The impact of mother-child interaction quality and cognitive abilities on children’s self-concept and self-esteem

I help, therefore, I am? - A registered report on longitudinal inter-relations of the three-dimensional moral self-concept and prosocial behaviours in preschool children

Children's moral self-concept (MSC) has been proposed to relate to prosocial behaviour. However, systematic assessments of their inter-relations are scarce. Therefore, this longitudinal study investigated the development, structure and inter-relation of prosocial behaviours and the MSC in childhood, using three measurement points at ages 4, 5 and 6 years. We assessed children's MSC and helping, sharing and comforting behaviours in a laboratory setting. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed a three-dimensional MSC structure at 5 and 6 years, but not at 4 years. There was inconsistent stability across time points regarding prosocial behaviour and MSC. For the comforting domain, but not the other domains, cross-lagged relations between self-concept and behaviour were present. Moreover, helping behaviour and self-concept were inter-related at 6 years. Results provide support for reciprocal associations between MSC and prosocial behaviour, albeit only in the comforting domain. They highlight the importance of distinguishing between types of prosocial behaviour and corresponding dimensions of the self-concept, as different developmental trajectories and associations emerge.

Short-term and long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on child psychological well-being: a four-wave longitudinal study

As the COVID-19 pandemic further unfolds, it becomes a key theoretical and practical question to identify trajectories of child psychological well-being and to explore risk and resilience factors for developmental adjustment. The current study addressed this research gap by means of an ecological design: A (lockdown)-B (relaxation)-B (relaxation)-A (lockdown). We collected parental reports via online questionnaires over four measurement occasions during the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany (non-probabilistic sample): from the first lockdown (T1-spring 2020, N = 1769) to the following period of relaxation (T2-summer 2020, n = 873; T3-fall 2020, n = 729) on to the second lockdown (T4-winter 2020/21, n = 748). Key measures at T1-T4 were child emotional and behavioral problems as well as hyperactivity, child emotional and family-related well-being, parental strain, and parent-child relationship quality. We found evidence for quadratic growth models. While child problem behaviors (b = 0.32, p < 0.001) and emotional well-being (b = - 0.33, p < 0.001) improved after the first lockdown during subsequent periods of relaxation before worsening again in the second lockdown, child family-related well-being steadily decreased over all four measurement points (T1-T2: p < 0.001; T2-T3: p = 0.045; T3-T4: p = 0.030). Importantly, parental stress emerged as a strong risk factor (ps < 0.11) and the parent-child relationship quality constituted a resilience factor (p = 0.049) for child psychological well-being. These findings have major implications for policies aiming to further child health during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Longitudinal evidence that infants develop their imitation abilities by being imitated

Humans are widely considered the most socially sophisticated species on the planet. Their remarkable abilities in navigating the social world have given rise to complex societies and the advancement of cultural intelligence.1,2,3,4,5 But what characterizes us as ultra-social beings? Theoretical advances in social sciences over the last century purport imitation as a central mechanism for the emergence of humans' unique social-cognitive abilities.6,7,8 Uncovering the ontogeny of imitation is therefore paramount for understanding human cultural evolution. Yet how humans become able to imitate is unclear and intensely debated. Recently, multidisciplinary findings have challenged long-standing assumptions that imitation is inborn.9,10,11,12 So what are the underlying processes supporting the development of imitation? One fascinating possibility is that infants become able to imitate by being imitated.13,14,15 Cognitive theories have suggested that by perceiving others imitating one's own behavior, visual and motor representations of that behavior are coactivated and associated, leading to the emergence of imitation abilities.14,15 Here, we show that being imitated by sensitive caregivers in infancy constitutes a psychological process giving rise to infants' imitation abilities. Results demonstrated (1) that maternal imitation at 14 months positively predicted infants' imitation abilities at 18 months and (2) that maternal imitation at 14 months mediated the positive effect of maternal sensitivity at 6 months on infants' imitation abilities at 18 months. This offers substantial evidence for the role of social interactions in the emergence of imitation as a key factor for human cultural learning.

Coding Dyadic Behavior in Caregiver-Child Interaction from a Clinical Psychology Perspective: How Should Multiple Instruments and Outcomes Be Dealt with?

The experiences children have in the interactions with their caregivers influence their developmental outcomes. To target caregiving and optimize intervention effects, the assessment of caregiver-child interactions is highly relevant for families affected by parental mental disorders. Behavioral observation is a widely used method for assessing family dynamics, and the literature offers a wide variety of instruments with which to code such data. However, a structured overview of behavioral observation instruments (BOIs) is lacking, and the multitude of types of dyadic behaviors (DBs) assessed within each BOI are complicating their application. We aim to provide an overview of the BOIs applied to families affected by mental disorders and suggest a DB taxonomy that may be used across BOIs. We first conducted a systemic literature search to identify the most frequently used BOIs and the DBs they capture in clinical psychology. Second, we asked 13 experts to sort DB terms based on perceived conceptual similarity and analyzed these results using multidimensional scaling. We found approximately 450 different terms for DBs, and we argue that DBs can be classified within two overarching dimensions, i.e., in terms of structure and in terms of reaction to a child's signals. These efforts can facilitate the coding and application of BOIs in clinical practice.

Genetic and Familial Influences on Self-Perception in Early Childhood and Self-Esteem in Adulthood: A Cross-Sectional Analysis

Self-perception in early childhood and self-esteem in adulthood are related to a variety of aspects of psychological wellbeing. The goal of the present study was to examine genetic and familial influences on self-perception and self-esteem in separate samples of children (153 twin pairs of 5-year-olds) and adults (753 twin pairs between the ages of 25-75 years). Genetic common factor modeling showed that three facets of self-perception (physical competence, peer acceptance, and maternal acceptance) loaded onto a single heritable factor in children. Multilevel modeling showed no effects of self or co-twin sex on self-perception, but authoritative parenting style was negatively related to self-perception in boys. Similarly, in Study 2, with the adult sample, five self-esteem items loaded on a single heritable factor with no effects of co-twin sex on adult self-esteem. Remembered maternal affection, paternal affection, and maternal discipline were positively related to self-esteem in adults; maternal affection was especially significant for women. The reversal in direction of parenting effects between early childhood and adulthood suggests that parents may play different roles in shaping how children and adults think of themselves. These results suggest that self-perception in childhood and self-esteem in adulthood are both influenced by genetic and environmental factors and that parenting is an important environmental factor for both children and adults.

"(I Think) My Mother Thinks I Am, Therefore I Am." The Looking-glass Self in Maltreated Children and Adolescents

Children and adolescents with maltreatment experiences show worse representations of themselves, as compared to their nonmaltreated counterparts. According to the looking-glass self hypothesis (LGSH), individuals' self-representations (SR) stem from interactions with significant others, reflecting associations between what significant others think of them (i.e., actual appraisals), individuals' perceptions of significant others' appraisals of them (i.e., reflected appraisals), and SR. However, little is known about the looking-glass self process in maltreated children and adolescents. This multi-informant study aimed to test the LGSH within the mother-child relationship with children and adolescents with maltreatment experiences. Specifically, including maltreatment experiences as co-predictors, this study analyzed the mediating role of mothers' reflected appraisals (MRA) in associations between mothers' actual appraisals (MAA) and children/adolescents' SR. Participants were 203 children/adolescents (52.5% boys), 8-16 years old (M = 12.6; SD = 2.49), assisted by children and youth protection committees (CYPC), their mother, and their CYPC case workers. Case workers reported on child/adolescent maltreatment, children/adolescents reported on SR and MRA, and mothers reported on MAA. A multiple mediation path analysis revealed significant mediation effects of MRA between MAA and child/adolescent SR in instrumental, social, emotional, intelligence, and opposition SR, thus supporting the LGSH in the context of child/adolescent maltreatment. Also, psychological neglect was associated to worse intelligence SR, mediated by intelligence reflected appraisals. Findings emphasize the importance of the role of MRA on maltreated children and adolescents' SR construction process, and provide useful clues to incorporate in prevention and intervention strategies targeting maltreated children and adolescents.

The Longitudinal Effects of Mother-Preschooler Interaction on a Child’s Prosocial Behavior and Behavior Problem: The Mediating Effect of Child’s Self-Esteem

Objectives: This study aims to examine the longitudinal effects of mother-preschooler interaction on a child’s prosocial behavior and behavior problem. Furthermore, it examines the mediating role of child’s self-esteem between mother-preschooler interaction and child’s prosocial behavior and behavior problem.Methods: The participants were 882 children(452 boys and 430 girls) and their mothers from the 7th(T1) to 9th(T3) wave(2014~2016) of the Panel Study on Korean Children. Data were analyzed with a Structural Equation Model and a bootstrapping method was used to test the statistical significance of the mediation.Results: First, the mother-preschooler interaction did not have a direct longitudinal effect on a child’s prosocial behavior, but had an indirect effect through self-esteem after controlling gender. The bootstrapping result suggested that the indirect effect is statistically significant. Second, mother-preschooler interaction did not have longitudinal effects on behavior problem, both directly and indirectly, through child’s self-esteem. Consequently, the more the interaction between mothers and preschoolers, the higher the child’s self-esteem, which led to a higher prosocial behavior.Conclusion: The results of this study show the mediating effect of self-esteem on the relationship between mother-preschooler interaction and child’s prosocial behavior. These findings suggest that parents should provide children with experiences in various interactions. They also imply the importance of experience in interactions in meaningful social relations for positive behavior of children. These experiences could play a role improving confidence in one’s worth and, eventually, allow children to have positive behaviors in social relations. The limitations and other implications of this study are also discussed.

Very preterm birth and trajectories of domain-specific self-concept from childhood into adulthood

Self-concept refers to individuals' perceptions of themselves in specific domains and is closely related with their overall self-esteem. Lower self-esteem has been reported in those born preterm (<37 weeks gestation), but the development of self-concept has not been studied in this population. This study investigates whether differences in trajectories of domain-specific self-concepts are explained by premature birth or other risk factors, using the Bavarian Longitudinal Study (N = 460), a population-based study of very preterm (VP; <32 weeks gestation)/very low birth weight (VLBW; <1500 g) cohort and term-born controls. Trajectories of body and social self-concept from 6 to 26 years of age were estimated using latent class growth analysis. Regression models examined the effects of VP/VLBW and other individual, social, and family factors. Two trajectories - one stable and one decreasing - were identified for both self-concepts. VP/VLBW birth was associated with decreasing self-concept in both domains, although the effect of VP/VLBW on social self-concept was weakened in the adjusted analysis. Furthermore, mediated pathways were found from VP/VLBW to decreasing social self-concept via chronic bullying (β = 0.05, 95% CI [0.002, 0.12]) and motor impairments (β = 0.04, 95% CI [0.01, 0.07]), suggesting that negative self-concept in the VP/VLBW population is partially modifiable through improving peer relationships and motor impairments in childhood.

Longitudinal Relations Between Parental Strain, Parent-Child Relationship Quality, and Child Well-Being During the Unfolding COVID-19 Pandemic

As COVID-19 sweeps across the globe, scientists have identified children and families as possibly particularily vulnerable populations. The present study employed a developmental framework with two measurement points (the first at the peak of the lockdown restrictions (N = 2,921), the second after restrictions had been majorly loosened (N = 890)) to provide unique insights into the relations between parental strain, child well-being, and child problem behavior. Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed longitudinal effects of child well-being and problem behavior at T1 on parental strain at T2 with parent-child relationship quality as a moderator. True intraindividual change models showed that decreases in parental strain between measurement points predicted increases in child well-being and decreases in child problem behavior. Thus, the present research points to parental stress coping and child emotional adjustment as promising avenues for professionals and policy makers in their efforts to ensure child and family well-being throughout the pandemic.

Explanatory model of violent behaviours, self-concept and empathy in schoolchildren. Structural equations analysis

The increased visibility of bullying cases has led the scientific community to be more interested in analysing the factors affecting these behaviours in order to reduce bullying cases and their negative consequences. The aim of this study was to define and contrast an explanatory model that makes it possible to analyse the relationships between self-concept, empathy and violent behaviours in schoolchildren through structural equation analysis. The sample of this study is made up of 734 schoolchildren from the province of Granada (Spain), both male and female, aged between 10 and 12, and it consists of analysing self-concept (AF-5), empathy levels (TECA) and violent behaviour at schools (ECV). A structural equation model was performed and successfully adjusted (χ2 = 563.203; DF = 59; p < 0.001; CFI = 0.943; NFI = 0.937; IFI = 0.943; RMSEA = 0.076). A positive and direct relationship between self-concept and cognitive empathy has been found; manifest aggression is negatively related to self-concept. Similarly, affective empathy has a negative relationship with relational aggression. The main conclusions of this study are that the levels of self-concept and empathy represent protective factors against the development of violent and victimisation behaviours in schoolchildren.