.S., important differences in the nutrient contents were observed between the standard and vegetarian alternative meals. In addition, the results suggest vegetarian alternative meals that rely heavily on cheese may be of lower diet quality.

You Are What You Eat… But Do You Eat What You Are? The Role of Identity in Eating Behaviors—A Scoping Review

Background: Identity is a major construct in the fields of psychology and anthropology that can relate to both the maintenance of eating behaviors and cultural sensitivity. However, there has not been any systematic effort to understand the role of identity in eating behaviors and the maintenance of eating behaviors, or to address multiple aspects of identity within an individual across scientific disciplines. This scoping review aims to understand and describe existing research relating identity to eating behaviors and to detail the measurement of identity. Methods: We conducted a systematic search of Ovid, PsychINFO, Embase, and Web of Science for articles on identity and eating behaviors published between January 1946 and March 2022. We utilized the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist, and search methods were developed with the assistance of a research librarian. We rated articles from 1 to 5 based on the depth, complexity, and multi-dimensionality of the identity measurement conducted. Scoring criteria included a review of the number of items directly querying or evaluating identity and the extent of measurement of identity domains. Results: In total, 100 articles were included, examining 10 different identities, 8 identity constructs, 11 eating behaviors, and construct contributions from 26 theories. The mean score of all articles was 2.9 on the scale from 1 to 5. A total of 10 studies scored a “1”; 30 scored a “2”, indicating the use of 1–2 basic questions about identity; 31 received a “3” for use of a common but non-complex identity instrument; 19 received a “4”, meaning they contained strong evaluation and included multiple types of identity but were lacking in terms of depth of measure and/or the comparison of identity effects to constructs; and 10 scored a “5” for their strong, in-depth measure of identity and inclusion of multiple types. Identity was found to be significantly related to eating behaviors in all but one study. Conclusion: Identity measurements seldom accounted for complexities such as multiple identities and identity shifting over time. Nonetheless, our findings indicate that multiple aspects of identity reciprocally reinforce behavior and that change maintenance is associated with identity salience and centrality. Identity is underutilized and heterogeneously applied in eating behavior research. The inclusion of identity assessments may lead to better outcomes being obtained within differing cultural, normative, and environmental scenarios.

Individual differences in selective attentional bias for healthy and unhealthy food-related stimuli and social identity as a vegan/vegetarian dissociate "healthy" and "unhealthy" orthorexia nervosa

Previous work identified the operation of an attentional bias (AB) towards healthy food related stimuli among those with increasing tendencies towards orthorexia nervosa (ON) using a modified Stroop task. The current work aimed to replicate and extend our understanding of this effect by incorporating alternative measures of AB (i.e., the dot probe task) and ON (i.e., the Teruel Orthorexia Scale [ToS]) in a sample of self-defined vegans/vegetarians. The theoretical assertion of the ToS is the conceptual broadening of orthorexia with differentiable dimensions - one characterised as a "healthy" preoccupation with healthy food/eating patterns (HeOr) and the other by a more underlying pathology (OrNe). This study also aimed to examine the pattern of responding across these two dimensions according to factors known to predict ON. Eighty-six participants (mean age = 33.0 years; 20 males, 66 females) completed measures of obsessive compulsivity, perfectionism, state/trait anxiety and ToS as well as a dot probe designed to measure AB for healthy and unhealthy-related food stimuli, threat ratings of each of words utilised and perceived identity centrality as a vegan/vegetarianism. Results showed a dissociation of predicted determinants for "healthy" ON (HeOr) and pathological ON (OrNe). HeOr was predicted by increasing identity centrality whereas OrNe was predicted by increased OCD and perfectionism, and increased interference for healthy-related food words (in particular slowed disengagement) and not unhealthy related food words. Threat-related ratings of unhealthy food words was shown to be common across both dimensions. This pattern highlights cognitive and individual differences-based correlates of pathological and non-pathological ON.

How vegans and vegetarians negotiate eating-related social norm conflicts in their social networks

This qualitative study, framed by social identity theory, examines how self-identified vegans and vegetarians negotiate diet-related social norm conflicts within their social networks. Twenty-one semi-structured interviews with 18- to 58-year-old vegans and vegetarians who represented five nationalities were analysed inductively through thematic analysis. According to the results, social norm conflicts occurred in contexts where tense family relations or boundaries between in-group and out-group were salient. The results also show that in order to manage norm conflict situations, the interviewees used strategies towards the dominant social norms, such as adapting, challenging, and weakening. In particular, adapting to the dominant social norms was used in relationships that were not close, whereas challenging and weakening were used within close relationships. The interviewees had developed practical solutions to resolve social norm conflicts, such as eating what was served, actively providing information, or acting as an example to others. The results enhance understanding of the challenges entailed by practising vegan or vegetarian diet in an omnivorous society.

Intergroup attitudes between meat-eaters and meat-avoiders: The role of dietary ingroup identification

Why might some meat-eaters and meat-avoiders express negative attitudes toward each other? We investigated intergroup attitudes and potential underpinnings of these attitudes across three different dietary groups—veg*ans (vegetarians and vegans), flexitarians (people who restrict their meat intake partially), and meat-eaters—in Turkey ( NStudy 1 = 366; NStudy 2 = 450). In both studies, veg*ans showed the greatest ingroup favouritism and reported the highest ingroup identification and perceived discrimination. Meat enjoyment, moral consideration, and perceived veg*an threat (among meat-eaters) predicted dietary ingroup identification in Study 1, whereas perceived discrimination towards one’s dietary group was the strongest predictor of identification among all dietary groups in Study 2. Among meat-avoiders, but not among meat-eaters, stronger dietary ingroup identification was associated with more negative outgroup attitudes. Findings are discussed in light of social identity theories and intergroup perspectives.

Veganism during the COVID-19 pandemic: Vegans' and nonvegans' perspectives

Although the COVID-19 pandemic has triggered growing public interest in veganism, veganism's conceptualization remains ambiguous. Moreover, vegans' and nonvegans' different perspectives have rarely been addressed. Hence, this study involved the opinions of both vegans and nonvegans in the COVID-19 context to understand their attitudes, motivations, and opinions related to veganism. We analyzed online discourses in vegan and antivegan online communities using Word2Vec analysis and qualitative analysis. We identified lists of terms associated with three key veganism dimensions (i.e., lifestyle, animal rights, and food). Moreover, we compared actual online discussions among vegans to those among nonvegans regarding specific veganism attributes. This study preliminarily identifies specific attributes associated with veganism in online discourse among vegans. The issues addressed in this study can be tested in future research. Our findings can also be useful for people in various stages of veganism-such as active vegans, people who are interested in veganism, or even nonvegans who are uninterested in veganism-to comprehend the different perceptions prevailing in each group.

Vegetarian and Vegan Private Label Products as a Challenging Trend in Addressing the Customers Within Sustainable Food Consumption—A Case Study of Slovakia

The meat consumption at the current level is highly unsustainable. Because of the problems that meat production causes to the environment, it is considered as one of the main problems. Vegetarian and vegan private label products represent a new challenging trend in addressing the customers within sustainable food consumption at affordable prices. The submitted paper aimed to find out whether Slovak consumers know and subsequently buy products of the private brand targeted on vegans and vegetarians, in which product categories they do so, how they perceive them and what attracts and discourages them. The research was carried out in the period from September to December 2020, when a total of 2,011 respondents from all over Slovakia took part. As we have focused only on consumers who know the product line of private labels targeted on vegans and vegetarians (product line of vegan and vegetarian products), we have further analyzed and interpreted only the answers of 978 respondents. For the need to obtain the main aim of the research, we have formulated four theoretical assumptions and five hypotheses, whose veracity was verified with the use of selected statistical methods and techniques processed out at statistical programs XL Stat, SAS Enterprise Guide 7.1. and SAS 9.4. The key finding of our research is, that even if it could be assumed that the products of this specific private label will be bought only by respondents from the vegan or vegetarian category, the opposite is true—the private label is known and bought by the respondents from the category “I eat everything,” which means that it is necessary to think about this product line, to wider it and continue in the improvement of its quality as this is what the customers want.

Intergroup Sensitivity and Promoting Sustainable Consumption: Meat Eaters Reject Vegans’ Call for a Plant-Based Diet

Reducing meat consumption can make immediate contributions to fighting the climate crisis. A growing minority adheres to meat-free diets and could convince others to follow suit. We argue, however, that recipients’ social identification as meat eaters may impede the effectiveness of such calls (i.e., an intergroup sensitivity effect based on dietary groups). Indeed, meat eaters in our experiment (N = 260) were more likely to reject calls for dietary change from a vegan than from a fellow meat eater. This effect was also evidenced in evaluations of and engagement with an initiative to promote a vegan diet (“Veganuary”), providing some indication for behavioral impact. In contrast, our societal dietary norm manipulation had no consistent effects on observed outcomes. Exploratory moderation analyses show a limited impact of participants’ social identification as meat eaters but highlight the role of peoples’ general willingness to engage in environmentally friendly behavior. We discuss theoretical and practical implications, including how our results challenge existing approaches to promoting a meat-reduced diet.

Diet and Consumer Behavior in U.S. Vegetarians: A National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) Data Report

An increasing number of individuals adopt plant-based diets for their potential health benefits. Understanding vegetarians' dietary behavior in the context of their socioeconomic background is essential for pro-vegetarian messaging and to influence public beliefs about plant food consumption. Thus, this study sought to investigate diet and consumer behaviors in U.S. vegetarians. This is a cross-sectional, population-based study with data from the Nutrition and Health Examination Surveys (2007-2010). Selected items from three modules (diet and nutrition behavior, consumer behavior, and food security) were compared between vegetarians (n = 352) and the general population (n = 14,328). U.S. vegetarians consumed significantly fewer calories and less cholesterol but more fiber than their omnivorous counterparts. Moreover, vegetarians had significantly fewer soft drinks and salty snacks available at home. We also observed significant intergroup differences with regard to the availability of fruit and dark green vegetables. Vegetarians spent less money on eating out and indicated a lower number of not-home-prepared meals and ready-to-eat foods. We found no differences regarding money spent at supermarkets or grocery stores. Our study contributes to a better understanding of dietary and consumer behaviors in vegetarians. We shed a new light on the economic feasibility of vegetarian diets, highlighting that these diets are not necessarily more expensive than an omnivorous diet.

Replication dataset: the effect of compassion, biological sex, and gender identity threat on jerky choice

When it comes to food choices, high levels of trait compassion should decrease a person's likelihood to choose meat compared to a plant-based alternative [1], [2], [3], [4]. Because meat advertising often threatens masculinity, for men, this effect is expected to be moderated by gender identity threat. The data provided with this article were collected online from 1,350 participants to conduct a replication of study 1 in "The taste of compassion: Influencing meat attitudes with interhuman and interspecies moral appeals" [5]. The original study reports that men with high trait compassion [6] are significantly less likely to choose a vegetarian jerky-and more likely to choose a meat jerky instead-if masculinity is threatened. The replication is successful if the age range of participants between the two studies is matched. The size and direction of the effect tested in the replication study is comparable to that in the original study. This outcome suggests that the formation and the processing of meat attitudes depend on life stage, and it points to additional avenues for research in the fields of nutrition, social psychology, marketing, and consumer behavior. Additional variables in the dataset (e.g., items of the composite trait compassion variable, meat avoidance intent, social identity based on diet, and dietary pattern adherence [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]) may be used to develop and/or test hypotheses relating to meat attitudes and food-related choice behaviors. A print-out of the survey instrument, the dataset including scale items, and a script to perform the analysis are provided.

Affective explicit and implicit attitudes towards vegetarian and vegan food consumption: The role of mindfulness

OBJECTIVES

It was the main goal of this study to investigate the explicit and implicit affective attitudes towards vegetarian food and the role of mindfulness. The results were related to goal intention in the stage model of self-regulated sustainable behavior change.

METHODS

182 participants completed a demographic questionnaire, a mindfulness and a compassion scale, and answered questions about goal intention, personal and social norms. Besides, they completed an explicit rating task and an affective priming task.

RESULTS

The results showed that people with an omnivorous diet explicitly rated meat-based food as more positive, while vegetarians and vegans rated vegetarian food as more positive. However, all participants rated vegetarian food implicitly as more positive. The observing aspect of mindfulness correlated only with the explicit attitude and with goal intention. The relation between observing and goal intention was mediated by personal norms. Compassion was not related to any attitude.

CONCLUSION

This study provides first evidence, that the relation of mindfulness with the explicit and implicit attitude towards vegetarian food differs and that explicit attitudes are influenced by the own nutrition habit. The results are discussed with respect to the topic of sustainability.

Beliefs and Experiences of Individuals Following a Zero-Carb Diet

The adoption of carbohydrate-restrictive diets to improve health is increasing in popularity, but there is a dearth of research on individuals who choose to severely restrict or entirely exclude carbohydrates. The present study investigated the beliefs and experiences of individuals following a diet that severely limits, or entirely excludes, dietary carbohydrates, colloquially known as a ‘zero-carb’ diet, for at least 6 months. Zero-carb dieters (n = 170) recruited via a social networking site completed an online qualitative survey prompting them to discuss their motives, rationale, and experiences of following a low-carb diet. Transcripts of participants’ responses were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis. Results revealed that participants’ decision to follow a zero-carb diet was driven by health concerns and benefits. Participants expressed a strong social identity and belongingness to online zero-carb communities. Participants reported strong intentions to follow the diet indefinitely. Shortcomings of the diet centered on experienced stigma; lack of support from healthcare providers and significant others; limited access to, and high cost of, foods; and limited scientific data on the diet. Further research into the benefits and shortcomings of zero-carb diets across settings and populations is warranted, and guidelines for healthcare professionals on how to support individuals following a zero-carb diet are needed.

Dietary behaviour as a form of collective action: A social identity model of vegan activism

Adopting plant-based, or vegan, diets can have a number of benefits, including mitigating climate change, promoting animal welfare, or improving public health. In the current research, we use social psychological theory to better understand what motivates vegans to engage in collective action on behalf of this social group - that is, what motivates individuals to promote, or encourage others to adopt, a vegan lifestyle. We develop and test a Social Identity Model of Vegan Activism, which highlights the roles of individuals' social identities, sense of efficacy, emotions and moral convictions in fostering collective action. In two pre-registered studies, the first with self-identified vegans from Australia and the UK (N = 351), and the second with self-identified vegans from the UK and the US (N = 340), we found that individuals more frequently engaged in vegan activism (i.e., actions to promote vegan lifestyles) when they had stronger moral convictions (i.e., deontological or consequentialist), greater collective efficacy (i.e., beliefs that vegans can make a positive difference), anger (i.e., when thinking about the reasons why they are vegan), and identification (both with vegans, and with animals). Deontological and consequentialist moral convictions had significant indirect effects on vegan activism via different mediators. We conclude by discussing the implications and importance of studying dietary behavior from a social identity perspective, including its ability to help explain how and why individuals become motivated to not only adopt a certain (e.g., vegan) lifestyle themselves, but to also 'act collectively' on behalf of that shared group membership (e.g., promote vegan-friendly behaviors). We also highlight some key insights for policy makers and campaigners aiming to promote plant-based diets.

Morally admirable or moralistically deplorable? A theoretical framework for understanding character judgments of vegan advocates

Over the last decade, vegan advocates have become a growing minority. By arguing against animal-product consumption and imposing the virtue-loaded call to "go vegan," advocates have posed a direct challenge to the mainstream dietary ideology (termed "carnism") in hopes of positive social change. As a consequence, while vegan advocates may be admired for their morality and commitment, they may also be derogated with moralistic traits such as arrogance and overcommitment. We call this mixed-valence perception the "vegan paradox" and propose a theoretical framework for understanding it. Next, we develop a future research agenda to test and apply our framework, and inquire vegan advocacy for ethical, health, and environmental aims. Using the perspective of the idealistic vegan advocate as a reference point, we discuss the roles of the advocate's motives for change (i.e., the effectiveness of moral persuasion), the advocate's call for change (i.e., radical versus incremental change), the target's moral and carnist identification, and source attributes of the advocate. Lastly, we qualify our framework by highlighting further conceptual and methodological considerations.

Industrial Animal Farming and Zoonotic Risk: COVID-19 as a Gateway to Sustainable Change? A Scoping Study

The threat of zoonoses (i.e., human infectious diseases transmitted from animals) because of industrial animal farming may be receiving less attention in society due to the putative wildlife origin of COVID-19. To identify societal responses to COVID-19 that do address or affect the risk of future zoonoses associated with industrial animal farming, the literature was screened for measures, actions, proposals and attitudes following the guidelines of a scoping review. Forty-one articles with relevant information published between 1 January 2020 and 30 April 2021 were identified directly or indirectly via bibliographies from 138 records retrieved via Google Scholar. Analysis of relevant content revealed ten fields of policy action amongst which biosecurity and change in dietary habits were the dominant topics. Further searches for relevant records within each field of policy action retrieved another eight articles. Identified responses were furthermore classified and evaluated according to groups of societal actors, implying different modes of regulation and governance. Based on the results, a suggested policy strategy is presented for moving away from food production in factory farms and supporting sustainable farming, involving the introduction of a tax on the demand side and subsidies for the development and production of alternative meat.

Vegetarian Diet: An Overview through the Perspective of Quality of Life Domains

Vegetarianism has gained more visibility in recent years. Despite the well-described effects of a vegetarian diet on health, its influence on the quality of life of the individuals who follow it still needs to be properly investigated. Quality of life relates to a subjective perception of well-being and functionality, and encompasses four main life domains: physical, psychological, social, and environmental. The adoption of a vegetarian diet, despite being a dietary pattern, could potentially influence and be influenced by all of these domains, either positively or negatively. This review aims to present an overview of the background, conceptualization, features, and potential effects of vegetarianism in all quality of life domains. The choice of adopting a vegetarian diet could have positive outcomes, such as better physical health, positive feelings related to the adoption of a morally correct attitude, an increased sense of belonging (to a vegetarian community), and lower environmental impact. Other factors, however, could have a negative impact on the quality of life of those choosing to abstain from meats or other animal products, especially when they go beyond one's control. These include the environment, the social/cultural group in which a person is inserted, gender-based differences, economic aspects, and a limited access to a wide variety of plant-based foods. It is important to understand all the effects of adopting a vegetarian diet-beyond its nutritional aspects. Not only do studies in this area provide more consistent data, but they may also contribute to mitigating all factors that might prevent individuals from adopting a vegetarian diet, or that may have a negative impact on the quality of life of those who already follow it.

Tensions within and between vegans and vegetarians: Meat-free motivations matter

Under the superordinate umbrella of "veg*n", vegans and vegetarians share a disavowal of meat consumption but differ regarding the use of animal products and by-products. Furthermore, within each subgroup there exist multiple motivations (or reasons) for diet choice, some with more moral overtones than others. Despite being on the same "team" relative to the meat-eating majority, there is tremendous potential for expressions of subgroup distinctiveness and tension. In an online sample of veg*ns, we asked participants to report on views of and experiences with veg*ns, including separately evaluating vegans and vegetarians for animal, environmental, health, or religious reasons (i.e., 8 groups). Overall vegan (vs. vegetarian) participants expressed more subgroup bias, with vegans consistently preferred over vegetarians. Both vegans and vegetarians preferred veg*ns with "ethical" motivations (animal or environmental), and reported negative experiences with their subgroup outgroups (i.e., vegetarians and vegans, respectively). Problematically, in terms of group cohesion, vegetarians reported elevated anxiety and vigilance in their interactions with animal vegans especially. Overall the results suggest that, despite sharing a superordinate category and goal, and despite recent calls for veg*nism to become a more inclusive and wider tent, substantial tensions exist that can disrupt group cohesion and productivity.

Vegetarianism/Veganism: A Way to Feel Good

Previous studies have identified health, the environment and animal welfare as key motivations for becoming and remaining vegetarian/vegan. However, the idea of vegetarianism/veganism appears to have interesting facets that go beyond those drivers. This paper describes and examines this attraction. Twenty-six in depth interviews and two group discussions were conducted using the Morphological Psychology approach, which allows the revelation of conscious as well as unconscious drivers based on the detailed narrations of the interviewees. We conclude that the attractiveness of vegetarianism/veganism cannot only be explained by the classical and conscious motivations of a meatless or animal-free diet such as improving health and animal welfare. It also comprises less conscious or unconscious drivers of vegetarianism/veganism such as empowerment and enrichment, regaining autonomy and creating identity and superiority in addition to and partly through liberation from a meat production system which is perceived as destructive and threatening.