A systematic review of smell alterations after radiotherapy for head and neck cancer

Investigating oral somatosensory perception and oral symptoms of head and neck cancer patients: insights on eating behaviour

PURPOSE

Sensory alterations and oral manifestations are prevalent among head and neck cancer (HNC) patients. While taste and smell alterations have been thoroughly investigated, studies on their oral somatosensory perception remain limited. Building upon our previous publication that primarily focused on objective somatosensory measurements, the present work examined self-reported sensory perception, including somatosensation and oral symptoms, in HNC patients and evaluated their link with eating behaviour.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using self-reported questionnaires on sensory perception, oral symptoms, sensory-related food preference, and eating behaviour among HNC patients (n = 30). Hierarchical clustering analysis was performed to categorise patients based on their sensory perception. Correlations between oral symptoms score, sensory perception, sensory-related food preference, and eating behaviour were explored.

RESULTS

Two distinct sensory profiles of patients were identified: no alteration (n = 14) and alteration (n = 16) group. The alteration group showed decreased preference towards several sensory modalities, especially the somatosensory. Concerning eating behaviour, more patients in the alteration group agreed to negatively connotated statements (e.g. having food aversion and eating smaller portions), demonstrating greater eating difficulties. In addition, several oral symptoms related to salivary dysfunction were reported. These oral symptoms were correlated with sensory perception, sensory-related food preference, and eating behaviour.

CONCLUSION

This study presented evidence demonstrating that sensory alterations in HNC patients are not limited to taste and smell but cover somatosensory perception and are linked to various aspects of eating. Moreover, patients reported experiencing several oral symptoms. Those with sensory alterations and oral symptoms experienced more eating difficulties.

Oral somatosensory alterations and salivary dysfunction in head and neck cancer patients

PURPOSE

Patients with head and neck cancer (HNC) are at high risk of malnutrition due to eating difficulties partly mediated by sensory alterations and salivary dysfunction. Clinical studies have mostly focused on taste and smell alterations, while changes in oral somatosensory perception are largely understudied. The study aimed to investigate oral somatosensory (tactile, texture, chemesthetic, and thermal) responses and salivary functions of HNC patients in comparison to healthy controls.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted using psychophysical tests in HNC patients (n = 30) and in age- and gender-matched control subjects (n = 30). The tests included measurements of point-pressure tactile sensitivity, whole-mouth chemesthetic stimulation, food texture discrimination, and temperature discrimination. Salivary functions, including hydration, saliva consistency, pH, volume, and buffering capacity, were also evaluated.

RESULTS

HNC patients demonstrated significantly lower chemesthetic sensitivity (for medium and high concentrations, p < 0.05), thermal sensitivity (p = 0.038), and salivary functions (p = 0.001). There were indications of lower tactile sensitivity in the patient group (p = 0.101). Patients were also less sensitive to differences in food roughness (p = 0.003) and firmness (p = 0.025).

CONCLUSION

This study provided evidence that sensory alterations in HNC patients extend beyond their taste and smell. The measurements demonstrated lower somatosensory responses, in part associated with their reduced salivary function. Oral somatosensory alterations and salivary dysfunction may consequently impart the eating experience of HNC patients. Thus, further investigations on food adjustments for this patient group seem warranted.

Current status of sinonasal cancer survivorship care

Sinonasal cancer is a heterogeneous orphan disease of diverse histologies, each with distinct clinical, oncologic, and toxicity profiles. Because of the comparative rarity of these cancers, sinonasal cancers are treated as a grouped diagnosis despite their clinical and biological heterogeneity. Multimodality treatment with a combination of surgery, chemotherapy, and/or radiotherapy is the standard-of-care for advanced-stage patients but there are few surveillance or follow-up practice guidelines or formalized survivorship care pathways. A scoping literature review was conducted via PubMed, EMBASE, and Google Scholar. A total of 112 studies were included, which were grouped along the following topics: surveillance, second primary tumors, quality of life, and symptom burden. Sinonasal cancer tends to exhibit a higher rate of local failure and occur in a delayed fashion compared to mucosal malignancies of the head and neck. Moreover, the site of failure and time-varying risk of recurrence is histology-specific. Following multimodality treatment of the skull base, patients may experience endocrine, visual, auditory, sinonasal, olfactory, and neurocognitive deficits, as well as psychosocial impairments that impact multiple physical and neuropsychological domains, resulting in diminished quality of life. Sinonasal cancer patients would benefit from tailored, histology-specific survivorship programs to address the recurrence, second primary, and functional impairments resulting from disease and treatment toxicity.

Technological advances in protein extraction, structure improvement and assembly, digestibility and bioavailability of plant-based foods

Plant-based foods are being considered seriously to replace traditional animal-origin foods for various reasons. It is well known that animals release large amounts of greenhouse gases into the environment during feeding, and eating animal-origin foods may also cause some health problems. Moreover, animal resources will likely be in short supply as the world population grows. It is highly likely that serious health problems ascribed to insufficient protein intake in some areas of the world will occur. Studies have shown that environmentally friendly, abundant, and customizable plant-based foods can be an effective alternative to animal-based foods. However, currently, available plant-based foods lack nutrients unique to animal-based foods. Innovative processing technologies are needed to improve the nutritional value and functionality of plant-based foods and make them acceptable to a wider range of consumers. Therefore, protein extraction technologies (e.g., high-pressure extraction, ultrasound extraction, enzyme extraction, etc.), structure improvement and assembly technologies (3D printing, micro-encapsulation, etc.), and technologies to improve digestibility and utilization of bioactive substances (microbial fermentation, physical, etc.) in the field of plant-based foods processing are reviewed. The challenges of plant-based food processing technologies are summarized. The advanced technologies aim to help the food industry solve production problems using efficient, environmentally friendly, and economical processing technologies and to guide the development of plant-based foods in the future.

New standards for the management of nose vestibule malignancies

BACKGROUND

Nasal vestibule squamous cell carcinoma (NVSCC) is an ill-defined underestimated condition. Aim/objective: To define the current standard of care.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We review recent acquisitions concerning clinical features and therapeutic approaches.

RESULTS

The current AJCC staging system, which attributes to nasal vestibule the same topographic code as nasal cavity proper and the same T-classification criteria as ethmoid, appears inadequate. As for treatment of primary lesions without bone invasion, current evidence suggests that brachytherapy is at least equivalent to surgery and superior to external beams in terms of oncological outcomes, and superior to both modalities in terms of cosmesis and function.

CONCLUSIONS

As for classification and staging, the nasal vestibule should be defined as a subsite of the nose and paranasal sinuses, distinct from the 'nasal cavity proper and ethmoid', with specific topographic code and T-classification criteria. This will improve the assessment of prognosis and prevalence, underestimated also because of misdiagnosis with skin cancers. Secondly, brachytherapy should become the new standard for the treatment of primary lesions without bone invasion. To optimize the advantages of brachytherapy, we propose novel anatomic criteria for the implantation. Significance: Increasing evidence supports a paradigm shift in staging and treatment of NVSCC.

Oral Somatosensory Alterations in Head and Neck Cancer Patients-An Overview of the Evidence and Causes

Food-related sensory alterations are prevalent among cancer patients and negatively impact their relationship with food, quality of life, and overall health outcome. In addition to taste and smell, food perception is also influenced by somatosensation comprising tactile, thermal, and chemesthetic sensations; yet studies on oral somatosensory perception of cancer patients are lacking to provide patients with tailored nutritional solutions. The present review aimed to summarise findings on the oral somatosensory perception of head and neck cancer (HNC) patients and the potential aetiologies of somatosensory alterations among this population. Subjective assessments demonstrated alterations in oral somatosensory perception such as sensitivity to certain textures, spices, and temperatures. Physiological changes in oral somatosensation have been observed through objective assessments of sensory function, showing reduced localised tactile function and thermal sensitivity. Changes in whole-mouth tactile sensation assessed using texture discrimination and stereognosis ability seem to be less evident. Available evidence indicated oral somatosensory alterations among HNC patients, which may affect their eating behaviour, but more studies with larger sample sizes and standardised assessment methods are needed. Unlike other types of cancers, sensory alterations in HNC patients are not only caused by the treatments, but also by the cancer itself, although the exact mechanism is not fully understood. Prevalent oral complications, such as xerostomia, dysphagia, mucositis, and chemosensory alterations, further modify their oral condition and food perception. Oral somatosensory perception of cancer patients is an under-investigated topic, which constitutes an important avenue for future research due to its potential significance on eating behaviour and quality of life.

Sinonasal Side Effects of Chemotherapy and/or Radiation Therapy for Head and Neck Cancer: A Literature Review

Radiotherapy and chemotherapy represent important treatment modalities for head and neck cancer. Rhinosinusitis and smell alterations are common side effects in the sinonasal region. This review will summarize and analyze our current knowledge of the sinonasal side effects of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy for head and neck cancer (HNC), with a specific focus on mucosal and olfactory disorders. A review of the English literature was performed using several databases (PubMed, Embase, Cochrane, Scopus). Fifty-six articles were included in qualitative synthesis: 28 assessed mucosal disorders (rhinitis or rhinosinusitis), 26 evaluated olfactory alterations, and 2 articles addressed both topics. The incidence and severity of olfactory dysfunction and chronic rhinosinusitis were highest at the end of radiotherapy and at three months after treatment and decreased gradually over time. Smell acuity deterioration and chronic rhinosinusitis seemed to be related to radiation dose on olfactory area and nasal cavities, but different degrees of recovery were observed. In conclusion, it is important to establish the severity of chronic rhinosinusitis and olfactory dysfunction in order to find strategies to support patients and improve their quality of life.

Taste and smell function in long-term survivors after childhood medulloblastoma/CNS-PNET

Purpose

To investigate taste and smell function in survivors, with a minimum of 2 years since treatment of childhood medulloblastoma (MB)/central nervous system supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumor (CNS-PNET).

Methods

This cross-sectional study included 40 survivors treated ≤ 20 years of age. Taste strips with four concentrations of sweet, sour, salt, and bitter were used to assess taste function in all participants. Score from 0 to 16; ≥ 9 normogeusia, < 9 hypogeusia, and complete ageusia which equals no sensation. No sensation of a specific taste quality equals ageusia of that quality. Thirty-two participants conducted smell testing using three subtests of Sniffin’ sticks: threshold, discrimination, and identification. Together they yield a TDI-score from 1 to 48; functional anosmia ≤ 16.00, hyposmia > 16.00– < 30.75, normosmia ≥ 30.75– < 41.50, and ≥ 41.50 hyperosmia. Results were compared with normative data. Survivors rated their taste and smell function using a numerical rating scale (NRS) score 0–10.

Results

Forty survivors with a mean time since treatment of 20.5 years, 13 (32.5%) were diagnosed with hypogeusia, nine (22.5%) of these being ageusic to one or more taste qualities. Seventeen (53%) of 32 participants were diagnosed with hyposmia. The mean scores of the olfactory subtests, and TDI score were significantly lower than normative data (P < 0.0001). The mean NRS scores of smell and taste function were 7.9 ± 1.5 and 8 ± 1.3, respectively.

Conclusion

Our study showed impaired taste and smell function in survivors of childhood MB/CNS-PNET using objective measurements. However, subjective ratings did not reflect objective findings.

Supplementary information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00520-022-07048-9.

International consensus statement on allergy and rhinology: Olfaction

BACKGROUND

The literature regarding clinical olfaction, olfactory loss, and olfactory dysfunction has expanded rapidly over the past two decades, with an exponential rise in the past year. There is substantial variability in the quality of this literature and a need to consolidate and critically review the evidence. It is with that aim that we have gathered experts from around the world to produce this International Consensus on Allergy and Rhinology: Olfaction (ICAR:O).

METHODS

Using previously described methodology, specific topics were developed relating to olfaction. Each topic was assigned a literature review, evidence-based review, or evidence-based review with recommendations format as dictated by available evidence and scope within the ICAR:O document. Following iterative reviews of each topic, the ICAR:O document was integrated and reviewed by all authors for final consensus.

RESULTS

The ICAR:O document reviews nearly 100 separate topics within the realm of olfaction, including diagnosis, epidemiology, disease burden, diagnosis, testing, etiology, treatment, and associated pathologies.

CONCLUSION

This critical review of the existing clinical olfaction literature provides much needed insight and clarity into the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with olfactory dysfunction, while also clearly delineating gaps in our knowledge and evidence base that we should investigate further.

Thermoresponsive semi-interpenetrating gelatin-alginate networks for encapsulation and controlled release of scent molecules

Plant-based meats, which are nutritious foods from non-animal sources, provide clues for addressing the negative externalities associated with conventional meat production. Interest in plant-based meat has increased and is driving the rapid growth of its market. Plant-based meat should be equipped with a temperature-dependent scent release system similar to the scent release mechanism of conventional meat, to deliver a desirable meat-like flavor to consumers and obtain higher market acceptance. In this study, we prepared thermoresponsive gelatin-alginate hybrid hydrogels to control the release of scent molecules. The polymer network of gelatin-alginate hydrogels was reinforced by a semi-interpenetrating network (sIPN). sIPN formation conferred resistance to external stimuli, such as shear force, swelling, and temperature, resulting in a sustained release of the meat scent. In addition, controlled size microcapsules fabricated from the same composition via an electrostatic extrusion process showed a sustained release pattern of the loaded scent at 70 °C, and the scent release rate was precisely controlled within an approximately 2-fold range by adjusting the alginate concentration. These observations suggest the potential use of edible biological macromolecules as food additives that can control the release of scent molecules from the plant-based meat during cooking.

Engineered Bacteria for Enhanced Radiotherapy against Breast Carcinoma

Radiotherapy is widely applied for multiple malignant tumors ablation in the clinic. However, redundant doses of X-rays might destroy normal tissue in the periphery of tumor sites. Here, we developed an integrated nanosystem (Bac@BNP) composed of engineered bacteria (Bac) and Bi₂S₃ nanoparticles (BNPs) for sensitizing radiotherapy. Bac could target and colonize in tumor sites alternatively, which overexpressed cytolysin A (ClyA) protein to regulate the cell cycle from a radioresistant phase to a radiosensitive phase. Simultaneously, peptide-modified BNPs, as a radiosensitizer with a high-Z element, was released from the surface of Bac owing to the matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) response in the tumor microenvironment. Under X-ray irradiation, BNPs could enhance the radiotherapy sensitivity by triggering the intracellular generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), coupled with DNA damage. In this constructed nanosystem, the combination of Bac@BNP and X-ray irradiation led to significant suppression of breast carcinoma in murine models with reduced side effects.

Multidisciplinary approach to nose vestibule malignancies: setting new standards

Nose vestibule malignancies, mainly SCCs, are considered rare neoplasms. In the present paper, we review the current state of the art concerning classification and treatment, and describe current evidence supporting a paradigm shift. In the current AJCC classification nose vestibule is considered part of nasal cavity/ethmoid. In daily clinical practice, nose vestibule lesions are often misclassified as skin primaries. This leads to an underestimation of the real incidence and to a mis-management. When nose vestibule primaries are correctly classified as nose primaries, the current AJCC TNM appears inadequate for prognostic stratification and an old staging system described 4 decades ago by Wang has been demonstrated to be more reliable in the literature and is preferred in centers with the largest volume of cases treated. The principles of Wang classification should be applied and nose vestibule acknowledged as a new distinct subsite of nose and paranasal sinuses by the AJCC/UICC. Surgery, External Beam RadioTherapy (EBRT) and Interventional RadioTherapy (IRT, BrachyTherapy BT) are the current therapeutic options for nose vestibule (NV) SCC. Increasing evidence demonstrates that IRT, with a proper multidisciplinary approach, is at least equivalent to surgery and EBRT for treatment of the primary lesions in terms of oncological outcomes, but markedly superior in terms of cosmetic and functional results, supporting HDR (high dose rate) IRT as the new standard for the treatment of the primary lesion in these malignancies. To optimize the advantages of IRT as primary therapeutic modality we set up a new approach to the implantation phase of IRT exploiting the anatomic planes of esthetic and functional nose surgery and the potential of intensity modulated and image guided brachytherapy to avoid septal and alar perforation (anatomic implantation).

Anosmia but Not Ageusia as a COVID-19-Related Symptom among Cancer Patients-First Results from the PAPESCO-19 Cohort Study

Background: Cancer patients may fail to distinguish COVID-19 symptoms such as anosmia, dysgeusia/ageusia, anorexia, headache, and fatigue, which are frequent after cancer treatments. We aimed to identify symptoms associated with COVID-19 and to assess the strength of their association in cancer and cancer-free populations. Methods: The multicenter cohort study PAPESCO-19 included 878 cancer patients and 940 healthcare workers (HCWs). At baseline and quarterly thereafter, they reported the presence or absence of 13 COVID-19 symptoms observed over 3 months and the results of routine screening RT-PCR, and they were systematically tested for SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. We identified the symptom combinations significantly associated with COVID-19. Results: Eight percent of cancer patients were COVID-19 positive, and 32% were symptomatic. Among the HCWs, these proportions were 9.5 and 52%, respectively. Anosmia, anorexia, fever, headache, and rhinorrhea together accurately discriminated (c-statistic = 0.7027) COVID-19 cases from cancer patients. Anosmia, dysgeusia/ageusia, muscle pain, intense fatigue, headache, and chest pain better discriminated (c-statistic = 0.8830) COVID-19 cases among the HCWs. Anosmia had the strongest association in both the cancer patients (OR = 7.48, 95% CI: 2.96-18.89) and HCWs (OR = 5.71, 95% CI: 2.21-14.75). Conclusions: COVID-19 symptoms and their diagnostic performance differ in the cancer patients and HCWs. Anosmia is associated with COVID-19 in cancer patients, while dysgeusia/ageusia is not. Cancer patients deserve tailored preventive measures due to their particular COVID-19 symptom pattern.

Molecular and Neural Mechanism of Dysphagia Due to Cancer

Cancer is one of the most common causes of death worldwide. Along with the advances in diagnostic technology achieved through industry–academia partnerships, the survival rate of cancer patients has improved dramatically through treatments that include surgery, radiation therapy, and pharmacotherapy. This has increased the population of cancer “survivors” and made cancer survivorship an important part of life for patients. The senses of taste and smell during swallowing and cachexia play important roles in dysphagia associated with nutritional disorders in cancer patients. Cancerous lesions in the brain can cause dysphagia. Taste and smell disorders that contribute to swallowing can worsen or develop because of pharmacotherapy or radiation therapy; metabolic or central nervous system damage due to cachexia, sarcopenia, or inflammation can also cause dysphagia. As the causes of eating disorders in cancer patients are complex and involve multiple factors, cancer patients require a multifaceted and long-term approach by the medical care team.

Taste and Smell Function in Head and Neck Cancer Survivors

Survivors of head and neck squamous cell cancers (HNSCC) frequently complain of taste dysfunction long after radiation therapy is completed, which contradicts findings from most sensory evaluation studies that predict dysfunction should resolve few months after treatment. Therefore, it remains unclear whether taste and smell function fully recovers in HNSCC survivors. We evaluated HNSCC survivors (n = 40; age 63 ± 12 years, mean ± standard deviation) who received radiation therapy between 6 months and 10 years before recruitment and compared their responses to those of a healthy control group (n = 20) equivalent in age, sex, race, smoking history, and body mass index. We assessed regional (tongue tip) and whole-mouth taste intensity perception using the general Labeled Magnitude Scale and smell function using the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT). To determine possible differences between groups in retronasal smell perception, we used solutions of sucrose with strawberry extract, citric acid with lemon extract, sodium chloride in vegetable broth, and caffeine in coffee and asked participants to rate perceived smell and taste intensities with and without nose clips. We found groups had similar UPSIT and taste intensity scores when solutions were experienced in the whole mouth. However, HNSCC survivors were less likely to identify low concentrations of bitter, sweet, or salty stimuli in the tongue tip relative to healthy controls. Our findings suggest persistent and subtle localized damage to the chorda tympani or to the taste buds in the fungiform papillae of HNSCC survivors, which could explain their sensory complaints long after completion of radiotherapy.

The effects of zinc on radiation-induced dysgeusia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Many head and neck cancer patients who receive radiation therapy experience radiation-induced dysgeusia (RID), which has no standard treatment. The only supplement controlled clinical trials have evaluated for the treatment of RID is zinc. However, the results of these and other studies investigating the use of zinc for RID have been inconsistent. To assess the validity of zinc as a treatment for RID, we conducted a systematic literature search and performed a meta-analysis to determine the extent to which zinc affects RID incidence and the degree to which ongoing RID responds to zinc.

METHODS

We searched the Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid Embase, PubMed, and Cochrane Library databases to identify studies investigating the use of zinc-based therapy for RID in head and neck cancer patients treated with radiation that were published between January 1, 2003, and November 9, 2017. Using American Society of Clinical Oncology criteria, we selected studies with a high level of evidence for inclusion in the meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Of the 32 full-text articles eligible for inclusion, three were included in the final review and meta-analysis. The meta-analysis showed that, compared with placebo, zinc reduces the incidence of RID (risk ratio, 0.72; 95% confidence interval, 0.67-0.92) but does not improve taste acuity more rapidly following radiation therapy (risk ratio, 2.58; 95% confidence interval, 0.97-6.88).

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that zinc-based therapy reduces the incidence of RID but has a minimal effect on ongoing RID. Our findings also highlight the need for additional evidence-based research on this topic.

Radiation-induced neuropathies in head and neck cancer: prevention and treatment modalities

Head and neck cancer (HNC) is the sixth most common human malignancy with a global incidence of 650,000 cases per year. Radiotherapy (RT) is commonly used as an effective therapy to treat tumours as a definitive or adjuvant treatment. Despite the substantial advances in RT contouring and dosage delivery, patients suffer from various radiation-induced complications, among which are toxicities to the nervous tissues in the head and neck area. Radiation-mediated neuropathies manifest as a result of increased oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis, neuroinflammation and altered cellular function in the nervous tissues. Eventually, molecular damage results in the formation of fibrotic tissues leading to susceptible loss of function of numerous neuronal substructures. Neuropathic sequelae following irradiation in the head and neck area include sensorineural hearing loss, alterations in taste and smell functions along with brachial plexopathy, and cranial nerves palsies. Numerous management options are available to relieve radiation-associated neurotoxicities notwithstanding treatment alternatives that remain restricted with limited benefits. In the scope of this review, we discuss the use of variable management and therapeutic modalities to palliate common radiation-induced neuropathies in head and neck cancers.

Functional results of exclusive interventional radiotherapy (brachytherapy) in the treatment of nasal vestibule carcinomas

PURPOSE

Surgery, external beam radiotherapy (EBRT), and interventional radiotherapy (IRT, BrachyTherapy BT) are the current therapeutic options for nose vestibule (NV) squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). In this article, we evaluate the nose functional parameters of patients affected by SCCs of the NV, primarily treated by interstitial IRT comparing them with healthy controls and with patients treated with intensity-modulated EBRT.

METHODS

Ten patients treated by using IRT (group 1), 10 healthy controls and eight patients treated by EBRT (group 2) on the region of the nose were submitted to clinical evaluation (with the NOSE scale score), rhinomanometry, olfactory testing, nasal citology, and evaluation of mucociliary clearance through saccharine test.

RESULTS

No long-term skin or cartilaginous toxicity are recorded. The olfactometry threshold discrimination identification TDI is lower in EB group. The mean NOSE scale score was significantly higher in group 2 than in group 1 and healthy controls (p < 0.05). The distribution of cytologic patterns resulted significantly different as well. Patients treated by EB have a significantly impaired mucociliary clearance, with a mean time for the transport of the stained marker, which is more than double in the patients treated by EB than in those treated with IRT (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Nasal function and cytological findings are significantly better, substantially preserved, in patients treated by IRT than in those treated by EBRT, bringing new relevant evidence for the establishment of interstitial IRT as the new standard for the treatment of the primary lesion in cT1 and cT2 -Wang staging NV SCCs.

A multidimensional cohort study of late toxicity after intensity modulated radiotherapy for sinonasal cancer

PURPOSE

To evaluate the occurrence of late toxicity after curatively intended intensity modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) for sinonasal cancer and assess dose-response associations.

METHODS

Patients treated with IMRT in 2008-2016 were included. Cross sectional examinations of toxicity from the optic pathway, the brain, the pituitary gland and the nose were performed along with quality of life - (QoL) and dose-response analyses.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven patients were enrolled; median age was 67 years (range 47-83). Five patients (19%) had radiation-related ocular toxicity. The risk of visual acuity impairment increased with increasing dose (grade 2 odds ration (OR) 1.12, p = 0.01; grade 3 OR 1.14, p = 0.02) and dose constraint violations (grade 2, OR = 21, p < 0.01; grade 3, OR = 41, p < 0.01). Six patients (22%) exhibited evidence of radiation-related hypopituitarism, but no dose-response association was detected. Seventeen patients (63%) had impaired olfactory function. The risk of olfactory impairment increased with higher stage (OR = 3.32, p = 0.03). Three patients (11%) had structural abnormalities in irradiated areas of the brain, and impaired cognitive function was present in 17 patients (63%). Cognitive, physical, role functioning as well as fatigue and insomnia were affected the most in QOL analyses. Fifteen patients (56%) had grade 2 radiation-related impairment in at least one organ. Grade 3 toxicity was only present in patients with toxicities in >3 organs and in patients initially treated for T4 tumours. Three patients (11%) had radiation-related impaired function in all examined OARs.

CONCLUSION

Late toxicity after radiotherapy was substantial in all examined organs, with dose-response associations between visual acuity impairment and the optic nerve. The results have led to changed praxis for follow-up examinations in Denmark.

Prospective assessment of gustatory function after radiotherapy for head and neck cancers

BACKGROUND

Taste disorders are major causes of morbidity in patients undergoing head and neck irradiation. We quantitatively assessed the gustatory function of patients with head and neck cancers who underwent radiotherapy using recently developed standardised tools for measuring taste.

METHODS

Twenty patients undergoing head and neck irradiation responded to a specific questionnaire and were assessed by olfactory and gustatory function tests. To assess changes over time, testing was performed before, immediately after, and at 2- and 4-week intervals following the start of radiotherapy. Concurrently, patients were evaluated for xerostomia from radiotherapy.

RESULTS

A decrease in the taste recognition threshold was observed in the second week after the beginning of radiotherapy. The taste detection threshold improved within the 14th-18th week. Most affected patients demonstrated that their gustatory function primarily decreased independent of the olfactory function. Disturbances in taste were exponentially worsened beyond an accumulated dose of 30 Gy and involved all tastants. According to a multivariate analysis, radiation-induced taste impairment was not influenced by the degree of xerostomia. However, there was an association between the dose of irradiation and the severity of taste disturbance.

CONCLUSIONS

In this preliminary study, we found that the taste function was worse 2 weeks after the start of radiotherapy and returned to pretreatment levels within 4.5 months. Taste disturbances were exponentially worse beyond an accumulated dose of 20 Gy. Taste dysfunction after radiotherapy was not influenced by the degree of xerostomia, whereas only the dose of irradiation was associated with the severity of taste dysfunction.

Radiation-Induced Rhinitis: Cytological and Olfactory Changes

BACKGROUND

Oral mucositis is a well-known adverse event of radiotherapy (RT) for head and neck cancer (HNC). Its nasal counterpart, the radiation-induced rhinitis, is poorly studied and considered in clinical practice.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this observational study was to evaluate acute cytological and olfactory alterations during RT and their correlation with RT doses.

METHODS

Ten patients who underwent RT for HNC, excluding tumors of the nasal cavities, were evaluated with nasal scraping for cytological examination, Sniffin' Sticks test for olfactory assessment, and Nasal Obstruction Symptom Evaluation scale. The examinations were performed before (T0), at mid-course (T1), and at the end (T2) of RT. They were repeated 1 and 3 months after RT (T3 and T4). Mean dose (D_mean) and near maximum dose (D_2%) to nasal cavities and inferior turbinates were used for correlation analyses.

RESULTS

Radiation-induced rhinitis was present in 70% of patients at T2, and it was still observed in 40% of cases after 3 months. Although olfactory function remained within the normal range at the evaluated times, a significant decrease in odor threshold and discrimination was observed during RT, which returned to baseline levels after RT. Nasal cytology showed a radiation-induced rhinitis with neutrophils and sometimes bacteria. Mucous and squamous cell metaplasia appeared in 10% of patients. D_mean and D_2% to inferior turbinates were associated to neutrophilic rhinitis at T2, and D_2% to inferior turbinates was correlated to mucous cell metaplasia at T2.

CONCLUSIONS

RT for HNC induces acute rhinitis that may persist after the completion of treatment and can affect patient's quality of life. Nasal cytology can help to choose the best treatment on an individual basis.

Dysphagia and Oral Morbidities in Chemoradiation-Treated Head and Neck Cancer Patients

This study prospectively evaluated relationships between oral morbidities and swallowing ability in head/neck cancer patients following chemoradiation therapy (CRT) and at 3 months following CRT. Thirty patients with confirmed head/neck cancer undergoing chemoradiation were assessed with a battery of swallowing measures and measures of oral morbidities related to chemoradiation (xerostomia, mucositis, pain, taste/smell, oral moisture). All measures were completed at baseline (within the first week of CRT), at 6 weeks (end of treatment), and at 3 months following chemoradiation. Descriptive and univariate statistics were used to depict change over time in swallowing and each oral morbidity. Correlation analyses evaluated relationships between swallowing function and oral morbidities at each time point. Most measures demonstrated significant negative change at 6 weeks with incomplete recovery at 3 months. At 6 weeks, mucositis ratings, xerostomia, and retronasal smell intensity demonstrated significant inverse relationships with swallowing function. In addition, oral moisture levels demonstrated significant positive relationships with swallowing function. At 3 months, mucositis ratings maintained a significant, inverse relationship with swallow function. Taste and both orthonasal and retronasal smell intensity ratings demonstrated inverse relationships with measures of swallow function. Swallow functions and oral morbidities deteriorate significantly following CRT with incomplete recovery at 3 months post treatment. Furthermore, different patterns of relationships between swallow function measures and oral morbidities were obtained at the 6-week versus the 3-month assessment point suggesting that different mechanisms may contribute to the development versus the maintenance of dysphagia over the trajectory of treatment in these patients.