Guidelines for immersive virtual reality in psychological research

Partner gaze shapes the relationship between symptoms of psychopathology and interpersonal coordination

Interpersonal coordination is a key determinant of successful social interaction but can be disrupted when people experience symptoms related to social anxiety or autism. Effective coordination rests on individuals directing their attention towards interaction partners. Yet little is known about the impact of the attentional behaviours of the partner themselves. As the gaze of others has heightened salience for those experiencing social anxiety or autism, addressing this gap can provide insight into how symptoms of these disorders impact coordination. Using a novel virtual reality task, we investigated whether partner gaze (i.e., direct vs. averted) influenced the emergence of interpersonal coordination. Results revealed: (i) spontaneous coordination was diminished in the averted (cf. direct) gaze condition; (ii) spontaneous coordination was positively related to symptoms of social anxiety, but only when partner gaze was averted. This latter finding contrasts the extant literature and points to the importance of social context in shaping the relationship between symptoms of psychopathology and interpersonal coordination.

Gaze-based attention network analysis in a virtual reality classroom

This article provides a step-by-step guideline for measuring and analyzing visual attention in 3D virtual reality (VR) environments based on eye-tracking data. We propose a solution to the challenges of obtaining relevant eye-tracking information in a dynamic 3D virtual environment and calculating interpretable indicators of learning and social behavior. With a method called "gaze-ray casting," we simulated 3D-gaze movements to obtain information about the gazed objects. This information was used to create graphical models of visual attention, establishing attention networks. These networks represented participants' gaze transitions between different entities in the VR environment over time. Measures of centrality, distribution, and interconnectedness of the networks were calculated to describe the network structure. The measures, derived from graph theory, allowed for statistical inference testing and the interpretation of participants' visual attention in 3D VR environments. Our method provides useful insights when analyzing students' learning in a VR classroom, as reported in a corresponding evaluation article with N = 274 participants. •Guidelines on implementing gaze-ray casting in VR using the Unreal Engine and the HTC VIVE Pro Eye.•Creating gaze-based attention networks and analyzing their network structure.•Implementation tutorials and the Open Source software code are provided via OSF: https://osf.io/pxjrc/?view_only=1b6da45eb93e4f9eb7a138697b941198.

The deep past in the virtual present: developing an interdisciplinary approach towards understanding the psychological foundations of palaeolithic cave art

Virtual Reality (VR) has vast potential for developing systematic, interdisciplinary studies to understand ephemeral behaviours in the archaeological record, such as the emergence and development of visual culture. Upper Palaeolithic cave art forms the most robust record for investigating this and the methods of its production, themes, and temporal and spatial changes have been researched extensively, but without consensus over its functions or meanings. More compelling arguments draw from visual psychology and posit that the immersive, dark conditions of caves elicited particular psychological responses, resulting in the perception-and depiction-of animals on suggestive features of cave walls. Our research developed and piloted a novel VR experiment that allowed participants to perceive 3D models of cave walls, with the Palaeolithic art digitally removed, from El Castillo cave (Cantabria, Spain). Results indicate that modern participants' visual attention corresponded to the same topographic features of cave walls utilised by Palaeolithic artists, and that they perceived such features as resembling animals. Although preliminary, our results support the hypothesis that pareidolia-a product of our cognitive evolution-was a key mechanism in Palaeolithic art making, and demonstrates the potential of interdisciplinary VR research for understanding the evolution of art, and demonstrate the potential efficacy of the methodology.

Keeping track of reality: embedding visual memory in natural behaviour

Since immersive virtual reality (IVR) emerged as a research method in the 1980s, the focus has been on the similarities between IVR and actual reality. In this vein, it has been suggested that IVR methodology might fill the gap between laboratory studies and real life. IVR allows for high internal validity (i.e., a high degree of experimental control and experimental replicability), as well as high external validity by letting participants engage with the environment in an almost natural manner. Despite internal validity being crucial to experimental designs, external validity also matters in terms of the generalizability of results. In this paper, we first highlight and summarise the similarities and differences between IVR, desktop situations (both non-immersive VR and computer experiments), and reality. In the second step, we propose that IVR is a promising tool for visual memory research in terms of investigating the representation of visual information embedded in natural behaviour. We encourage researchers to carry out experiments on both two-dimensional computer screens and in immersive virtual environments to investigate visual memory and validate and replicate the findings. IVR is valuable because of its potential to improve theoretical understanding and increase the psychological relevance of the findings.

Investigating social comparison behaviour in an immersive virtual reality classroom based on eye-movement data

Higher-achieving peers have repeatedly been found to negatively impact students' evaluations of their own academic abilities (i.e., Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect). Building on social comparison theory, this pattern is assumed to result from students comparing themselves to their classmates; however, based on existing research designs, it remains unclear how exactly students make use of social comparison information in the classroom. To determine the extent to which students (N = 353 sixth graders) actively attend and respond to social comparison information in the form of peers' achievement-related behaviour, we used eye-tracking data from an immersive virtual reality (IVR) classroom. IVR classrooms offer unprecedented opportunities for psychological classroom research as they allow to integrate authentic classroom scenarios with maximum experimental control. In the present study, we experimentally varied virtual classmates' achievement-related behaviour (i.e., their hand-raising in response to the teacher's questions) during instruction, and students' eye and gaze data showed that they actively processed this social comparison information. Students who attended more to social comparison information (as indicated by more frequent and longer gaze durations at peer learners) had less favourable self-evaluations. We discuss implications for the future use of IVR environments to study behaviours in the classroom and beyond.

Ecologically valid virtual reality-based technologies for assessment and rehabilitation of acquired brain injury: a systematic review

Purpose

A systematic review was conducted to examine the state of the literature regarding using ecologically valid virtual environments and related technologies to assess and rehabilitate people with Acquired Brain Injury (ABI).

Materials and methods

A literature search was performed following the PRISMA guidelines using PubMed, Web of Science, ACM and IEEE databases. The focus was on assessment and intervention studies using ecologically valid virtual environments (VE). All studies were included if they involved individuals with ABI and simulated environments of the real world or Activities of Daily Living (ADL).

Results

Seventy out of 363 studies were included in this review and grouped and analyzed according to the nature of its simulation, prefacing a total of 12 kitchens, 11 supermarkets, 10 shopping malls, 16 streets, 11 cities, and 10 other everyday life scenarios. These VE were mostly presented on computer screens, HMD's and laptops and patients interacted with them primarily via mouse, keyboard, and joystick. Twenty-five out of 70 studies had a non-experimental design.

Conclusion

Evidence about the clinical impact of ecologically valid VE is still modest, and further research with more extensive samples is needed. It is important to standardize neuropsychological and motor outcome measures to strengthen conclusions between studies.

Systematic review registration

identifier CRD42022301560, https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=301560.

Design guidelines for limiting and eliminating virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects at work: a comprehensive, factor-oriented review

Virtual reality (VR) can induce side effects known as virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects (VRISE). To address this concern, we identify a literature-based listing of these factors thought to influence VRISE with a focus on office work use. Using those, we recommend guidelines for VRISE amelioration intended for virtual environment creators and users. We identify five VRISE risks, focusing on short-term symptoms with their short-term effects. Three overall factor categories are considered: individual, hardware, and software. Over 90 factors may influence VRISE frequency and severity. We identify guidelines for each factor to help reduce VR side effects. To better reflect our confidence in those guidelines, we graded each with a level of evidence rating. Common factors occasionally influence different forms of VRISE. This can lead to confusion in the literature. General guidelines for using VR at work involve worker adaptation, such as limiting immersion times to between 20 and 30 min. These regimens involve taking regular breaks. Extra care is required for workers with special needs, neurodiversity, and gerontechnological concerns. In addition to following our guidelines, stakeholders should be aware that current head-mounted displays and virtual environments can continue to induce VRISE. While no single existing method fully alleviates VRISE, workers' health and safety must be monitored and safeguarded when VR is used at work.

Psychedelic replications in virtual reality and their potential as a therapeutic instrument: an open-label feasibility study

Background

Recent research has shown promising results for the therapeutic benefits of psychedelics. One popular view claims that these benefits are mediated by the subjective experiences induced by these substances. Based on this, we designed a virtual reality experience, Psyrreal, that mimics the phenomenological components of psychedelic experiences.

Aims

We aimed to investigate the therapeutic efficacy of Psyrreal and psychedelic VR experiences in treating depressive symptoms as well as explore the effect of Psyrreal on subjective factors which have been suggested to mediate the therapeutic benefits of psychedelics.

Methods

In this open-label feasibility study, thirteen participants with mild-to-moderate depression underwent a 2-day therapeutic intervention implementing Psyrreal. Depressive symptoms were evaluated by the Emotional State Questionnaire (EST-Q2) at the start of the intervention and 2 weeks after. A thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews after Psyrreal was also conducted as an additional assessment of the method.

Results

A 2-day intervention implementing Psyrreal led to significant decreases in depressive symptoms at the 2-week follow-up (n = 10, p = 0.007, Hedges' g = 1.046) measured by the Emotional State Questionnaire (EST-Q2). The analysis of semi-structured interviews suggests that Psyrreal could lead to insight and alterations in the sense of self in some people.

Conclusion

This work proposes a novel method using virtual reality to augment the treatment of psychological disorders as well as to precisely investigate the mediating subjective factors of the therapeutic effects of psychedelic substances. Our preliminary results suggest that VR experiences combined with psychological support show potential in treating depressive symptoms and further research into similar methods is warranted.

A framework for adopting gamified learning systems in smart schools during COVID-19

The outbreak of COVID 19 has increased the anxiety and stress among teachers and students. This has increased the need for gamified learning systems (GLS) to make the educational process more attractive and increase the engagement as well as the participation of all stakeholders. The use of GLS in teaching and learning has not been deployed effectively in the educational systems in developing countries. The purpose of this study was to examine the predictors of using GLS in Iraqi smart schools. Building on the literature, a framework of GLS is proposed. Data used in this study were collected from 394 teachers and managerial staff in Iraqi smart schools and analysed using Partial Least Square. The findings showed that individuals and organizations are important predictors of using GLS, and their effects on BI are mediated by satisfaction. Readiness and performance expectancy are critical for adopting and using GLS by smart schools. In addition, the findings showed that gamification and self-efficacy are moderating variables. Important implications of the predictability of GLS using a combination of theories as well as the practical suggestions for decision makers to enhance the adoption of GLS among smart schools in Iraq are discussed. In the time of COVID-19, decision makers have suggested increasing gamification features of teaching and learning to reduce anxiety and achieve a better learning process.

Assessing Inhibitory Control in the Real World Is Virtually Possible: A Virtual Reality Demonstration

Executive functions are the key ingredient for behaviour regulation. Among them, inhibitory control is one of the main exponents of executive functions, and in the last decades, it has received a good amount of attention thanks to the development of chronometric tasks associated with paradigms that allow exploring human behaviour when the inhibitory component is needed. Among the different paradigms typically used, the Simon and flanker tasks are probably the most popular ones. These have been subjected to modifications in order to assess inhibitory control from different perspectives (e.g., in different samples or in combination with different research techniques). However, its use has been relegated to classical presentation modalities within laboratory settings. The accessibility of virtual reality (VR) technology has opened new research avenues to investigate inhibition control with a high ecological validity while retaining tightly controlled lab conditions and good measurement accuracy. We present two cutting-edge modifications of the standard Simon and flanker tasks that have been adapted to real-world settings using VR and human-like avatars as target stimuli. Our findings show that virtual reality is a credible tool for testing inhibitory control with a high degree of transferability and generalizability to the real world.

A pilot study investigating human behaviour towards DAVE (Dog Assisted Virtual Environment) and interpretation of non-reactive and aggressive behaviours during a virtual reality exploration task

Dog aggression is a public health concern because dog bites often lead to physical and psychological trauma in humans. It is also a welfare concern for dogs. To prevent aggressive behaviours, it is important to understand human behaviour towards dogs and our ability to interpret signs of dog aggression. This poses ethical challenges for humans and dogs. The aim of this study was to introduce, describe and pilot test a virtual reality dog model (DAVE (Dog Assisted Virtual Environment)). The Labrador model has two different modes displaying aggressive and non-reactive non-aggressive behaviours. The aggressive behaviours displayed are based on the current understanding of canine ethology and expert feedback. The objective of the study was to test the recognition of dog behaviour and associated human approach and avoidance behaviour. Sixteen university students were recruited via an online survey to participate in a practical study, and randomly allocated to two experimental conditions, an aggressive followed by a non-reactive virtual reality model (group AN) or vice versa (group NA). Participants were instructed to ‘explore the area’ in each condition, followed by a survey. A Wilcoxon and Mann Whitney U test was used to compare the closest distance to the dog within and between groups respectively. Participants moved overall significantly closer to the non-reactive dog compared to the aggressive dog (p≤0.001; r = 0.8). Descriptions of the aggressive dog given by participants often used motivational or emotional terms. There was little evidence of simulator sickness and presence scores were high indicating sufficient immersion in the virtual environment. Participants appeared to perceive the dog as realistic and behaved and interacted with the dog model in a manner that might be expected during an interaction with a live dog. This study also highlights the promising results for the potential future use of virtual reality in behavioural research (i.e., human-dog interactions), education (i.e. safety around dogs) and psychological treatment (e.g. dog phobia treatment).

Characterizing Consumer Smartphone Apps for Virtual Reality-Based Exposure Therapy: Content Analysis (Preprint)

BACKGROUND

In vivo exposure therapy is the most effective treatment for phobias but is often impractical. Virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) can help overcome critical barriers to in vivo exposure therapy. However, accessible mobile software related to VRET is not well understood.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of our study is to describe the landscape of accessible smartphone apps with potential utility for clinical VRET.

METHODS

We conducted a content analysis of publicly available smartphone apps related to virtual reality on the Google Play Store and the Apple App Store as of March 2020.

RESULTS

The initial search yielded 525 apps, with 84 apps (52 on the Google Play Store and 32 on the Apple App Store) included for analysis. The most common phobic stimulus depicted was bodies of water or weather events (25/84, 29.8%), followed by heights (24/84, 28.6%), and animals (23/84, 27.4%). More than half of the apps were visually abstract (39/84, 53.5%). Most apps were free to use (48/84, 57.1%), while the rest were free to try (22/84, 26.2%) or required payment for use (14/84, 16.7%), with the highest cost for use being US $6. The average overall app rating was 2.9 stars out of 5, but the number of ratings ranged from 0 to 49,233. None of the 84 apps advertised compliance with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act, offered the ability to monitor data, provided clinician control over variables in the app experiences, or explicitly stated use by or development with clinicians.

CONCLUSIONS

None of the smartphone apps reviewed were explicitly developed for phobia therapy. However, 16 of the 84 included apps were considered ideal candidates to investigate further as part of treatment due to their accessibility, depiction of phobia-relevant stimuli, low or no cost, and high user scores. Most of these apps were visually abstract and free to use, making them accessible and potentially flexible as part of clinical exposure hierarchies. However, none of the apps were designed for clinical use, nor did they provide tools for clinician workflows. Formal evaluation of these accessible smartphone apps is needed to understand the clinical potential of accessible VRET solutions.

Precision control for a flexible body representation

Adaptive body representation requires the continuous integration of multisensory inputs within a flexible 'body model' in the brain. The present review evaluates the idea that this flexibility is augmented by the contextual modulation of sensory processing 'top-down'; which can be described as precision control within predictive coding formulations of Bayesian inference. Specifically, I focus on the proposal that an attenuation of proprioception may facilitate the integration of conflicting visual and proprioceptive bodily cues. Firstly, I review empirical work suggesting that the processing of visual vs proprioceptive body position information can be contextualised 'top-down'; for instance, by adopting specific attentional task sets. Building up on this, I review research showing a similar contextualisation of visual vs proprioceptive information processing in the rubber hand illusion and in visuomotor adaptation. Together, the reviewed literature suggests that proprioception, despite its indisputable importance for body perception and action control, can be attenuated top-down (through precision control) to facilitate the contextual adaptation of the brain's body model to novel visual feedback.

Decoding subjective emotional arousal from EEG during an immersive virtual reality experience

Immersive virtual reality (VR) enables naturalistic neuroscientific studies while maintaining experimental control, but dynamic and interactive stimuli pose methodological challenges. We here probed the link between emotional arousal, a fundamental property of affective experience, and parieto-occipital alpha power under naturalistic stimulation: 37 young healthy adults completed an immersive VR experience, which included rollercoaster rides, while their EEG was recorded. They then continuously rated their subjective emotional arousal while viewing a replay of their experience. The association between emotional arousal and parieto-occipital alpha power was tested and confirmed by (1) decomposing the continuous EEG signal while maximizing the comodulation between alpha power and arousal ratings and by (2) decoding periods of high and low arousal with discriminative common spatial patterns and a long short-term memory recurrent neural network. We successfully combine EEG and a naturalistic immersive VR experience to extend previous findings on the neurophysiology of emotional arousal towards real-world neuroscience.

Artificial fairness? Trust in algorithmic police decision-making

OBJECTIVES

Test whether (1) people view a policing decision made by an algorithm as more or less trustworthy than when an officer makes the same decision; (2) people who are presented with a specific instance of algorithmic policing have greater or lesser support for the general use of algorithmic policing in general; and (3) people use trust as a heuristic through which to make sense of an unfamiliar technology like algorithmic policing.

METHODS

An online experiment tested whether different decision-making methods, outcomes and scenario types affect judgements about the appropriateness and fairness of decision-making and the general acceptability of police use of this particular technology.

RESULTS

People see a decision as less fair and less appropriate when an algorithm decides, compared to when an officer decides. Yet, perceptions of fairness and appropriateness were strong predictors of support for police use of algorithms, and being exposed to a successful use of an algorithm was linked, via trust in the decision made, to greater support for police use of algorithms.

CONCLUSIONS

Making decisions solely based on algorithms might damage trust, and the more police rely solely on algorithmic decision-making, the less trusting people may be in decisions. However, mere exposure to the successful use of algorithms seems to enhance the general acceptability of this technology.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11292-021-09484-9.