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Marano M, Todisco A, Fattori S, Valente MS, Di Loreto MV, Fantozzi IC, Albergo G, Nusca A, Napoli N, Di Lazzaro V. Combining conventional and smartphone technologies to evaluate the psychomotor status in chronic malnutrition: A cross-sectional pilot study in sub-Saharan Africa. J Clin Neurosci 2024; 125:141-145. [PMID: 38810411 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2024.05.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2024] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Malnutrition remains a pressing health concern in developing nations, contributing to growth delay (stunting) and psychomotor impairments among the youth. Tanzania has the highest prevalence of stunting, yet the psychomotor status of its population has not been previously studied. To address this gap, we gathered anthropometric, nutritional, and psychomotor data from 211 children with the aim of assessing the reliability of digital tools as indicators of psychomotor performance in relation to the nutritional status. Collected anthropometric measures included middle-upper arm circumference (MUAC), triceps skinfold thickness (TST), and handgrip strength, while psychomotor variables were assessed using digital finger tapping test (DFTT), eye-tracking test (ETT), and nine-hole peg test (9HPT). Statistical analysis revealed significant associations between age and both MUAC and handgrip strength (R = 0.5, p < 0.001). Moreover, DFTT and 9HPT demonstrated a correlation with each other (p = 0.026) and with MUAC, handgrip strength, and age (p < 0.001). Notably, lower stature was independently linked to slower horizontal eye movements (p < 0.001). Findings underscores the crucial link between nutrition and psychomotor skills in Tanzanian children. Digital tests like DFTT, ETT, and the 9HPT show promise for assessing psychomotor performance. Addressing malnutrition requires comprehensive interventions. Future research should explore long-term effects of interventions in resource-limited settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Marano
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Roma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, and Psychiatry, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Roma, Italy.
| | - Antonio Todisco
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Roma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, and Psychiatry, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Roma, Italy
| | - Silvia Fattori
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Maria Stella Valente
- Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Roma, Italy
| | | | - Italo Cesidio Fantozzi
- Department of Enterprise Engineering, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Via del Politecnico, 1, 00133 Rome, Italy
| | - Giuliano Albergo
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Roma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, and Psychiatry, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Roma, Italy
| | - Annunziata Nusca
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Roma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, Unit of Cardiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Roma, Italy
| | - Nicola Napoli
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Roma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, Research Unit of Endocrinology and Diabetes, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Lazzaro
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 200, 00128 Roma, Italy; Department of Medicine and Surgery, Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, and Psychiatry, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Via Alvaro del Portillo, 21, 00128 Roma, Italy
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Hagihara H, Zaadnoordijk L, Cusack R, Kimura N, Tsuji S. Exploration of factors affecting webcam-based automated gaze coding. Behav Res Methods 2024:10.3758/s13428-024-02424-1. [PMID: 38693440 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-024-02424-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Online experiments have been transforming the field of behavioral research, enabling researchers to increase sample sizes, access diverse populations, lower the costs of data collection, and promote reproducibility. The field of developmental psychology increasingly exploits such online testing approaches. Since infants cannot give explicit behavioral responses, one key outcome measure is infants' gaze behavior. In the absence of automated eyetrackers in participants' homes, automatic gaze classification from webcam data would make it possible to avoid painstaking manual coding. However, the lack of a controlled experimental environment may lead to various noise factors impeding automatic face detection or gaze classification. We created an adult webcam dataset that systematically reproduced noise factors from infant webcam studies which might affect automated gaze coding accuracy. We varied participants' left-right offset, distance to the camera, facial rotation, and the direction of the lighting source. Running two state-of-the-art classification algorithms (iCatcher+ and OWLET) revealed that facial detection performance was particularly affected by the lighting source, while gaze coding accuracy was consistently affected by the distance to the camera and lighting source. Morphing participants' faces to be unidentifiable did not generally affect the results, suggesting facial anonymization could be used when making online video data publicly available, for purposes of further study and transparency. Our findings will guide improving study design for infant and adult participants during online experiments. Moreover, training algorithms using our dataset will allow researchers to improve robustness and allow developmental psychologists to leverage online testing more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiromichi Hagihara
- Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University 1-2 Yamadaoka, Suita-shi Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
- International Research Center for Neurointelligence (WPI-IRCN), The University of Tokyo Institutes for Advanced Study, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan.
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, 5-3-1 Kojimachi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 102-0083, Japan.
- The Institute for AI and Beyond, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan.
| | - Lorijn Zaadnoordijk
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Rhodri Cusack
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience and School of Psychology, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Nanako Kimura
- Graduate School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Sho Tsuji
- International Research Center for Neurointelligence (WPI-IRCN), The University of Tokyo Institutes for Advanced Study, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0033, Japan
- The Institute for AI and Beyond, The University of Tokyo, 2-11-16, Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0032, Japan
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3
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Fu X, Platt E, Shic F, Bradshaw J. Infant Social Attention Associated with Elevated Likelihood for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Multi-Method Comparison. J Autism Dev Disord 2024:10.1007/s10803-024-06360-z. [PMID: 38678515 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-024-06360-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The study aimed to compare eye tracking (ET) and manual coding (MC) measures of attention to social and nonsocial information in infants with elevated familial likelihood (EL) of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and low likelihood of ASD (LL). ET provides a temporally and spatially sensitive tool for measuring gaze allocation. Existing evidence suggests that ET is a promising tool for detecting distinct social attention patterns that may serve as a biomarker for ASD. However, ET is prone to data loss, especially in young EL infants. METHODS To increase evidence for ET as a viable tool for capturing atypical social attention in EL infants, the current prospective, longitudinal study obtained ET and MC measures of social and nonsocial attention in 25 EL and 47 LL infants at several time points between 3 and 24 months of age. RESULTS ET data was obtained with a satisfactory success rate of 95.83%, albeit with a higher degree of data loss compared to MC. Infant age and ASD likelihood status did not impact the extent of ET or MC data loss. There was a significant positive association between the ET and MC measures of attention, and separate analyses of attention using ET and AC measures yielded comparable findings. These analyses indicated group differences (EL vs. LL) in age-related change in attention to social vs. nonsocial information. CONCLUSION Together, the findings support infant ET as a promising approach for identifying very early markers associated with ASD likelihood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxue Fu
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA.
| | - Emma Platt
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica Bradshaw
- Department of Psychology, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
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Valtakari NV, Hessels RS, Niehorster DC, Viktorsson C, Nyström P, Falck-Ytter T, Kemner C, Hooge ITC. A field test of computer-vision-based gaze estimation in psychology. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:1900-1915. [PMID: 37101100 PMCID: PMC10990994 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02125-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Computer-vision-based gaze estimation refers to techniques that estimate gaze direction directly from video recordings of the eyes or face without the need for an eye tracker. Although many such methods exist, their validation is often found in the technical literature (e.g., computer science conference papers). We aimed to (1) identify which computer-vision-based gaze estimation methods are usable by the average researcher in fields such as psychology or education, and (2) evaluate these methods. We searched for methods that do not require calibration and have clear documentation. Two toolkits, OpenFace and OpenGaze, were found to fulfill these criteria. First, we present an experiment where adult participants fixated on nine stimulus points on a computer screen. We filmed their face with a camera and processed the recorded videos with OpenFace and OpenGaze. We conclude that OpenGaze is accurate and precise enough to be used in screen-based experiments with stimuli separated by at least 11 degrees of gaze angle. OpenFace was not sufficiently accurate for such situations but can potentially be used in sparser environments. We then examined whether OpenFace could be used with horizontally separated stimuli in a sparse environment with infant participants. We compared dwell measures based on OpenFace estimates to the same measures based on manual coding. We conclude that OpenFace gaze estimates may potentially be used with measures such as relative total dwell time to sparse, horizontally separated areas of interest, but should not be used to draw conclusions about measures such as dwell duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niilo V Valtakari
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Charlotte Viktorsson
- Development and Neurodiversity Lab, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Pär Nyström
- Uppsala Child and Baby Lab, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Terje Falck-Ytter
- Development and Neurodiversity Lab, Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- Karolinska Institutet Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chantal Kemner
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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5
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Hagenaar DA, Bindels-de Heus KGCB, van Gils MM, van den Berg L, Ten Hoopen LW, Affourtit P, Pel JJM, Joosten KFM, Hillegers MHJ, Moll HA, de Wit MCY, Dieleman GC, Mous SE. Outcome measures in Angelman syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2024; 16:6. [PMID: 38429713 PMCID: PMC10905876 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-024-09516-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Angelman syndrome (AS) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by severe intellectual disability, little to no expressive speech, visual and motor problems, emotional/behavioral challenges, and a tendency towards hyperphagia and weight gain. The characteristics of AS make it difficult to measure these children's functioning with standard clinical tests. Feasible outcome measures are needed to measure current functioning and change over time, in clinical practice and clinical trials. AIM Our first aim is to assess the feasibility of several functional tests. We target domains of neurocognitive functioning and physical growth using the following measurement methods: eye-tracking, functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), indirect calorimetry, bio-impedance analysis (BIA), and BOD POD (air-displacement plethysmography). Our second aim is to explore the results of the above measures, in order to better understand the AS phenotype. METHODS The study sample consisted of 28 children with AS aged 2-18 years. We defined an outcome measure as feasible when (1) at least 70% of participants successfully finished the measurement and (2) at least 60% of those participants had acceptable data quality. Adaptations to the test procedure and reasons for early termination were noted. Parents rated acceptability and importance and were invited to make recommendations to increase feasibility. The results of the measures were explored. RESULTS Outcome measures obtained with eye-tracking and BOD POD met the definition of feasibility, while fNIRS, indirect calorimetry, and BIA did not. The most important reasons for early termination of measurements were showing signs of protest, inability to sit still and poor/no calibration (eye-tracking specific). Post-calibration was often applied to obtain valid eye-tracking results. Parents rated the BOD POD als most acceptable and fNIRS as least acceptable for their child. All outcome measures were rated to be important. Exploratory results indicated longer reaction times to high salient visual stimuli (eye-tracking) as well as high body fat percentage (BOD POD). CONCLUSIONS Eye-tracking and BOD POD are feasible measurement methods for children with AS. Eye-tracking was successfully used to assess visual orienting functions in the current study and (with some practical adaptations) can potentially be used to assess other outcomes as well. BOD POD was successfully used to examine body composition. TRIAL REGISTRATION Registered d.d. 23-04-2020 under number 'NL8550' in the Dutch Trial Register: https://onderzoekmetmensen.nl/en/trial/23075.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doesjka A Hagenaar
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
- Department of Child- and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
- Department of Paediatrics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Karen G C B Bindels-de Heus
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Paediatrics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maud M van Gils
- Vestibular and Oculomotor Research Group, Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Louise van den Berg
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Child- and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Leontine W Ten Hoopen
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Child- and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Philine Affourtit
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Dietetics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Johan J M Pel
- Vestibular and Oculomotor Research Group, Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Koen F M Joosten
- Division of Pediatric ICU, Department of Neonatal and Pediatric ICU, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Manon H J Hillegers
- Department of Child- and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henriëtte A Moll
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Paediatrics, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Marie-Claire Y de Wit
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Neurology and Paediatric Neurology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gwen C Dieleman
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Child- and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sabine E Mous
- ENCORE Expertise Centre for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Child- and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Zeng G, Simpson EA, Paukner A. Maximizing valid eye-tracking data in human and macaque infants by optimizing calibration and adjusting areas of interest. Behav Res Methods 2024; 56:881-907. [PMID: 36890330 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-02056-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 03/10/2023]
Abstract
Remote eye tracking with automated corneal reflection provides insights into the emergence and development of cognitive, social, and emotional functions in human infants and non-human primates. However, because most eye-tracking systems were designed for use in human adults, the accuracy of eye-tracking data collected in other populations is unclear, as are potential approaches to minimize measurement error. For instance, data quality may differ across species or ages, which are necessary considerations for comparative and developmental studies. Here we examined how the calibration method and adjustments to areas of interest (AOIs) of the Tobii TX300 changed the mapping of fixations to AOIs in a cross-species longitudinal study. We tested humans (N = 119) at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 14 months of age and macaques (Macaca mulatta; N = 21) at 2 weeks, 3 weeks, and 6 months of age. In all groups, we found improvement in the proportion of AOI hits detected as the number of successful calibration points increased, suggesting calibration approaches with more points may be advantageous. Spatially enlarging and temporally prolonging AOIs increased the number of fixation-AOI mappings, suggesting improvements in capturing infants' gaze behaviors; however, these benefits varied across age groups and species, suggesting different parameters may be ideal, depending on the population studied. In sum, to maximize usable sessions and minimize measurement error, eye-tracking data collection and extraction approaches may need adjustments for the age groups and species studied. Doing so may make it easier to standardize and replicate eye-tracking research findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangyu Zeng
- Department of Psychology, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA
| | | | - Annika Paukner
- Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
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Huang Z, Duan X, Zhu G, Zhang S, Wang R, Wang Z. Assessing the data quality of AdHawk MindLink eye-tracking glasses. Behav Res Methods 2024:10.3758/s13428-023-02310-2. [PMID: 38168041 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02310-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Most commercially available eye-tracking devices rely on video cameras and image processing algorithms to track gaze. Despite this, emerging technologies are entering the field, making high-speed, cameraless eye-tracking more accessible. In this study, a series of tests were conducted to compare the data quality of MEMS-based eye-tracking glasses (AdHawk MindLink) with three widely used camera-based eye-tracking devices (EyeLink Portable Duo, Tobii Pro Glasses 2, and SMI Eye Tracking Glasses 2). The data quality measures assessed in these tests included accuracy, precision, data loss, and system latency. The results suggest that, overall, the data quality of the eye-tracking glasses was lower compared to that of a desktop EyeLink Portable Duo eye-tracker. Among the eye-tracking glasses, the accuracy and precision of the MindLink eye-tracking glasses were either higher or on par with those of Tobii Pro Glasses 2 and SMI Eye Tracking Glasses 2. The system latency of MindLink was approximately 9 ms, significantly lower than that of camera-based eye-tracking devices found in VR goggles. These results suggest that the MindLink eye-tracking glasses show promise for research applications where high sampling rates and low latency are preferred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zehao Huang
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Rd., Hangzhou, 310028, China
| | - Xiaoting Duan
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Rd., Hangzhou, 310028, China
| | - Gancheng Zhu
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Rd., Hangzhou, 310028, China
| | - Shuai Zhang
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Rd., Hangzhou, 310028, China
| | - Rong Wang
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Rd., Hangzhou, 310028, China
| | - Zhiguo Wang
- Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, 148 Tianmushan Rd., Hangzhou, 310028, China.
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Bradshaw J, Fu X, Yurkovic-Harding J, Abney D. Infant embodied attention in context: Feasibility of home-based head-mounted eye tracking in early infancy. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2023; 64:101299. [PMID: 37748360 PMCID: PMC10522938 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2023.101299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Social communication emerges from dynamic, embodied social interactions during which infants coordinate attention to caregivers and objects. Yet many studies of infant attention are constrained to a laboratory setting, neglecting how attention is nested within social contexts where caregivers dynamically scaffold infant behavior in real time. This study evaluates the feasibility and acceptability of the novel use of head-mounted eye tracking (HMET) in the home with N = 40 infants aged 4 and 8 months who are typically developing and at an elevated genetic liability for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Results suggest that HMET with young infants with limited independent motor abilities and at an elevated likelihood for atypical development is highly feasible and deemed acceptable by caregivers. Feasibility and acceptability did not differ by age or ASD likelihood. Data quality was also acceptable, albeit with younger infants showing slightly lower accuracy, allowing for preliminary analysis of developmental trends in infant gaze behavior. This study provides new evidence for the feasibility of using in-home HMET with young infants during a critical developmental period when more complex interactions with the environment and social partners are emerging. Future research can apply this technology to illuminate atypical developmental trajectories of embodied social attention in infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Bradshaw
- University of South Carolina, 1800 Gervais St., Columbia, SC 29201, USA; Carolina Autism and Neurodevelopment Research Center, University of South Carolina, USA.
| | - Xiaoxue Fu
- University of South Carolina, 1800 Gervais St., Columbia, SC 29201, USA; Carolina Autism and Neurodevelopment Research Center, University of South Carolina, USA
| | - Julia Yurkovic-Harding
- University of South Carolina, 1800 Gervais St., Columbia, SC 29201, USA; Carolina Autism and Neurodevelopment Research Center, University of South Carolina, USA
| | - Drew Abney
- University of Georgia, 125 Baldwin St., Athens, GA 30602, USA
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da Silva Soares R, Oku AYA, Barreto CDSF, Sato JR. Exploring the potential of eye tracking on personalized learning and real-time feedback in modern education. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2023; 282:49-70. [PMID: 38035909 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2023.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Eye tracking is one of the techniques used to investigate cognitive mechanisms involved in the school context, such as joint attention and visual perception. Eye tracker has portability, straightforward application, cost-effectiveness, and infant-friendly neuroimaging measures of cognitive processes such as attention, engagement, and learning. Furthermore, the ongoing software enhancements coupled with the implementation of artificial intelligence algorithms have improved the precision of collecting eye movement data and simplified the calibration process. These characteristics make it plausible to consider eye-tracking technology a promising tool to assist the teaching-learning process in school routines. However, eye tracking needs to be explored more as an educational instrument for real-time classroom activities and teachers' feedback. This perspective article briefly presents the fundamentals of the eye-tracking technique and four illustrative examples of employing this method in everyday school life. The first application shows how eye tracker information may contribute to teacher assessment of students' computational thinking in coding classes. In the second and third illustrations, we discuss the additional information provided by the eye-tracker to the teacher assessing the student's strategies to solve fraction problems and chart interpretation. The last illustration demonstrates the potential of eye tracking to provide Real-time feedback on learning difficulties/disabilities. Thus, we highlight the potential of the eye tracker as a complementary tool to promote personalized education and discuss future perspectives. In conclusion, we suggest that an eye-tracking system could be helpful by providing real-time student gaze leading to immediate teacher interventions and metacognition strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raimundo da Silva Soares
- Center of Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil; Graduate Program in Neuroscience and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | - Amanda Yumi Ambriola Oku
- Center of Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil; Graduate Program in Neuroscience and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, Santo André, Brazil
| | - Cândida da Silva Ferreira Barreto
- Faculty of Education, South Africa National Research Foundation Research Chair at the University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - João Ricardo Sato
- Center of Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil; Graduate Program in Neuroscience and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, Santo André, Brazil.
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Gerbrand A, Gredebäck G, Lindskog M. Recognition of small numbers in subset knowers Cardinal knowledge in early childhood. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2023; 10:230474. [PMID: 37885983 PMCID: PMC10598441 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.230474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Previous research suggests that subset-knowers have an approximate understanding of small numbers. However, it is still unclear exactly what subset-knowers understand about small numbers. To investigate this further, we tested 133 participants, ages 2.6-4 years, on a newly developed eye-tracking task targeting cardinal recognition. Participants were presented with two sets differing in cardinality (1-4 items) and asked to find a specific cardinality. Our main finding showed that on a group level, subset-knowers could identify all presented targets at rates above chance, further supporting that subset-knowers understand several of the basic principles of small numbers. Exploratory analyses tentatively suggest that 1-knowers could identify the targets 1 and 2, but struggled when the target was 3 and 4, whereas 2-knowers and above could identify all targets at rates above chance. This might tentatively suggest that subset-knowers have an approximate understanding of numbers that is just (i.e. +1) above their current knower level. We discuss the implications of these results at length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton Gerbrand
- Uppsala Child and Babylab, Uppsala Universitet, Department of psychology, Sweden
| | - Gustaf Gredebäck
- Uppsala Child and Babylab, Uppsala Universitet, Department of psychology, Sweden
| | - Marcus Lindskog
- Uppsala Child and Babylab, Uppsala Universitet, Department of psychology, Sweden
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11
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Dunn MJ, Alexander RG, Amiebenomo OM, Arblaster G, Atan D, Erichsen JT, Ettinger U, Giardini ME, Gilchrist ID, Hamilton R, Hessels RS, Hodgins S, Hooge ITC, Jackson BS, Lee H, Macknik SL, Martinez-Conde S, Mcilreavy L, Muratori LM, Niehorster DC, Nyström M, Otero-Millan J, Schlüssel MM, Self JE, Singh T, Smyrnis N, Sprenger A. Minimal reporting guideline for research involving eye tracking (2023 edition). Behav Res Methods 2023:10.3758/s13428-023-02187-1. [PMID: 37507649 PMCID: PMC11225961 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02187-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
A guideline is proposed that comprises the minimum items to be reported in research studies involving an eye tracker and human or non-human primate participant(s). This guideline was developed over a 3-year period using a consensus-based process via an open invitation to the international eye tracking community. This guideline will be reviewed at maximum intervals of 4 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt J Dunn
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK.
| | - Robert G Alexander
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Neurology, and Physiology/Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | | | - Gemma Arblaster
- Health Sciences School, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
- Orthoptic Department, Sheffield Teaching Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Sheffield, UK
| | - Denize Atan
- Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | | | - Mario E Giardini
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
| | - Iain D Gilchrist
- School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Ruth Hamilton
- Department of Clinical Physics & Bioengineering, Royal Hospital for Children, NHS Greater Glasgow & Clyde, Glasgow, UK
- College of Medical, Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Brooke S Jackson
- Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Helena Lee
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Stephen L Macknik
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Neurology, and Physiology/Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Neurology, and Physiology/Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Lee Mcilreavy
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Lisa M Muratori
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Health Professions, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Michael M Schlüssel
- UK EQUATOR Centre, Centre for Statistics in Medicine (CSM), Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences (NDORMS), University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Jay E Self
- Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Tarkeshwar Singh
- Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Nikolaos Smyrnis
- 2nd Department of Psychiatry, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Medical School, General University Hospital Attikon, Athens, Greece
| | - Andreas Sprenger
- Department of Neurology and Institute of Psychology II, Center of Brain, Behavior and Metabolism (CBBM), University of Luebeck, Luebeck, Germany
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12
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Miljković N, Sodnik J. Effectiveness of a time to fixate for fitness to drive evaluation in neurological patients. Behav Res Methods 2023:10.3758/s13428-023-02177-3. [PMID: 37488465 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-023-02177-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
We present a method to automatically calculate time to fixate (TTF) from the eye-tracker data in subjects with neurological impairment using a driving simulator. TTF presents the time interval for a person to notice the stimulus from its first occurrence. Precisely, we measured the time since the children started to cross the street until the drivers directed their look to the children. From 108 neurological patients recruited for the study, the analysis of TTF was performed in 56 patients to assess fit-, unfit-, and conditionally-fit-to-drive patients. The results showed that the proposed method based on the YOLO (you only look once) object detector is efficient for computing TTFs from the eye-tracker data. We obtained discriminative results for fit-to-drive patients by application of Tukey's honest significant difference post hoc test (p < 0.01), while no difference was observed between conditionally-fit and unfit-to-drive groups (p = 0.542). Moreover, we show that time-to-collision (TTC), initial gaze distance (IGD) from pedestrians, and speed at the hazard onset did not influence the result, while the only significant interaction is among fitness, IGD, and TTC on TTF. Obtained TTFs are also compared with the perception response times (PRT) calculated independently from eye-tracker data and YOLO. Although we reached statistically significant results that speak in favor of possible method application for assessment of fitness to drive, we provide detailed directions for future driving simulation-based evaluation and propose processing workflow to secure reliable TTF calculation and its possible application in for example psychology and neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadica Miljković
- University of Belgrade - School of Electrical Engineering, Bulevar kralja Aleksandra 73, 11000, Belgrade, Serbia.
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška cesta 25, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Jaka Sodnik
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška cesta 25, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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13
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Park SY, Holmqvist K, Niehorster DC, Huber L, Virányi Z. How to improve data quality in dog eye tracking. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:1513-1536. [PMID: 35680764 PMCID: PMC10250523 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-01788-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Pupil-corneal reflection (P-CR) eye tracking has gained a prominent role in studying dog visual cognition, despite methodological challenges that often lead to lower-quality data than when recording from humans. In the current study, we investigated if and how the morphology of dogs might interfere with tracking of P-CR systems, and to what extent such interference, possibly in combination with dog-unique eye-movement characteristics, may undermine data quality and affect eye-movement classification when processed through algorithms. For this aim, we have conducted an eye-tracking experiment with dogs and humans, and investigated incidences of tracking interference, compared how they blinked, and examined how differential quality of dog and human data affected the detection and classification of eye-movement events. Our results show that the morphology of dogs' face and eye can interfere with tracking methods of the systems, and dogs blink less often but their blinks are longer. Importantly, the lower quality of dog data lead to larger differences in how two different event detection algorithms classified fixations, indicating that the results of key dependent variables are more susceptible to choice of algorithm in dog than human data. Further, two measures of the Nyström & Holmqvist (Behavior Research Methods, 42(4), 188-204, 2010) algorithm showed that dog fixations are less stable and dog data have more trials with extreme levels of noise. Our findings call for analyses better adjusted to the characteristics of dog eye-tracking data, and our recommendations help future dog eye-tracking studies acquire quality data to enable robust comparisons of visual cognition between dogs and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soon Young Park
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
- Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
- University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Kenneth Holmqvist
- Institute of Psychology, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun, Torun, Poland
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Ludwig Huber
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Zsófia Virányi
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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14
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Cho VY, Loh XH, Abbott L, Mohd-Isa NA, Anthonappa RP. Reporting Eye-tracking Studies In DEntistry (RESIDE) checklist. J Dent 2023; 129:104359. [PMID: 36403692 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdent.2022.104359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To (i) provide a scoping review of eye-tracking studies in dentistry, and (ii) propose a "Reporting Eye-tracking Studies in DEntistry" (RESIDE) checklist to facilitate standard reporting of eye-tracking studies. DATA A comprehensive search of six distinct electronic databases was undertaken. SOURCES Pubmed, OVID, Wed of Knowledge, Scopus, Cochrane and Google Scholar were used to identify studies that employed eye-tracking technology and dentistry as a subfield STUDY SELECTION: 42 studies met the inclusion criteria. Most studies exhibited several inconsistencies or failed to report on the appropriate items in the RESIDE checklist. These essential components include ethical approval, sample size calculation, location and setting, eye-tracking device attributes, participant calibration, sequence of events, and eye-tracking metrics (quantitative, qualitative and data details). CONCLUSIONS Evaluation of the published eye-tracking studies in this scoping review provides empirical data, highlighting the inconsistencies and limitations. Importantly, it illustrates the applicability of the RESIDE Checklist, which provides a comprehensive list of reporting elements to assist authors and reviewers of eye-tracking studies in dentistry. Also, RESIDE provides a framework to overcome critical issues to ensure high-quality scientific publications. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE A minimum threshold should be applied before accepting eye-tracking studies for publication in the future. RESIDE checklist promotes transparent and reproducible scientific communication about eye-tracking applications to dentistry. In addition, it provides a comprehensive list of reporting elements to assist authors and reviewers in ensuring high-quality scientific publications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Y Cho
- Dental School, The University of Western Australia, 17 Monash Ave, Nedlands 6009, Perth, Australia.
| | - Xin Hui Loh
- Dental School, The University of Western Australia, 17 Monash Ave, Nedlands 6009, Perth, Australia.
| | - Lyndon Abbott
- Dental School, The University of Western Australia, 17 Monash Ave, Nedlands 6009, Perth, Australia.
| | - Nur Anisah Mohd-Isa
- Dental School, The University of Western Australia, 17 Monash Ave, Nedlands 6009, Perth, Australia.
| | - Robert P Anthonappa
- Dental School, The University of Western Australia, 17 Monash Ave, Nedlands 6009, Perth, Australia.
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15
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Capparini C, To MPS, Dardenne C, Reid VM. Offline Calibration for Infant Gaze and Head Tracking across a Wide Horizontal Visual Field. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:972. [PMID: 36679775 PMCID: PMC9866781 DOI: 10.3390/s23020972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Most well-established eye-tracking research paradigms adopt remote systems, which typically feature regular flat screens of limited width. Limitations of current eye-tracking methods over a wide area include calibration, the significant loss of data due to head movements, and the reduction of data quality over the course of an experimental session. Here, we introduced a novel method of tracking gaze and head movements that combines the possibility of investigating a wide field of view and an offline calibration procedure to enhance the accuracy of measurements. A 4-camera Smart Eye Pro system was adapted for infant research to detect gaze movements across 126° of the horizontal meridian. To accurately track this visual area, an online system calibration was combined with a new offline gaze calibration procedure. Results revealed that the proposed system successfully tracked infants' head and gaze beyond the average screen size. The implementation of an offline calibration procedure improved the validity and spatial accuracy of measures by correcting a systematic top-right error (1.38° mean horizontal error and 1.46° mean vertical error). This approach could be critical for deriving accurate physiological measures from the eye and represents a substantial methodological advance for tracking looking behaviour across both central and peripheral regions. The offline calibration is particularly useful for work with developing populations, such as infants, and for people who may have difficulties in following instructions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Capparini
- Center for Research in Cognition & Neuroscience (CRCN), Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK
| | - Michelle P. S. To
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK
| | | | - Vincent M. Reid
- School of Psychology, University of Waikato, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand
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16
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Holmqvist K, Örbom SL, Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Alexander RG, Andersson R, Benjamins JS, Blignaut P, Brouwer AM, Chuang LL, Dalrymple KA, Drieghe D, Dunn MJ, Ettinger U, Fiedler S, Foulsham T, van der Geest JN, Hansen DW, Hutton SB, Kasneci E, Kingstone A, Knox PC, Kok EM, Lee H, Lee JY, Leppänen JM, Macknik S, Majaranta P, Martinez-Conde S, Nuthmann A, Nyström M, Orquin JL, Otero-Millan J, Park SY, Popelka S, Proudlock F, Renkewitz F, Roorda A, Schulte-Mecklenbeck M, Sharif B, Shic F, Shovman M, Thomas MG, Venrooij W, Zemblys R, Hessels RS. Eye tracking: empirical foundations for a minimal reporting guideline. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:364-416. [PMID: 35384605 PMCID: PMC9535040 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01762-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section "An empirically based minimal reporting guideline").
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Holmqvist
- Department of Psychology, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Torun, Poland.
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Saga Lee Örbom
- Department of Psychology, Regensburg University, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab and Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Robert G Alexander
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | | | - Jeroen S Benjamins
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Social, Health and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter Blignaut
- Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | | | - Lewis L Chuang
- Department of Ergonomics, Leibniz Institute for Working Environments and Human Factors, Dortmund, Germany
- Institute of Informatics, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Matt J Dunn
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Susann Fiedler
- Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tom Foulsham
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Essex, UK
| | | | - Dan Witzner Hansen
- Machine Learning Group, Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Enkelejda Kasneci
- Human-Computer Interaction, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Paul C Knox
- Department of Eye and Vision Science, Institute of Life Course and Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ellen M Kok
- Department of Education and Pedagogy, Division Education, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Department of Online Learning and Instruction, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Open University of the Netherlands, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| | - Helena Lee
- University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Joy Yeonjoo Lee
- School of Health Professions Education, Faculty of Health, Medicine, and Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Jukka M Leppänen
- Department of Psychology and Speed-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Stephen Macknik
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Päivi Majaranta
- TAUCHI Research Center, Computing Sciences, Faculty of Information Technology and Communication Sciences, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
| | - Susana Martinez-Conde
- Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Health Sciences University, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Antje Nuthmann
- Institute of Psychology, University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jacob L Orquin
- Department of Management, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Center for Research in Marketing and Consumer Psychology, Reykjavik University, Reykjavik, Iceland
| | - Jorge Otero-Millan
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Soon Young Park
- Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stanislav Popelka
- Department of Geoinformatics, Palacký University Olomouc, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Frank Proudlock
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Frank Renkewitz
- Department of Psychology, University of Erfurt, Erfurt, Germany
| | - Austin Roorda
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Bonita Sharif
- School of Computing, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Frederick Shic
- Center for Child Health, Behavior and Development, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of General Pediatrics, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mark Shovman
- Eyeviation Systems, Herzliya, Israel
- Department of Industrial Design, Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Mervyn G Thomas
- The University of Leicester Ulverscroft Eye Unit, Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
| | - Ward Venrooij
- Electrical Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science (EEMCS), University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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17
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EyeT4Empathy: Dataset of foraging for visual information, gaze typing and empathy assessment. Sci Data 2022; 9:752. [PMID: 36463232 PMCID: PMC9719458 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01862-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
We present a dataset of eye-movement recordings collected from 60 participants, along with their empathy levels, towards people with movement impairments. During each round of gaze recording, participants were divided into two groups, each one completing one task. One group performed a task of free exploration of structureless images, and a second group performed a task consisting of gaze typing, i.e. writing sentences using eye-gaze movements on a card board. The eye-tracking data recorded from both tasks is stored in two datasets, which, besides gaze position, also include pupil diameter measurements. The empathy levels of participants towards non-verbal movement-impaired people were assessed twice through a questionnaire, before and after each task. The questionnaire is composed of forty questions, extending a established questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy. Finally, our dataset presents an opportunity for analysing and evaluating, among other, the statistical features of eye-gaze trajectories in free-viewing as well as how empathy is reflected in eye features.
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18
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Clinical Utility of Eye Tracking in Assessing Distractibility in Children with Neurological Disorders or ADHD: A Cross-Sectional Study. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12101369. [PMID: 36291303 PMCID: PMC9599566 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12101369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/01/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to investigate distractibility quantified by recording and analyzing eye movements during task-irrelevant distraction in children with and without ADHD and in children with and without neurological disorders. Gaze behavior data and press latencies of 141 participants aged 6−17 that were collected during a computerized distraction paradigm with task-irrelevant stimuli (IDistrack) were analyzed. Children using attention-regulating medication were excluded from participation. Data were analyzed for subgroups that were formed based on the presence of neurological disorders and the presence of ADHD separately. Participants with ADHD and participants with neurological disorders spent less time fixating on the target stimuli compared to their peers without ADHD (p = 0.025) or their peers without neurological disorders (p < 0.001). Participants with and without ADHD had equal press latencies (p = 0.79). Participants with neurological disorders had a greater press latency compared to their typically developing peers (p < 0.001). Target fixation duration shows a significant association with parent-reported attention problems (r = −0.39, p < 0.001). We conclude that eye tracking during a distraction task reveals potentially valid clinical information that may contribute to the assessment of dysfunctional attentional processes. Further research on the validity and reliability of this paradigm is recommended.
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19
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Johnston R, Snyder AC, Khanna SB, Issar D, Smith MA. The eyes reflect an internal cognitive state hidden in the population activity of cortical neurons. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:3331-3346. [PMID: 34963140 PMCID: PMC9340396 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Decades of research have shown that global brain states such as arousal can be indexed by measuring the properties of the eyes. The spiking responses of neurons throughout the brain have been associated with the pupil, small fixational saccades, and vigor in eye movements, but it has been difficult to isolate how internal states affect the eyes, and vice versa. While recording from populations of neurons in the visual and prefrontal cortex (PFC), we recently identified a latent dimension of neural activity called "slow drift," which appears to reflect a shift in a global brain state. Here, we asked if slow drift is correlated with the action of the eyes in distinct behavioral tasks. We recorded from visual cortex (V4) while monkeys performed a change detection task, and PFC, while they performed a memory-guided saccade task. In both tasks, slow drift was associated with the size of the pupil and the microsaccade rate, two external indicators of the internal state of the animal. These results show that metrics related to the action of the eyes are associated with a dominant and task-independent mode of neural activity that can be accessed in the population activity of neurons across the cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Johnston
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Adam C Snyder
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
- Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Sanjeev B Khanna
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15261, USA
| | - Deepa Issar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | - Matthew A Smith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Neuroscience Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
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20
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Evaluating Eye Movement Event Detection: A Review of the State of the Art. Behav Res Methods 2022:10.3758/s13428-021-01763-7. [PMID: 35715615 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-021-01763-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Detecting eye movements in raw eye tracking data is a well-established research area by itself, as well as a common pre-processing step before any subsequent analysis. As in any field, however, progress and successful collaboration can only be achieved provided a shared understanding of the pursued goal. This is often formalised via defining metrics that express the quality of an approach to solving the posed problem. Both the big-picture intuition behind the evaluation strategies and seemingly small implementation details influence the resulting measures, making even studies with outwardly similar procedures essentially incomparable, impeding a common understanding. In this review, we systematically describe and analyse evaluation methods and measures employed in the eye movement event detection field to date. While recently developed evaluation strategies tend to quantify the detector's mistakes at the level of whole eye movement events rather than individual gaze samples, they typically do not separate establishing correspondences between true and predicted events from the quantification of the discovered errors. In our analysis we separate these two steps where possible, enabling their almost arbitrary combinations in an evaluation pipeline. We also present the first large-scale empirical analysis of event matching strategies in the literature, examining these various combinations both in practice and theoretically. We examine the particular benefits and downsides of the evaluation methods, providing recommendations towards more intuitive and informative assessment. We implemented the evaluation strategies on which this work focuses in a single publicly available library: https://github.com/r-zemblys/EM-event-detection-evaluation .
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21
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Eschman B, Todd JT, Sarafraz A, Edgar EV, Petrulla V, McNew M, Gomez W, Bahrick LE. Remote Data Collection During a Pandemic: A New Approach for Assessing and Coding Multisensory Attention Skills in Infants and Young Children. Front Psychol 2022; 12:731618. [PMID: 35126224 PMCID: PMC8815727 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.731618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In early 2020, in-person data collection dramatically slowed or was completely halted across the world as many labs were forced to close due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Developmental researchers who assess looking time (especially those who rely heavily on in-lab eye-tracking or live coding techniques) were forced to re-think their methods of data collection. While a variety of remote or online platforms are available for gathering behavioral data outside of the typical lab setting, few are specifically designed for collecting and processing looking time data in infants and young children. To address these challenges, our lab developed several novel approaches for continuing data collection and coding for a remotely administered audiovisual looking time protocol. First, we detail a comprehensive approach for successfully administering the Multisensory Attention Assessment Protocol (MAAP), developed by our lab to assess multisensory attention skills (MASks; duration of looking, speed of shifting/disengaging, accuracy of audiovisual matching). The MAAP is administered from a distance (remotely) by using Zoom, Gorilla Experiment Builder, an internet connection, and a home computer. This new data collection approach has the advantage that participants can be tested in their homes. We discuss challenges and successes in implementing our approach for remote testing and data collection during an ongoing longitudinal project. Second, we detail an approach for estimating gaze direction and duration collected remotely from webcam recordings using a post processing toolkit (OpenFace) and demonstrate its effectiveness and precision. However, because OpenFace derives gaze estimates without translating them to an external frame of reference (i.e., the participant's screen), we developed a machine learning (ML) approach to overcome this limitation. Thus, third, we trained a ML algorithm [(artificial neural network (ANN)] to classify gaze estimates from OpenFace with respect to areas of interest (AOI) on the participant's screen (i.e., left, right, and center). We then demonstrate reliability between this approach and traditional coding approaches (e.g., coding gaze live). The combination of OpenFace and ML will provide a method to automate the coding of looking time for data collected remotely. Finally, we outline a series of best practices for developmental researchers conducting remote data collection for looking time studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bret Eschman
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
- *Correspondence: Bret Eschman
| | - James Torrence Todd
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
- Center for Children and Families, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Amin Sarafraz
- University of Miami Institute for Data Science and Computing, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Elizabeth V. Edgar
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Victoria Petrulla
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Myriah McNew
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - William Gomez
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Lorraine E. Bahrick
- Department of Psychology, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
- Center for Children and Families, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States
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22
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Bánki A, de Eccher M, Falschlehner L, Hoehl S, Markova G. Comparing Online Webcam- and Laboratory-Based Eye-Tracking for the Assessment of Infants' Audio-Visual Synchrony Perception. Front Psychol 2022; 12:733933. [PMID: 35087442 PMCID: PMC8787048 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.733933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Online data collection with infants raises special opportunities and challenges for developmental research. One of the most prevalent methods in infancy research is eye-tracking, which has been widely applied in laboratory settings to assess cognitive development. Technological advances now allow conducting eye-tracking online with various populations, including infants. However, the accuracy and reliability of online infant eye-tracking remain to be comprehensively evaluated. No research to date has directly compared webcam-based and in-lab eye-tracking data from infants, similarly to data from adults. The present study provides a direct comparison of in-lab and webcam-based eye-tracking data from infants who completed an identical looking time paradigm in two different settings (in the laboratory or online at home). We assessed 4-6-month-old infants (n = 38) in an eye-tracking task that measured the detection of audio-visual asynchrony. Webcam-based and in-lab eye-tracking data were compared on eye-tracking and video data quality, infants' viewing behavior, and experimental effects. Results revealed no differences between the in-lab and online setting in the frequency of technical issues and participant attrition rates. Video data quality was comparable between settings in terms of completeness and brightness, despite lower frame rate and resolution online. Eye-tracking data quality was higher in the laboratory than online, except in case of relative sample loss. Gaze data quantity recorded by eye-tracking was significantly lower than by video in both settings. In valid trials, eye-tracking and video data captured infants' viewing behavior uniformly, irrespective of setting. Despite the common challenges of infant eye-tracking across experimental settings, our results point toward the necessity to further improve the precision of online eye-tracking with infants. Taken together, online eye-tracking is a promising tool to assess infants' gaze behavior but requires careful data quality control. The demographic composition of both samples differed from the generic population on caregiver education: our samples comprised caregivers with higher-than-average education levels, challenging the notion that online studies will per se reach more diverse populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Bánki
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina de Eccher
- Department for Psychology of Language, Georg-Elias-Müller-Institut für Psychologie, Georg-August-Universität Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Lilith Falschlehner
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefanie Hoehl
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gabriela Markova
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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23
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Mahanama B, Jayawardana Y, Rengarajan S, Jayawardena G, Chukoskie L, Snider J, Jayarathna S. Eye Movement and Pupil Measures: A Review. FRONTIERS IN COMPUTER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fcomp.2021.733531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Our subjective visual experiences involve complex interaction between our eyes, our brain, and the surrounding world. It gives us the sense of sight, color, stereopsis, distance, pattern recognition, motor coordination, and more. The increasing ubiquity of gaze-aware technology brings with it the ability to track gaze and pupil measures with varying degrees of fidelity. With this in mind, a review that considers the various gaze measures becomes increasingly relevant, especially considering our ability to make sense of these signals given different spatio-temporal sampling capacities. In this paper, we selectively review prior work on eye movements and pupil measures. We first describe the main oculomotor events studied in the literature, and their characteristics exploited by different measures. Next, we review various eye movement and pupil measures from prior literature. Finally, we discuss our observations based on applications of these measures, the benefits and practical challenges involving these measures, and our recommendations on future eye-tracking research directions.
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24
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INTERSTAARS: Attention training for infants with elevated likelihood of developing ADHD: A proof-of-concept randomised controlled trial. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:644. [PMID: 34930893 PMCID: PMC8688472 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01698-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is first diagnosed during middle childhood, when patterns of difficulty are often established. Pre-emptive approaches that strengthen developing cognitive systems could offer an alternative to post-diagnostic interventions. This proof-of-concept randomised controlled trial (RCT) tested whether computerised gaze-based attention training is feasible and improves attention in infants liable to develop ADHD. Forty-three 9- to 16-month-old infants with a first-degree relative with ADHD were recruited (11/2015-11/2018) at two UK sites and randomised with minimisation by site and sex to receive 9 weekly sessions of either (a) gaze-contingent attention training (intervention; n = 20); or (b) infant-friendly passive viewing of videos (control, n = 23). Sessions were delivered at home with blinded outcome assessments. The primary outcome was a composite of attention measures jointly analysed via a multivariate ANCOVA with a combined effect size (ES) from coefficients at baseline, midpoint and endpoint (Registration: ISRCTN37683928 ). Uptake and compliance was good but intention-to-treat analysis showed no significant differences between 20 intervention and 23 control infants on primary (ES -0.4, 95% CI -0.9 to 0.2; Complier-Average-Causal Effect ES -0.6, 95% CI -1.6 to 0.5) or secondary outcomes (behavioural attention). There were no adverse effects on sleep but a small increase in post-intervention session fussiness. Although feasible, there was no support for short-term effects of gaze-based attention training on attention skills in early ADHD. Longer-term outcomes remain to be assessed. The study highlights challenges and opportunities for pre-emptive intervention approaches to the management of ADHD.
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25
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Holleman GA, Hooge ITC, Huijding J, Deković M, Kemner C, Hessels RS. Gaze and speech behavior in parent–child interactions: The role of conflict and cooperation. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-021-02532-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AbstractA primary mode of human social behavior is face-to-face interaction. In this study, we investigated the characteristics of gaze and its relation to speech behavior during video-mediated face-to-face interactions between parents and their preadolescent children. 81 parent–child dyads engaged in conversations about cooperative and conflictive family topics. We used a dual-eye tracking setup that is capable of concurrently recording eye movements, frontal video, and audio from two conversational partners. Our results show that children spoke more in the cooperation-scenario whereas parents spoke more in the conflict-scenario. Parents gazed slightly more at the eyes of their children in the conflict-scenario compared to the cooperation-scenario. Both parents and children looked more at the other's mouth region while listening compared to while speaking. Results are discussed in terms of the role that parents and children take during cooperative and conflictive interactions and how gaze behavior may support and coordinate such interactions.
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26
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De Kloe YJR, Hooge ITC, Kemner C, Niehorster DC, Nyström M, Hessels RS. Replacing eye trackers in ongoing studies: A comparison of eye-tracking data quality between the Tobii Pro TX300 and the Tobii Pro Spectrum. INFANCY 2021; 27:25-45. [PMID: 34687142 DOI: 10.1111/infa.12441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The Tobii Pro TX300 is a popular eye tracker in developmental eye-tracking research, yet it is no longer manufactured. If a TX300 breaks down, it may have to be replaced. The data quality of the replacement eye tracker may differ from that of the TX300, which may affect the experimental outcome measures. This is problematic for longitudinal and multi-site studies, and for researchers replacing eye trackers between studies. We, therefore, ask how the TX300 and its successor, the Tobii Pro Spectrum, compare in terms of eye-tracking data quality. Data quality-operationalized through precision, accuracy, and data loss-was compared between eye trackers for three age groups (around 5-months, 10-months, and 3-years). Precision was better for all gaze position signals obtained with the Spectrum in comparison to the TX300. Accuracy of the Spectrum was higher for the 5-month-old and 10-month-old children. For the three-year-old children, accuracy was similar across both eye trackers. Gaze position signals from the Spectrum exhibited lower proportions of data loss, and the duration of the data loss periods tended to be shorter. In conclusion, the Spectrum produces gaze position signals with higher data quality, especially for the younger infants. Implications for data analysis are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yentl J R De Kloe
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Chantal Kemner
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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27
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Abstract
Eye-tracking and recording of physiological signals are increasingly used in research within cognitive science and human–computer interaction. For example, gaze position and measures of autonomic arousal, including pupil dilation, skin conductance (SC), and heart rate (HR), provide an indicator of cognitive and physiological processes. The growing popularity of these techniques is partially driven by the emergence of low-cost recording equipment and the proliferation of open-source software for data collection and analysis of such signals. However, the use of new technology requires investigation of its reliability and validation with respect to real-world usage and against established technologies. Accordingly, in two experiments (total N = 69), we assessed the Gazepoint GP3-HD eye-tracker and Gazepoint Biometrics (GPB) system from Gazepoint. We show that the accuracy, precision, and robustness of the eye-tracker are comparable to competing systems. While fixation and saccade events can be reliably extracted, the study of saccade kinematics is affected by the low sampling rate. The GP3-HD is also able to capture psychological effects on pupil dilation in addition to the well-defined pupillary light reflex. Finally, moderate-to-strong correlations between physiological recordings and derived metrics of SC and HR between the GPB and the well-established BIOPAC MP160 support its validity. However, low amplitude of the SC signal obtained from the GPB may reduce sensitivity when separating phasic and tonic components. Similarly, data loss in pulse monitoring may pose difficulties for certain HR variability analyses.
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28
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Ginnell L, Boardman JP, Reynolds RM, Fletcher‐Watson S. Attention profiles following preterm birth: A review of methods and findings from infancy to adulthood. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lorna Ginnell
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh UK
| | - James P. Boardman
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen's Medical Research Institute The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh UK
| | - Rebecca M. Reynolds
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, The Queen's Medical Research Institute The University of Edinburgh Edinburgh UK
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29
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Avoiding potential pitfalls in visual search and eye-movement experiments: A tutorial review. Atten Percept Psychophys 2021; 83:2753-2783. [PMID: 34089167 PMCID: PMC8460493 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-021-02326-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Examining eye-movement behavior during visual search is an increasingly popular approach for gaining insights into the moment-to-moment processing that takes place when we look for targets in our environment. In this tutorial review, we describe a set of pitfalls and considerations that are important for researchers – both experienced and new to the field – when engaging in eye-movement and visual search experiments. We walk the reader through the research cycle of a visual search and eye-movement experiment, from choosing the right predictions, through to data collection, reporting of methodology, analytic approaches, the different dependent variables to analyze, and drawing conclusions from patterns of results. Overall, our hope is that this review can serve as a guide, a talking point, a reflection on the practices and potential problems with the current literature on this topic, and ultimately a first step towards standardizing research practices in the field.
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30
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Siqueiros Sanchez M, Ronald A, Mason L, Jones EJH, Bölte S, Falck-Ytter T. Visual disengagement in young infants in relation to age, sex, SES, developmental level and adaptive functioning. Infant Behav Dev 2021; 63:101555. [PMID: 33799012 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Visual attention plays a key role in infants' interaction with the environment, and shapes their behavioral and brain development. As such, early problems with flexibly switching gaze from one stimulus to another (visual disengagement) have been hypothesized to lead to developmental difficulties (e.g. joint attention and social skills) over time. This study aimed to identify cross-sectional associations between performance in the Gap task (gaze shift latencies and visual attention disengagement) and measures of development and adaptive behavior in conjunction to any sex or socioeconomic status effects in infancy. We measured visual attention disengagement in 436 5-month-old infants and calculated its association with cognitive developmental level, adaptive behaviours, socioeconomic status (SES) and biological sex. In the Gap task, participants must redirect their gaze from a central stimulus to an appearing peripheral stimulus. The three experimental conditions of the task (Gap, Baseline and Overlap) differ on the timepoint when the central stimuli disappears in relation to the appearance of the peripheral stimulus: 200 ms before the peripheral stimulus appears (Gap), simultaneously to its appearance (Baseline), or with peripheral stimulus offset (Overlap). The data from the experimental conditions showed the expected pattern, with average latencies being the shortest in the Gap and longest in the Overlap condition. Females were faster (p = .004) than males in the Gap condition, which could indicate that arousal-related effects differ as a function of biological sex. Infants from higher SES were slower (p = .031) in the Overlap condition compared to lower SES infants. This suggests that basic visual attention may differ by socio-cultural background, and should be considered when studying visual attention and its developmental correlates. We observed no significant association to concurrent developmental level or adaptive function. Given its large sample size, this study provides a useful reference for future studies of visual disengagement in early infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Siqueiros Sanchez
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; Center of Psychiatry Research, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden; Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Science, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Angelica Ronald
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Science, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Luke Mason
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Science, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Emily J H Jones
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Department of Psychological Science, Birkbeck, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Sven Bölte
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; Center of Psychiatry Research, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden; Curtin Autism Research Group, School of Occupational Therapy, Social Work and Speech Pathology, Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Terje Falck-Ytter
- Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Division of Neuropsychiatry, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden; Center of Psychiatry Research, Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden; Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study (SCAS), Uppsala, Sweden
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31
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Kemner C, van Duijvenvoorde A, Nelemans S, Peeters M, Sarabdjitsingh A, de Zeeuw E. Teaming up to understand individual development. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2021; 48:100910. [PMID: 33518478 PMCID: PMC8055707 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2021.100910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
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32
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Abstract
There is a long history of interest in looking behavior during human interaction. With the advance of (wearable) video-based eye trackers, it has become possible to measure gaze during many different interactions. We outline the different types of eye-tracking setups that currently exist to investigate gaze during interaction. The setups differ mainly with regard to the nature of the eye-tracking signal (head- or world-centered) and the freedom of movement allowed for the participants. These features place constraints on the research questions that can be answered about human interaction. We end with a decision tree to help researchers judge the appropriateness of specific setups.
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33
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Gosar D, Košmrlj L, Musek PL, Meško T, Stropnik S, Krkoč V, Golli T, Butenko T, Loboda T, Osredkar D. In reply to the 'letter to the editor' by Panda & Sharawat (in press). Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2021; 30:68-70. [PMID: 33450694 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2020.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Gosar
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Lejla Košmrlj
- The Centre for Children's Health Care, Šentvid pri Stični, Slovenia
| | - Petra Lešnik Musek
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tamara Meško
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Staša Stropnik
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Vesna Krkoč
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tanja Golli
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tita Butenko
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tanja Loboda
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Damjan Osredkar
- Department of Child, Adolescent and Developmental Neurology, University Children's Hospital, University Medical Center Ljubljana, Slovenia; Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
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34
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Onland-Moret NC, Buizer-Voskamp JE, Albers MEWA, Brouwer RM, Buimer EEL, Hessels RS, de Heus R, Huijding J, Junge CMM, Mandl RCW, Pas P, Vink M, van der Wal JJM, Hulshoff Pol HE, Kemner C. The YOUth study: Rationale, design, and study procedures. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 46:100868. [PMID: 33075722 PMCID: PMC7575850 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This article describes the rationale, design, and procedures of the YOUth cohort. YOUth is set up to investigate what drives the development of social competence and self-regulation in children. YOUth specifically investigates the role of neurocognitive development in child development. YOUth has a flexible longitudinal design with repeated measurements throughout childhood, starting prenatally.
Behavioral development in children shows large inter-individual variation, and is driven by the interplay between biological, psychological, and environmental processes. However, there is still little insight into how these processes interact. The YOUth cohort specifically focuses on two core characteristics of behavioral development: social competence and self-regulation. Social competence refers to the ability to engage in meaningful interactions with others, whereas self-regulation is the ability to control one’s emotions, behavior, and impulses, to balance between reactivity and control of the reaction, and to adjust to the prevailing environment. YOUth is an accelerated population-based longitudinal cohort study with repeated measurements, centering on two groups: YOUth Baby & Child and YOUth Child & Adolescent. YOUth Baby & Child aims to include 3,000 pregnant women, their partners and children, wheras YOUth Child & Adolescent aims to include 2,000 children aged between 8 and 10 years old and their parents. All participants will be followed for at least 6 years, and potentially longer. In this paper we describe in detail the design of this study, the population included, the determinants, intermediate neurocognitive measures and outcomes included in the study. Furthermore, we describe in detail the procedures of inclusion, informed consent, and study participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Charlotte Onland-Moret
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | | | - Maria E W A Albers
- Division of Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, the Netherlands; Division of Biomedical Genetics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Rachel M Brouwer
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Elizabeth E L Buimer
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Roel de Heus
- Division of Woman and Baby, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Jorg Huijding
- Dept. Clinical Child and Family Studies, Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht Univerity, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Caroline M M Junge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - René C W Mandl
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Pascal Pas
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Matthijs Vink
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Hilleke E Hulshoff Pol
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Chantal Kemner
- UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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35
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Zondergeld JJ, Scholten RHH, Vreede BMI, Hessels RS, Pijl AG, Buizer-Voskamp JE, Rasch M, Lange OA, Veldkamp CLS. FAIR, safe and high-quality data: The data infrastructure and accessibility of the YOUth cohort study. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 45:100834. [PMID: 32906086 PMCID: PMC7481825 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The YOUth cohort study aims to be a trailblazer for open science. Being a large-scale, longitudinal cohort following children in their development from gestation until early adulthood, YOUth collects a vast amount of data through a variety of research techniques. Data are collected through multiple platforms, including facilities managed by Utrecht University and the University Medical Center Utrecht. In order to facilitate appropriate use of its data by research organizations and researchers, YOUth aims to produce high-quality, FAIR data while safeguarding the privacy of participants. This requires an extensive data infrastructure, set up by collaborative efforts of researchers, data managers, IT departments, and the Utrecht University Library. In the spirit of open science, YOUth will share its experience and expertise in setting up a high-quality research data infrastructure for sensitive cohort data. This paper describes the technical aspects of our data and data infrastructure, and the steps taken throughout the study to produce and safely store FAIR and high-quality data. Finally, we will reflect on the organizational aspects that are conducive to the success of setting up such an enterprise, and we consider the financial challenges posed by individual studies investing in sustainable science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelmer J Zondergeld
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, the Netherlands.
| | | | | | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, the Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - A G Pijl
- University Medical Center Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Menno Rasch
- Information and Technology Services, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
| | - Otto A Lange
- Utrecht University Library, Utrecht University, the Netherlands
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van der Velde B, Junge C. Limiting data loss in infant EEG: putting hunches to the test. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2020; 45:100809. [PMID: 32658760 PMCID: PMC7358181 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
EEG is a widely used tool to study the infant brain and its relationship with behavior. As infants usually have small attention spans, move at free will, and do not respond to task instructions, attrition rates are usually high. Increasing our understanding of what influences data loss is therefore vital. The current paper examines external factors to data loss in a large-scale on-going longitudinal study (the YOUth project; 1279 five-month-olds, 1024 ten-months-olds, and 109 three-year-olds). Data loss is measured for both continuous EEG and ERP tasks as the percentage data loss after artifact removal. Our results point to a wide array of external factors that contribute to data loss, some related to the child (e.g., gender; age; head shape) and some related to experimental settings (e.g., choice of research assistant; time of day; season; and course of the experiment). Data loss was also more pronounced in the ERP experiment than in the EEG experiment. Finally, evidence was found for within-subject stability in data loss characteristics over multiple sessions. We end with recommendations to limit data loss in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bauke van der Velde
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Caroline Junge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Junge C, Everaert E, Porto L, Fikkert P, de Klerk M, Keij B, Benders T. Contrasting behavioral looking procedures: a case study on infant speech segmentation. Infant Behav Dev 2020; 60:101448. [PMID: 32593957 DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2020.101448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2018] [Revised: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper compared three different procedures common in infant speech perception research: a headturn preference procedure (HPP) and a central-fixation (CF) procedure with either automated eye-tracking (CF-ET) or manual coding (CF-M). In theory, such procedures all measure the same underlying speech perception and learning mechanisms and the choice between them should ideally be irrelevant in unveiling infant preference. However, the ManyBabies study (ManyBabies Consortium, 2019), a cross-laboratory collaboration on infants' preference for child-directed speech, revealed that choice of procedure can modulate effect sizes. Here we examined whether procedure also modulates preference in paradigms that add a learning phase prior to test: a speech segmentation paradigm. Such paradigms are particularly important for studying the learning mechanisms infants can employ for language acquisition. We carried out the same familiarization-then-test experiment with the three different procedures (32 unique infants per procedure). Procedures were compared on various factors, such as overall effect, average looking time and drop-out rate. The key observations are that the HPP yielded a larger familiarity preference, but also reported larger drop-out rates. This raises questions about the generalizability of results. We argue that more collaborative research into different procedures in infant preference experiments is required in order to interpret the variation in infant preferences more accurately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Junge
- Departments of Experimental and Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Emma Everaert
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Lyan Porto
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Paula Fikkert
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Maartje de Klerk
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Brigitta Keij
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Titia Benders
- Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia
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Havy M, Zesiger PE. Bridging ears and eyes when learning spoken words: On the effects of bilingual experience at 30 months. Dev Sci 2020; 24:e13002. [PMID: 32506622 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
From the very first moments of their lives, infants selectively attend to the visible orofacial movements of their social partners and apply their exquisite speech perception skills to the service of lexical learning. Here we explore how early bilingual experience modulates children's ability to use visible speech as they form new lexical representations. Using a cross-modal word-learning task, bilingual children aged 30 months were tested on their ability to learn new lexical mappings in either the auditory or the visual modality. Lexical recognition was assessed either in the same modality as the one used at learning ('same modality' condition: auditory test after auditory learning, visual test after visual learning) or in the other modality ('cross-modality' condition: visual test after auditory learning, auditory test after visual learning). The results revealed that like their monolingual peers, bilingual children successfully learn new words in either the auditory or the visual modality and show cross-modal recognition of words following auditory learning. Interestingly, as opposed to monolinguals, they also demonstrate cross-modal recognition of words upon visual learning. Collectively, these findings indicate a bilingual edge in visual word learning, expressed in the capacity to form a recoverable cross-modal representation of visually learned words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Havy
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Geneva University, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Pascal E Zesiger
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Geneva University, Geneva, Switzerland
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Carter BT, Luke SG. Best practices in eye tracking research. Int J Psychophysiol 2020; 155:49-62. [PMID: 32504653 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2020.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This guide describes best practices in using eye tracking technology for research in a variety of disciplines. A basic outline of the anatomy and physiology of the eyes and of eye movements is provided, along with a description of the sorts of research questions eye tracking can address. We then explain how eye tracking technology works and what sorts of data it generates, and provide guidance on how to select and use an eye tracker as well as selecting appropriate eye tracking measures. Challenges to the validity of eye tracking studies are described, along with recommendations for overcoming these challenges. We then outline correct reporting standards for eye tracking studies.
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Infants' Gaze Patterns for Same-Race and Other-Race Faces, and the Other-Race Effect. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10060331. [PMID: 32486016 PMCID: PMC7349221 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10060331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The other-race effect (ORE) can be described as difficulties in discriminating between faces of ethnicities other than one's own, and can already be observed at approximately 9 months of age. Recent studies also showed that infants visually explore same-and other-race faces differently. However, it is still unclear whether infants' looking behavior for same- and other-race faces is related to their face discrimination abilities. To investigate this question we conducted a habituation-dishabituation experiment to examine Caucasian 9-month-old infants' gaze behavior, and their discrimination of same- and other-race faces, using eye-tracking measurements. We found that infants looked longer at the eyes of same-race faces over the course of habituation, as compared to other-race faces. After habituation, infants demonstrated a clear other-race effect by successfully discriminating between same-race faces, but not other-race faces. Importantly, the infants' ability to discriminate between same-race faces significantly correlated with their fixation time towards the eyes of same-race faces during habituation. Thus, our findings suggest that for infants old enough to begin exhibiting the ORE, gaze behavior during habituation is related to their ability to differentiate among same-race faces, compared to other-race faces.
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Tomalski P, Malinowska-Korczak A. What Do Young Infants Do During Eye-Tracking Experiments? IP-BET - A Coding Scheme for Quantifying Spontaneous Infant and Parent Behaviour. Front Psychol 2020; 11:764. [PMID: 32411051 PMCID: PMC7198886 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye-tracking measurement of looking is the fundamental method in infancy research. Over the last few decades it has provided many of the most significant discoveries in developmental psychology. Infants engage in looking tasks and use their bodies for learning differently from adults, yet, the breadth of their behavioural repertoire and the constraints that the testing situation places on them remain under-explored. Young infants are tested in close physical proximity to their parent, interact during the experiment and rely on the parent to stay engaged in the task. Infants may also engage a different set of skills (e.g. when self-regulating) to perform the very same looking tasks in comparison with adult participants. We devised a coding scheme to systematically analyse task-relevant (attention to the screen) and extraneous behaviours [body movement, self-touch, non-nutritive sucking (NNS), affect] that infants exhibit during an eye-tracking session. We also measured parental behaviours (attention to the screen or the child), including dyadic interactions with the infant (talking, physical contact). We outline the rationale for the scheme and present descriptive data on the behaviour of a large group of typical 5- and 6-month-olds (n = 94) during three standard eye-tracking tasks in two seating arrangements. The majority of infants showed very high and consistent within-group attention to the screen, while there were large individual differences in the amount of limb and body movement and the use of self-regulatory behaviours (NNS, self-touch, object manipulation). Very few sex differences were found. Parents spent most time attending to the screen, but engaged in some forms of dyadic interaction, despite being given standard task instructions that minimise parental interference. Our results demonstrate the variability in infants' extraneous behaviours during standard eye-tracking despite comparable duration of attention to the screen. They show that spontaneous interactions with the parent should be more systematically considered as an integral part of the measurement of infant looking. We discuss the utility of our scheme to better understand the dynamics of looking and task performance in infant looking paradigms: those involving eye-tracking and those measuring looking duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Przemysław Tomalski
- Neurocognitive Development Lab, Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Malinowska-Korczak
- Neurocognitive Development Lab, Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Holleman GA, Hooge ITC, Kemner C, Hessels RS. The 'Real-World Approach' and Its Problems: A Critique of the Term Ecological Validity. Front Psychol 2020; 11:721. [PMID: 32425850 PMCID: PMC7204431 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A popular goal in psychological science is to understand human cognition and behavior in the 'real-world.' In contrast, researchers have typically conducted their research in experimental research settings, a.k.a. the 'psychologist's laboratory.' Critics have often questioned whether psychology's laboratory experiments permit generalizable results. This is known as the 'real-world or the lab'-dilemma. To bridge the gap between lab and life, many researchers have called for experiments with more 'ecological validity' to ensure that experiments more closely resemble and generalize to the 'real-world.' However, researchers seldom explain what they mean with this term, nor how more ecological validity should be achieved. In our opinion, the popular concept of ecological validity is ill-formed, lacks specificity, and falls short of addressing the problem of generalizability. To move beyond the 'real-world or the lab'-dilemma, we believe that researchers in psychological science should always specify the particular context of cognitive and behavioral functioning in which they are interested, instead of advocating that experiments should be more 'ecologically valid' in order to generalize to the 'real-world.' We believe this will be a more constructive way to uncover the context-specific and context-generic principles of cognition and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gijs A. Holleman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ignace T. C. Hooge
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Chantal Kemner
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Roy S. Hessels
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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