Oxytocin and vasopressin signalling and myometrial contraction

Therapeutic Potential of Thunbergia laurifolia L. Extract in Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Insights from a Rat Model

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effects of Thunbergia laurifolia L. extract (TLE) on gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in a rat model.

METHODS

Thunbergia laurifolin L. leaves were subjected to ethanolic extraction. In vivo study, 50 pregnant rats were randomly divided into 5 groups (10 for each): non-GDM group, GDM induced by streptozotocin (STZ, 60 mg/kg i.p.), metformin (MET) 100 mg/kg, TLE 50, and 500 mg/kg groups. Administration was performed on gestation day 7 until term (day 21). The effects of TLE on blood glucose, insulin levels, lipid profiles, liver enzymes, and maternal performances were assessed. In in vitro study, the effect of TLE was examined using the organ bath for uterine force measurement.

RESULTS

In in vivo study, TLE significantly reduced blood glucose as compared to GDM (P<0.05) with gradually increased insulin level. This effect was consistent with islets of Langerhans restoration. Histologically, the uterine muscular layer displayed a marked increase in fiber area in response to both doses as compared to GDM (P<0.05). Additionally, TLE significantly reduced total cholesterol, triglyceride, and alanine transaminase levels (P<0.05). Intriguingly, TLE also led to a notable augmentation in gravid uterus size, live fetuses count, and implantation numbers, while significantly reducing the post-implantation loss rate associated with fetal classification (P<0.05). Thus, GDM improvements were close to those produced by MET. In in vitro study, TLE exerted a concentration-dependent inhibition of spontaneous uterine contractility (half-maximal inhibition concentration=1.2 mg/L). This inhibitory effect extended to potassium chloride depolarization and oxytocin-mediated contractions. When combined with its major constituent, rosmarinic acid, TLE produced an enhanced inhibitory effect (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

TLE ameliorated blood glucose levels, enhanced uterine muscular structure, and improved maternal and fetal performance in GDM. TLE also displayed tocolytic properties. These findings underscore the need for further exploration of TLE as a potential tocolytic agent to mitigate GDM-associated complications.

Bryophyllum pinnatum Inhibits Oxytocin and Vasopressin Signaling in Myometrial Cells

The medicinal plant Bryophyllum pinnatum was previously shown to block oxytocin (OT)-induced signals in myometrial cells, consistent with its tocolytic effect observed in patients. OT activates not only OT receptors but also V1A receptors, two receptors with high receptor homology that are both expressed in the myometrium and play a crucial role in myometrial contraction signaling. We aimed to study the molecular pharmacology of B. pinnatum herbal preparations using specific receptor ligands, the human myometrial cell line hTERT-C3, and cell lines expressing recombinant human OT and V1A receptors.We found that press juice from B. pinnatum (BPJ) inhibits both OT- and vasopressin (AVP)-induced intracellular calcium increases in hTERT-C3 myometrial cells. In additional assays performed with cells expressing recombinant receptors, BPJ also inhibited OT and V1A receptor-mediated signals with a similar potency (IC50 about 0.5 mg/mL). We further studied endogenous OT- and AVP-sensitive receptors in hTERT-C3 cells and found that OT and AVP stimulated those receptors with similar potency (EC50 of ~ 1 nM), suggesting expression of both receptor subtypes. This interpretation was corroborated by the antagonist potencies of atosiban and relcovaptan that we found. However, using qPCR, we almost exclusively found expression of OT receptors suggesting a pharmacological difference between recombinant OT receptors and native receptors expressed in hTERT-C3 cells.In conclusion, we show that B. pinnatum inhibits both OT and AVP signaling, which may point beyond its tocolytic effects to other indications involving a disbalance in the vasopressinergic system.

Oxytocin and vasopressin signaling in health and disease

Neurohypophysial peptides are ancient and evolutionarily highly conserved neuropeptides that regulate many crucial physiological functions in vertebrates and invertebrates. The human neurohypophysial oxytocin/vasopressin (OT/VP) signaling system with its four receptors has become an attractive drug target for a variety of diseases, including cancer, pain, cardiovascular indications, and neurological disorders. Despite its promise, drug development faces hurdles, including signaling complexity, selectivity and off-target concerns, translational interspecies differences, and inefficient drug delivery. In this review we dive into the complexity of the OT/VP signaling system in health and disease, provide an overview of relevant pharmacological probes, and discuss the latest trends in therapeutic lead discovery and drug development.

Repurposing of Bryophyllum pinnatum for dysmenorrhea treatment: a systematic scoping review and case series

Dysmenorrhea affects women throughout their reproductive years but there has been a lack of effective and well-tolerated treatment options. Pain symptoms mainly result from inflammatory processes and increased contractile activity in the myometrium. The reported use of Bryophyllum pinnatum preparations against inflammation and pain in ethnomedicine as well as current pharmacological data on their inhibition of myometrial contractility led us to hypothesize that this medicinal plant might be a new treatment option for dysmenorrhea. In the first part of the present work, clinical, in vivo, and in vitro studies on the anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory, as well as on myometrium relaxing properties of B. pinnatum are reviewed. In the second part, cases of five women with dysmenorrhea who were tentatively treated with a B. pinnatum product are described. The review revealed thirty-three experimental in vivo and in vitro studies, but no clinical study, reporting anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of B. pinnatum extracts and compounds in a wide range of conditions. Moreover, sixteen publications on smooth muscle contractility revealed relaxing effects. The latter consisted of clinical evidence, as well as of in vivo and in vitro data. The evidence reviewed therefore provided a rational basis for the use of B. pinnatum in the treatment of dysmenorrhea. We subsequently set out to tentatively treat patients with a well-tolerated B. pinnatum product that is registered (without indication) and commonly used in obstetrics and gynecology in Switzerland. All five treated patients reported a reduction in pain symptoms and 4 out of 5 indicated a reduced intake of painkillers during menstruation. Taken together, the reviewed information on the pharmacological properties and clinical evidence of B. pinnatum extracts and compounds as well as the outcomes of all five patients in the case series support our hypothesis in favor of B. pinnatum as a new, well-tolerated therapeutic approach for dysmenorrhea. Prospective clinical studies are urgently needed.

Multiple pregnancies, the myometrium and the role of mechanical factors in the timing of labour

Multiple pregnancy remains a relatively common occurrence, but it is associated with increased risks of adverse outcomes for the mother and her babies and presents unique challenges to healthcare providers. This review will briefly discuss multiple pregnancies, their aetiology and their problems, including preterm birth, before reviewing the processes leading to normal labour onset and how they may be different in a multiple pregnancy. The mechanisms by which mechanical factors i.e., uterine distension or 'stretch' contribute to uterine excitability and the timing of labour onset will be the major focus, and how over distention may pre-dispose multiple pregnancies to preterm birth. This includes current thinking around the role of mechano (stretch) sensitive ion channels in the myometrium and changes to other important regulators of excitability and contraction which have been identified from studies using in vitro and in vivo models of uterine stretch. Physiological stimuli arising from the fetus(es) and placenta(s) will also be discussed. In reviewing what we know about the myometrium in multiple pregnancy in humans, the focus will be on twin pregnancy as it is the most common type of multiple pregnancy and has been the most studied.

Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and gestational age at birth

BACKGROUND

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous chemicals with mechanisms of toxicity that include endocrine disruption. We examined associations of prenatal urinary PAH with spontaneous preterm birth (PTB) and gestational age (GA) at birth. We also assessed whether infant sex modifies the association of PAH exposure with spontaneous PTB and GA at birth.

METHODS

Participants included 1,677 non-smoking women from three cohorts (CANDLE, TIDES, and GAPPS) in the ECHO PATHWAYS Consortium. Twelve monohydroxylated-PAHs were measured in second trimester maternal urine. Seven metabolites with >60% overall detection were included in analyses: 1-hydroxynaphthalene [1-OH-NAP], 2-hydroxynaphthalene [2-OH-NAP], 2-hydroxyphenanthrene [2-OH-PHEN], 3-hydroxyphenanthrene [3-OH-PHEN], 1/9-hydroxyphenanthrene [1/9-OH-PHEN], 2/3/9-hydroxyfluorene [2/3/9-OH-FLUO], and 1-hydroxypyrene [1-OH-PYR]. Logistic and linear regression models were fit for spontaneous PTB and GA among births ≥34 weeks, respectively, with log₁₀-transformed OH-PAH concentrations as the exposure, adjusted for specific gravity and suspected confounders. Effect modification by infant sex was assessed using interaction terms and marginal estimates.

RESULTS

Percent detection was highest for 2-OH-NAP (99.8%) and lowest for 1-OH-PYR (65.2%). Prevalence of spontaneous PTB was 5.5% (N = 92). Ten-fold higher 2-OH-NAP exposure was associated with 1.60-day (95% CI: -2.92, -0.28) earlier GA at birth. Remaining associations in the pooled population were null. Among females, we observed significant inverse associations between 1-OH-PYR and PTB (OR: 2.65 [95% CI: 1.39, 5.05]); and 2-OH-NAP with GA: -2.46 days [95% CI: -4.15, -0.77]). Among males, we observed an inverse association between 2/3/9-OH-FLUO and PTB (OR = 0.40 [95% CI: 0.17,0.98]). ORs for PTB were higher among females than males for 2-OH-PHEN (p = 0.02) and 1-OH-PYR (p = 0.02).

DISCUSSION

We observed inverse associations of 2-OH-NAP exposure with GA and null associations of remaining OH-PAHs with GA and PTB. Females may be more susceptible to spontaneous PTB or shorter GA following prenatal exposure to some OH-PAHs. This study is the first to assess sex-specific OH-PAH toxicity in relation to spontaneous PTB and GA.

Role of Perinatal Biological Factors in Delayed Lactogenesis II Among Women With Pre-pregnancy Overweight and Obesity

BACKGROUND

Pre-pregnancy overweight and obesity are negatively associated with delayed onset of lactogenesis II (OL), but the mechanisms by which these conditions affect OL are still unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To identify biological factors related to pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity and determine whether these biological factors were associated with delayed OL in this population.

METHODS

In this prospective observational study, we assigned 72 primipara to a pre-pregnancy overweight/obese group (n = 36) and a normal-weight group (n = 36). Blood samples were collected at 37 w of gestation and 48 h postpartum and assayed for levels of the following hormones: leptin, insulin, estradiol, prolactin (PRL), progesterone, and oxytocin. The primary outcome was timing of OL, estimated by maternal perception of breast fullness. We used linear-regression analysis to determine associations between hormones and delayed OL.

RESULTS

Sixty-three participants (87.5%) had complete data. OL occurred later in overweight/obese than in normal-weight women (p < .001). Compared with the normal-weight group, the overweight/obese group showed higher leptin levels at both times of observation and exhibited a slower drop in estrogen concentrations from 37 w of gestation to 48 h postpartum (all p < .05). After adjusting for confounding factors, leptin concentrations in late pregnancy and the magnitudes of decline in estrogen concentrations at 48 h postpartum were correlated with OL.

CONCLUSION

Women who were overweight/obese before pregnancy had elevated leptin levels in late pregnancy and a delayed decline in estrogen concentrations at 48 h postpartum. Both of these phenomena were related to delayed OL in this population.

Peptides in the regulation of glucagon secretion

Glucose homeostasis is maintained by the glucoregulatory hormones, glucagon, insulin and somatostatin, secreted from the islets of Langerhans. Glucagon is the body's most important anti-hypoglycemic hormone, mobilizing glucose from glycogen stores in the liver in response to fasting, thus maintaining plasma glucose levels within healthy limits. Glucagon secretion is regulated by both circulating nutrients, hormones and neuronal inputs. Hormones that may regulate glucagon secretion include locally produced insulin and somatostatin, but also urocortin-3, amylin and pancreatic polypeptide, and from outside the pancreas glucagon-like peptide-1 and 2, peptide tyrosine tyrosine and oxyntomodulin, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide, neurotensin and ghrelin, as well as the hypothalamic hormones arginine-vasopressin and oxytocin, and calcitonin from the thyroid. Each of these hormones have distinct effects, ranging from regulating blood glucose, to regulating appetite, stomach emptying rate and intestinal motility, which makes them interesting targets for treating metabolic diseases. Awareness regarding the potential effects of the hormones on glucagon secretion is important since secretory abnormalities could manifest as hyperglycemia or even lethal hypoglycemia. Here, we review the effects of each individual hormone on glucagon secretion, their interplay, and how treatments aimed at modulating the plasma levels of these hormones may also influence glucagon secretion and glycemic control.

The MAP kinase ERK5/MAPK7 is a downstream effector of oxytocin signaling in myometrial cells

The hormone oxytocin (OT) has pleiotropic activities both in the central nervous system as well as in peripheral tissues, including uterotonic effects on the myometrium during parturition. OT effects are mediated by a single transmembrane receptor, belonging to the GPCR (G protein-coupled receptor) superfamily and coupled primarily to Gq- and Gi-containing heterotrimeric G proteins. Upon receptor stimulation, one well-studied downstream effect is activation of the ERK1/2 MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase, and studies have shown that induction of COX-2 by OT in the myometrium required ERK1/2 activity. Many studies investigating the role of ERK1/2 in myometrial tissue were based on the use of chemical inhibitors that, to varying degrees, also inhibited ERK5/MAPK7. Here we report that OT activates ERK5 in a human myometrial cell line in a dose- and time-dependent manner through the activation of Gi/o heterotrimers. Using complementary approaches, we demonstrate that OT-induced COX-2 induction and the concomitant release of PGF2α into the media are primarily ERK5-dependent and to a much lesser extent ERK1/2-dependent. Moreover, in contrast to ERK1/2 activation, ERK5 activation is downstream of Gi/o activation. Here, we also found that ERK5 impacted both basal and to a lesser extent, OT-mediated myometrial cell contraction in vitro. Finally, tracking both ERK1/2 and ERK5 activity during different stages of gestation in rat myometrium, we showed that they followed distinct patterns starting at the onset of labor corresponding to the highest COX-2 expression levels. Overall, our results reveal an important, hitherto unrecognized role for ERK5 in myometrial cell contraction involving induction of COX-2. This novel pathway is likely to play an important role in supporting uterine contractions during parturition.

Determining the structure and binding mechanism of oxytocin-Cu2+ complex using paramagnetic relaxation enhancement NMR analysis

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide that binds copper ions in nature. The structure of oxytocin in interaction with Cu²⁺ was determined here by NMR, showing which atoms of the peptide are involved in binding. Paramagnetic relaxation enhancement NMR analyses indicated a binding mechanism where the amino terminus was required for binding and subsequently Tyr2, Ile3 and Gln4 bound in that order. The aromatic ring of Tyr2 formed a π-cation interaction with Cu²⁺. Oxytocin copper complex structure revealed by paramagnetic relaxation enhancement NMR analyses.

Relaxant Effects of the Aqueous Extract of Excoecaria grahamii (Euphorbiaceae) Leaves on Uterine Horn Contractility in Wistar Rats

In uterine smooth muscle, the effects of Excoecaria grahamii are not yet documented. To fill this gap, we investigated the pharmacological effect of Excoecaria grahamii on the contraction of the rat isolated uterine horns. The isolated segments were exposed to different concentrations of the aqueous extract of Excoecaria grahamii leaves and pharmacological drugs. The results showed that Excoecaria grahamii aqueous extract decreased the amplitude and frequency by concentration-related manner. IC50 values were 2.4 and 2.6, respectively, for amplitude and frequency. Our study revealed that the extract did not act through histamine H2-receptors or the nitric oxide pathway. It also inhibited uterine contractions induced by oxytocin and potassium chloride (KCl). These data suggest that Excoecaria grahamii active compound can be used for calming uterine contractions. The action of Excoecaria grahamii showed that it can be useful to fight against diseases which caused uterotonic effects. It can be useful to prevent preterm birth and pains caused by menstruations but further investigation is needed to clarify the mechanism action.

Oxytocin receptor antagonists as a novel pharmacological agent for reducing smooth muscle tone in the human prostate

Pharmacotherapies for the treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH) are targeted at reducing cellular proliferation (static component) or reducing smooth muscle tone (dynamic component), but response is unpredictable and many patients fail to respond. An impediment to identifying novel pharmacotherapies is the incomplete understanding of paracrine signalling. Oxytocin has been highlighted as a potential paracrine mediator of BPH. To better understand oxytocin signalling, we investigated the effects of exogenous oxytocin on both stromal cell proliferation, and inherent spontaneous prostate contractions using primary models derived from human prostate tissue. We show that the Oxytocin Receptor (OXTR) is widely expressed in the human prostate, and co-localises to contractile cells within the prostate stroma. Exogenous oxytocin did not modulate prostatic fibroblast proliferation, but did significantly (p < 0.05) upregulate the frequency of spontaneous contractions in prostate tissue, indicating a role in generating smooth muscle tone. Application of atosiban, an OXTR antagonist, significantly (p < 0.05) reduced spontaneous contractions. Individual tissue responsiveness to both exogenous oxytocin (R² = 0.697, p < 0.01) and atosiban (R² = 0.472, p < 0.05) was greater in tissue collected from older men. Overall, our data suggest that oxytocin is a key regulator of inherent spontaneous prostate contractions, and targeting of the OXTR and associated downstream signalling is an attractive prospect in the development of novel BPH pharmacotherapies.

Analysis of decay kinetics of the cytosolic calcium transient induced by oxytocin in rat myometrium smooth muscle cells

The method of kinetic analysis of the relaxation phase of the mechanical response of the smooth muscle previously proposed by Burdyga and Kosterin was applied to study the dynamics of the decay of oxytocin-induced calcium transients in cytosol of the rat myometrium smooth muscle cell detected by a fluorescence signal generated by a calcium-sensitive probe fluo-4 using a laser scanning confocal microscope. The experimental data were well linearized in the coordinates ln [(F_m - F)/F] vs lnt (F and F_m are the current fluorescence intensity of the calcium probe and the fluorescence intensity at the maximum of the calcium transient, respectively, while t is the time). The empirical parameters n and τ were determined by which the maximal normalized relaxation rate V_n was calculated for five different ROIs (regions of interest) in the myocyte cytosol. It proved to be almost the same for all ROIs. The maximal normalized relaxation rate calculated from the fluorescence intensity was always lower than that calculated from the corresponding calcium concentration, i.e. the cytosolic Ca²⁺ concentration in the relaxation phase decreases faster than the corresponding fluorescence intensity. The value of the maximal normalized relaxation rate calculated both from the fluorescence intensity and from the force of oxytocin-induced contractions of isolated rat uterus longitudinal smooth muscles (according to Tsymbalyuk and Kosterin) was exactly the same. This indicates that in the relaxation phase, the decreasing curves of both the fluorescence intensity and the contraction forces coincide.

The Physiological Mechanisms of the Sex-Based Difference in Outcomes of COVID19 Infection

The scale of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has thrust a spotlight on the sex-based differences in response to viral diseases; morbidity and mortality are greater in men than women. We outline the mechanisms by which being female offers a degree of protection from COVID19, that persists even when confounders such as comorbidities are considered. The physiological and immunological mechanisms are fascinating and range from incomplete X chromosome inactivation of immune genes, a crucial role for angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), and regulation of both immune activity and ACE2 by sex steroids. From this flows understanding of why lung and other organs are more susceptible to COVID19 damage in men, and how their distinct immunological landscapes need to be acknowledged to guide prognosis and treatment. Pregnancy, menopause, and hormone replacement therapy bring changed hormonal environments and the need for better stratification in COVID19 studies. We end by noting clinical trials based on increasing estrogens or progesterone or anti-testosterone drugs; excellent examples of translational physiology.

Development and characterisation of novel, enzymatically stable oxytocin analogues with beneficial antidiabetic effects in high fat fed mice

BACKGROUND

There is growing evidence to support beneficial effects of the hypothalamic synthesised hormone, oxytocin, on metabolism. However, the biological half-life of oxytocin is short and receptor activation profile unspecific.

METHODS

We have characterised peptide-based oxytocin analogues with structural modifications aimed at improving half-life and receptor specificity. Following extensive in vitro and in vivo characterisation, antidiabetic efficacy of lead peptides was examined in high fat fed (HFF) mice.

RESULTS

Following assessment of stability against enzymatic degradation, insulin secretory activity, receptor activation profile and in vivo bioactivity, analogues 2 N (Ac-C ^˂YIQNC ^>PLG-NH₂) and D7R ((d-C)YIQNCYLG-NH₂) were selected as lead peptides. Twice daily injection of either peptide for 22 days reduced body weight, energy intake, plasma glucose and insulin and pancreatic glucagon content in HFF mice. In addition, both peptides reduced total- and LDL-cholesterol, with concomitant elevations of HDL-cholesterol, and D7R also decreased triglyceride levels. The two oxytocin analogues improved glucose tolerance and insulin responses to intraperitoneal, and particularly oral, glucose challenge on day 22. Both oxytocin analogues enhanced insulin sensitivity, reduced HOMA-IR and increased bone mineral density. In terms of pancreatic islet histology, D7R reversed high fat feeding induced elevations of islet and beta cell areas, which was associated with reductions in beta cell apoptosis. Islet insulin secretory responsiveness was improved by 2 N, and especially D7R, treatment.

CONCLUSION

Novel, enzymatically stable oxytocin analogues exert beneficial antidiabetic effects in HFF mice.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

These observations emphasise the, yet untapped, therapeutic potential of long-acting oxytocin-based agents for obesity and type 2 diabetes.

Uterine Excitability and Ion Channels and Their Changes with Gestation and Hormonal Environment

We address advances in the understanding of myometrial physiology, focusing on excitation and the effects of gestation on ion channels and their relevance to labor. This review moves through pioneering studies to exciting new findings. We begin with the myometrium and its myocytes and describe how excitation might initiate and spread in this myogenic smooth muscle. We then review each of the ion channels in the myometrium: L- and T-type Ca²⁺ channels, K_ATP (Kir6) channels, voltage-dependent K channels (Kv4, Kv7, and Kv11), twin-pore domain K channels (TASK, TREK), inward rectifier Kir7.1, Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channels with large (KCNMA1, Slo1), small (KCNN1-3), and intermediate (KCNN4) conductance, Na-activated K channels (Slo2), voltage-gated (SCN) Na⁺ and Na⁺ leak channels, nonselective (NALCN) channels, the Na K-ATPase, and hyperpolarization-activated cation channels. We finish by assessing how three key hormones- oxytocin, estrogen, and progesterone-modulate and integrate excitability throughout gestation.

Evaluation of Waste Mushroom Compost as a Feed Supplement and Its Effects on the Fat Metabolism and Antioxidant Capacity of Broilers

Simple Summary

Mushroom waste compost is the main byproduct when cultivating mushrooms. Due to its high mycelium content, mushroom waste compost may improve animal health by increasing antioxidant capacity. Furthermore, increasing evidence suggests that supplementing animal diets with fiber could improve body composition and health. The results showed that supplementation with mushroom waste compost accelerates adipolysis and enhances the antioxidant capacity of broilers. Among all treatment groups, broilers given dietary supplementation with 0.5% mushroom waste compost showed improved feed conversion rate and the highest adipose metabolism.

Abstract

Pennisetum purpureum Schum No. 2 waste mushroom compost (PWMC) is the main byproduct when cultivating Pleurotus eryngii. Due to the high mycelium levels in PWMC, it may have potential as a feed supplement for broilers. This study investigated the effects of PWMC supplementation on antioxidant capacity and adipose metabolism in broilers. In the study, 240 broilers were randomly allocated to one of four treatment groups: basal diet (control), 0.5%, 1%, or 2% PWMC supplementation. Each treatment group had 60 broilers, divided into three replicates. The results showed that supplementation with 0.5% PWMC decreased the feed conversion rate (FCR) from 1.36 to 1.28, compared to the control. Supplementation with 0.5% or 2% PWMC decreased glucose and triglyceride levels, compared to the control (p < 0.0001), the concentrations of adiponectin and oxytocin increased from 5948 to 5709, 11820, and 7938 ng/ mL; and 259 to 447, 873, and 963 pg/ mL, respectively. Toll-like receptor 4 was slightly increased in the 0.5% and 1% PWMC groups. Both interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and interleukin-1ß (IL-1ß) were significantly decreased, by about three to five times for IFN-γ (p < 0.0001) and 1.1 to 1.6 times for IL-1ß (p = 0.0002). All antioxidant-related mRNA, including nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf-2) and superoxidase dismutase-1 (SOD-1), increased significantly following PWMC supplementation. Both claudin-1 and zonula occludens 1 increased, especially in the 2% PWMC group. Excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3) significantly increased by about 5, 12, and 11 times in the 0.5%, 1%, and 2% PWMC groups. All adipolysis-related mRNA were induced in the PWMC treatment groups, further enhancing adipolysis. Overall, 0.5% PWMC supplementation was recommended due to its improving FCR, similar antioxidant capacity, and upregulated adipolysis.