Overcoming poor oral bioavailability using nanoparticle formulations - opportunities and limitations

Engineered Nanomaterials for Immunomodulation: A Review

The immune system usually provides a defense against invading pathogenic microorganisms and any other particulate contaminants. Nonetheless, it has been recently reported that nanomaterials can evade the immune system and modulate immunological responses due to their unique physicochemical characteristics. Consequently, nanomaterial-based activation of immune components, i.e., neutrophils, macrophages, and other effector cells, may induce inflammation and alter the immune response. Here, it is essential to distinguish the acute and chronic modulations triggered by nanomaterials to determine the possible risks to human health. Nanomaterials size, shape, composition, surface charge, and deformability are factors controlling their uptake by immune cells and the resulting immune responses. The exterior corona of molecules adsorbed over nanomaterials surfaces also influences their immunological effects. Here, we review current nanoengineering trends for targeted immunomodulation with an emphasis on the design, safety, and potential toxicity of nanomaterials. First, we describe the characteristics of engineered nanomaterials that trigger immune responses. Then, the biocompatibility and immunotoxicity of nanoengineered particles are debated, because these factors influence applications. Finally, future nanomaterial developments in terms of surface modifications, synergistic approaches, and biomimetics are discussed.

Multifunctional mesoporous silica nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are recognized as a prime example of nanotechnology applied in the biomedical field, due to their easily tunable structure and composition, diverse surface functionalization properties, and excellent biocompatibility. Over the past two decades, researchers have developed a wide variety of MSNs-based nanoplatforms through careful design and controlled preparation techniques, demonstrating their adaptability to various biomedical application scenarios. With the continuous breakthroughs of MSNs in the fields of biosensing, disease diagnosis and treatment, tissue engineering, etc., MSNs are gradually moving from basic research to clinical trials. In this review, we provide a detailed summary of MSNs in the biomedical field, beginning with a comprehensive overview of their development history. We then discuss the types of MSNs-based nanostructured architectures, as well as the classification of MSNs-based nanocomposites according to the elements existed in various inorganic functional components. Subsequently, we summarize the primary purposes of surface-functionalized modifications of MSNs. In the following, we discuss the biomedical applications of MSNs, and highlight the MSNs-based targeted therapeutic modalities currently developed. Given the importance of clinical translation, we also summarize the progress of MSNs in clinical trials. Finally, we take a perspective on the future direction and remaining challenges of MSNs in the biomedical field.

Targeting efficacy and anticancer activity of polymeric nanoparticles of SN-38 on colon cancer cell lines

Background

Colorectal cancer is the third most prevailing cancer in the whole world. Chemotherapeutic agents which are used for treatment have severe side effects and also have unwanted exposure to healthy cells. In the present study, polymeric nanoparticles of SN-38 were prepared (using cationic and anionic polymers). They were optimized by Box Behnken design and characterized for its physicochemical properties and in vitro drug release. Optimized formulation (CsENP) was evaluated for its targeting efficacy by Gamma Scintigraphy studies on Swiss Albino mice and in vitro Cytotoxic assay against colon cancer cell line, viz. HT-29.

Results

The images of Whole body gamma scintigraphy imaging of Swiss Albino mice show that CsENP remained intact till 2 h and after that at 4 h imaging it started dispersing and releasing drug which continued till 20 h. In Organ distribution studies, no radioactivity was traced in heart from the formulation. Even in liver, spleen, kidney and lung trace radioactivity was seen after 6 h. In case of CsENP radioactivity was seen in small intestine after 2 h and maximum (87.8% radioactivity) is seen in colon and rectum area after 4 h. At equivalent concentrations, the in vitro cell viability of HT-29 cells after 72 h incubation time showed that CsENP have enhanced cytotoxicity.

Conclusions

The results obtained of Whole body gamma scintigraphy imaging and organ distribution of Swiss Albino mice show that CsENP is Colon targeting and was found to be effective against colon cancer cell lines.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Peculiar Strategy to Deliver Bio-Proactive Molecules

BACKGROUND

Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS) provide numerous benefits compared to conventional dosage forms. Poor aqueous solubility, low bioavailability, frequent dosing, and particular hydrophilic lipophilic character of the drug are the biological factors associated with the traditional systems leading to the development of SLNs.

OBJECTIVE

For improving the solubility profile, enhancing the bioavailability, and attaining the best possible therapeutic effect of lipid inclined or aqueous inclined drug, formulating solid lipid nanoparticles is the best choice.

METHODS

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs) have been projected as a colloidal carrier system with a size of 50-1,000 nm, collectively combining the benefits of other colloidal systems like liposomes, emulsions, etc., for delivering the drug at the target site. High absorption, high stability, and efficient drug packing enhance the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the packed drug.

RESULT

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles can be developed in different dosage forms and administered via routes such as nasal, rectal, oral, topical, vaginal, ocular, and parenteral. They have higher physicochemical stability and the batch size can be easily scaled up at a low cost. Lipophilic as well as hydrophilic drugs can be easily incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

In this manuscript, the authors have reviewed different aspects of solid lipid nanoparticles, major principles behind mechanism methods, recent patents, applications, and therapeutic potentials of solid lipid nanoparticles.

Erythromycin Formulations—A Journey to Advanced Drug Delivery

Erythromycin (ERY) is a macrolide compound with a broad antimicrobial spectrum which is currently being used to treat a large number of bacterial infections affecting the skin, respiratory tract, intestines, bones and other systems, proving great value from a clinical point of view. It became popular immediately after its discovery in 1952, due to its therapeutic effect against pathogens resistant to other drugs. Despite this major advantage, ERY exhibits several drawbacks, raising serious clinical challenges. Among them, the very low solubility in water and instability under acidic conditions cause a limited efficacy and bioavailability. Apart from this, higher doses promote drug resistance and undesirable effects. In order to overcome these disadvantages, during the past decades, a large variety of ERY formulations, including nanoparticles, have emerged. Despite the interest in ERY-(nano)formulations, a review on them is lacking. Therefore, this work was aimed at reviewing all efforts made to encapsulate ERY in formulations of various chemical compositions, sizes and morphologies. In addition, their preparation/synthesis, physico-chemical properties and performances were carefully analysed. Limitations of these studies, particularly the quantification of ERY, are discussed as well.

Antimicrobial agent containing absorbable gelatin sponge to prevent dry socket: A systematic review

Background:

The use of absorbable gelatin sponges (AGSs) as a hemostatic surgical material resulted in a reduction of dry sockets occurrence. The systemic use of antibiotics and antimicrobial agents can also reduce the infection of extracted teeth, and therefore, it may show pain-relieving effects on the dry socket as well.

Objective:

Given the high prevalence of dry sockets in the extracted teeth, the main objective of this review was a brief overview of AGSs, including antimicrobial agents to prevent dry sockets.

Methods:

The electronic search of the literature was done on the Pubmed and Google Scholar databases with the MESH keywords of Antimicrobials, Gelatin sponge, Gelfoam, Dry socket, Antibiotics, Alveolar osteitis. Only papers published in English were investigated. No limitations were put on the publication date.

Results:

Of the 279 electronic papers, 79 articles were found relevant to the study. All abstracts were reviewed, and only desired articles were selected. The final electronic and manual search led to 15 articles for use in this study. Among these studies, 5 studies were related to AGSs, including antimicrobial agents to prevent dry sockets.

Conclusion:

The reviewed literature showed that the systemic/topical use of antibiotics and antimicrobial agents can reduce infection and, therefore, may show pain-relieving effects on the dry socket. Besides, antimicrobial-loaded AGSs can be helpful in curing or preventing dry sockets. There were a limited number of clinical trials that used antimicrobial loaded AGSs for dry socket. More clinical studies are needed, especially in subgroups of patients with a high risk of infectious conditions, to validate the effectiveness of antimicrobial-loaded AGSs for dry socket.

Medicinal plants' proposed nanocomposites for the management of endocrine disorders

Extensive attention has been focused on herbal medicine for the treatment of different endocrine disorders. In fact, compelling scientific evidence indicates that natural compounds might act as endocrine modulators by mimicking, stimulating, or inhibiting the actions of different hormones, such as thyroid, sex, steroidal, and glucose regulating hormones. These potentials might be effectively employed for therapeutic purposes related to the endocrine system as novel complementary choices. Nevertheless, despite the remarkable therapeutic effects, inadequate targeting efficiency and low aqueous solubility of the bioactive components are still essential challenges in their clinical accreditation. On the other hand, nanotechnology has pushed the wheels of combining inorganic nanoparticles with biological structures of medicinal bioactive compounds as one of the utmost exciting fields of research. Nanoparticle conjugations create an inclusive array of applications that provide greater compliance, higher bioavailability, and lower dosage. This can safeguard the global availability of these wealthy natural sources, regardless of their biological occurrence. This review inspects future challenges of medicinal plants in various endocrine disorders for safe and alternative treatments with examples of their nanoparticle formulations.

An Insight into Preparatory Methods and Characterization of Orodispersible Film-A Review

Over the past few decades, researchers and companies have been trying to develop novel drug delivery systems to ensure safety, efficacy, compliance, and patient acceptability. Nowadays drug discovery and development are expensive, complex, and time-consuming processes, but trends are moving toward novel drug delivery systems. This delivery system helps to achieve drug response by local and systemic action through different routes. This novel approach of preparing orodispersible films (ODFs) provides benefits to paediatric, geriatric, and bedridden patients. This review paper aims to provide details on the preparation, characterization, and evaluation of ODFs; it also aims to focus on the positive and negative factors that affect film formulation and give an insight into potential drug candidates and polymers for use in ODFs. ODFs are effective, safe, and have good bioavailability as compared to fast-disintegrating tablets. The novel approach has various advantages because it provides instant effects in emergency situations and in schizophrenic and dysphasic patients without the need for taking water, the films disintegrating within a few seconds in the oral cavity. The solvent casting method is the most frequently used technique to develop ODFs, using film-forming polymers, which have a fast disintegration time, improved drug dissolution, and better drug contents.

An Oral 3D Printed PLGA-Tocopherol PEG Succinate Nanocomposite Hydrogel for High-Dose Methotrexate Delivery in Maintenance Chemotherapy

High-dose methotrexate (HDMTX) is one of the chemotherapeutic agents used to treat a variety of cancers in both adults and children. However, the toxicity associated with HDMTX has resulted in the spread of infections and treatment interruption. Further, poor bioavailability due to efflux pump activities mediated by P-glycoprotein has also been linked to poor therapeutic effects of methotrexate following oral administrations. D-α-Tocopheryl poly-ethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS) is known to improve the bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs by inhibiting P-gp efflux activities, thus enhancing cellular uptake. Therefore, to achieve improved bioavailability for MTX, this study aimed to design and develop a novel drug delivery system employing TPGS and a biodegradable polymer, i.e., PLGA, to construct methotrexate-loaded nanoparticles fixated in alginate-gelatine 3D printable hydrogel ink to form a solid 3D printed tablet for oral delivery. The results indicated that high accuracy (>95%) of the 3D printed tablets was achieved using a 25 G needle. In vitro, drug release profiles were investigated at pH 1.2 and pH 7.4 to simulate the gastrointestinal environment. The in vitro release profile displayed a controlled and prolonged release of methotrexate over 24 h. The in silico modeling study displayed P-gp ATPase inhibition, suggesting enhanced MTX absorption from the gastrointestinal site. The 3D-printed hydrogel-based tablet has the potential to overcome the chemotherapeutic challenges that are experienced with conventional therapies.

Improved Solubility and Dissolution Rate of Ketoprofen by the Formation of Multicomponent Crystals with Tromethamine

This study aims to improve the dissolution rate of ketoprofen by preparing multicomponent crystals with tromethamine. The multicomponent crystals (equimolar ratio) of ketoprofen and tromethamine were prepared by the solvent co-evaporation method. The solid-state properties of the resulting powder were characterized by powder X-ray diffraction, DSC thermal analysis, FT–IR spectroscopy, solubility, and in vitro dissolution rate. The crystal structure of the multicomponent crystal was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis. The results showed that the powder X-ray diffraction pattern of the ketoprofen–tromethamine binary system was different from that of the starting materials. This difference indicates the formation of a new crystalline phase between ketoprofen and tromethamine (equimolar ratio). The DSC thermogram of the ketoprofen–tromethamine binary system exhibited a single and sharp endothermic peak at 128.67 °C, attributed to the melting point of a multicomponent crystal of ketoprofen–tromethamine. A single-crystal X-ray analysis revealed that ketoprofen–tromethamine formed a layered structure, salt-type multicomponent crystal. The solubility and dissolution rate of the multicomponent crystal were notably enhanced compared to the intact ketoprofen. The ketoprofen–tromethamine binary system forms salt-type multicomponent crystals, which can significantly increase the solubility and dissolution rate.

Applications and Biocompatibility of Mesoporous Silica Nanocarriers in the Field of Medicine

Mesoporous silica nanocarrier (MSN) preparations have a wide range of medical applications. Studying the biocompatibility of MSN is an important part of clinical transformation. Scientists have developed different types of mesoporous silica nanocarriers (MSNs) for different applications to realize the great potential of MSNs in the field of biomedicine, especially in tumor treatment. MSNs have achieved good results in diagnostic bioimaging, tissue engineering, cancer treatment, vaccine development, biomaterial application and diagnostics. MSNs can improve the therapeutic efficiency of drugs, introduce new drug delivery strategies, and provide advantages that traditional drugs lack. It is necessary not only to innovate MSNs but also to comprehensively understand their biological distribution. In this review, we summarize the various medical uses of MSN preparations and explore the factors that affect their distribution and biocompatibility in the body based on metabolism. Designing more reasonable therapeutic nanomedicine is an important task for the further development of the potential clinical applications of MSNs.

Synthesis and Potential Applications of Lipid Nanoparticles in Medicine

Currently, carriers of active ingredients in the form of particles of a size measured in nanometers are the focus of interest of research centers worldwide. So far, submicrometer emulsions, liposomes, as well as microspheres, and nanospheres made of biodegradable polymers have been used in medicine. Recent studies show particular interest in nanoparticles based on lipids, and at the present time, are even referred to as the "era of lipid carriers". With the passage of time, lipid nanoparticles of the so-called first and second generation, SLN (Solid Lipid Nanoparticles) and nanostructured lipid carriers and NLC (Nanostructured Lipid Carriers), respectively, turned out to be an alternative for all imperfections of earlier carriers. These carriers are characterized by a number of beneficial functional properties, including, among others, structure based on lipids well tolerated by the human body, high stability, and ability to carry hydro- and lipophilic compounds. Additionally, these carriers can enhance the distribution of the drug in the target organ and alter the pharmacokinetic properties of the drug carriers to enhance the medical effect and minimize adverse side effects. This work is focused on the current review of the state-of-the-art related to the synthesis and applications of popular nanoparticles in medicine, with a focus on their use, e.g., in COVID-19 vaccines.

Drug Delivery Strategies for Curcumin and Other Natural Nrf2 Modulators of Oxidative Stress-Related Diseases

Oxidative stress is associated with a wide range of diseases characterised by oxidant-mediated disturbances of various signalling pathways and cellular damage. The only effective strategy for the prevention of cellular damage is to limit the production of oxidants and support their efficient removal. The implication of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway in the cellular redox status has spurred new interest in the use of its natural modulators (e.g., curcumin, resveratrol). Unfortunately, most natural Nrf2 modulators are poorly soluble and show extensive pre-systemic metabolism, low oral bioavailability, and rapid elimination, which necessitates formulation strategies to circumvent these limitations. This paper provides a brief introduction on the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in Nrf2 modulation and an overview of commonly studied formulations for the improvement of oral bioavailability and in vivo pharmacokinetics of Nrf2 modulators. Some formulations that have also been studied in vivo are discussed, including solid dispersions, self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems, and nanotechnology approaches, such as polymeric and solid lipid nanoparticles, nanocrystals, and micelles. Lastly, brief considerations of nano drug delivery systems for the delivery of Nrf2 modulators to the brain, are provided. The literature reviewed shows that the formulations discussed can provide various improvements to the bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of natural Nrf2 modulators. This has been demonstrated in animal models and clinical studies, thereby increasing the potential for the translation of natural Nrf2 modulators into clinical practice.

Exploring the Solvent-Anti-solvent Method of Nanosuspension for Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of Lovastatin

Objectives

Lovastatin is an antilipidemic drug that belongs to the class of statins that has poor oral bioavailability due to its low solubility and variable dissolution rate. The main aim of this study was to enhance the solubility and dissolution rate of the drug and understand its oral bioavailability.

Materials and Methods

Lovastatin nanosuspension was formulated using a solventanti-solvent method using a probe sonication technique. A nanosuspension was prepared, using hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) K15M and pluronic F68 as stabilizers. The formulated nanosuspensions were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI) zeta potential, surface morphology, and in vitro release rate. Further, an in vivo bioavailability study and stability studies were also performed.

Results

Optimized formulation showed a particle size of 127±0.01 nm, a PDI of 0.492±0.001, and a zeta potential of -37.9 mV, which indicates good stability. Morphological study showed that the particles were in the nano range. The drug content was found to be in the range of 73-87%. In vitro release revealed much faster release of the drug in one hour compared to the pure drug and its marketed formulation. In vivo bioavailability study was carried out in Wistar rats, which showed improvement in bioavailability by approximately 2.5 folds compared with the marketed formulation. Stability studies indicated that the optimized formulation F2 was more stable at 4°C±2°C.

Conclusion

The prepared lovastatin nanosuspension showed improvement in solubility, dissolution rate, and oral bioavailability compared to the pure drug and its marketed formulation. Hence, lovastatin nanosuspension may be a potentially valuable tool for improving the oral bioavailability of lovastatin.

Atypical Renal Clearance of Nanoparticles Larger Than the Kidney Filtration Threshold

In recent years, several publications reported that nanoparticles larger than the kidney filtration threshold were found intact in the urine after being injected into laboratory mice. This theoretically should not be possible, as it is widely known that the kidneys prevent molecules larger than 6–8 nm from escaping into the urine. This is interesting because it implies that some nanoparticles can overcome the size limit for renal clearance. What kinds of nanoparticles can “bypass” the glomerular filtration barrier and cross into the urine? What physical and chemical characteristics are essential for nanoparticles to have this ability? And what are the biomolecular and cellular mechanisms that are involved? This review attempts to answer those questions and summarize known reports of renal-clearable large nanoparticles.

Oral delivery of solid lipid nanoparticles: underlining the physicochemical characteristics and physiological condition affecting the lipolysis rate

INTRODUCTION

Lipid-based nano-drug delivery systems (LBNDDSs) have gained widespread attention in oral drug delivery due to their tunable and versatile properties such as biocompatibility and biodegradability, which makes them promising delivery systems for a variety of therapeutics. Currently, different types of LBNDDSs including liposomes, micelles, nanoemulsions, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are developed for drug delivery applications. SLNs can be used as a controlled drug delivery system for oral delivery applications. However, its lipidic context makes that susceptible to lipolysis. The lipolysis rate of SLNs is affected by many factors that raise many questions for developing a more efficient delivery system.

AREAS COVERED

In the present work, we highlighted different factors affecting the digestion rate/level of SLNs in the gastrointestinal tract. This paper can be most useful for those researchers who are keen to develop a properly controlled drug delivery system based on SLNs for oral delivery applications.

EXPERT OPINION

SLNs can be used as a controlled drug delivery system for oral delivery applications. However, its lipidic context makes that susceptible to lipolysis. The lipolysis rate of SLNs is affected by many factors that raise many questions for developing a more efficient delivery system.

Formulation, Optimization and Evaluation of Nanoparticulate Oral Fast Dissolving Film Dosage Form of Nitrendipine

The primary objective of the present research work was to develop nanoparticles incorporating (nanoparticulate) fast dissolving (orodispersible) film evincing enhanced solubility and bioavailability of nitrendipine (NIT). An antisolvent sonoprecipitation method was employed to produce the NIT nanosuspension (NS), which was optimized using the 3² optimal response surface design and then the optimized one was evaluated for various parameters (Gandhi et al., AAPS PharmSciTech 22 (1):1-15, 2021). The NIT nanoparticulate orodispersible film (N-ODF) was prepared utilizing the nanosuspension by the solvent casting method using the Vijay film-forming instrument. The N-ODF was optimized by the 2³ full factorial design and was evaluated for several parameters. The optimized NS depicted a particle size of 505.74 ± 15.48 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.083 ± 0.006 (Fig. 1b). The NIT nanoparticles showed a striking increment in saturation solubility (26.14 times), when compared with plain NIT (2). The developed NIT N-ODF exhibited thickness (0.148 ± 0.008 mm), folding endurance (280.33 ± 5.51 times), surface pH (6.86 ± 0.05), tensile strength (8.25 ± 0.13 kg/cm²), % elongation (63.5 ± 1.97%), and disintegration time (24.60 ± 1.31 s) to be within the standard intended limit. The in vitro dissolution study unveiled 100.28 ± 2.64% and 100.68 ± 2.50% of NIT release from lyophilized nanocrystals (in 8 min) and N-ODF (in 3.5 min), respectively, whereas the conventional NIT tablet took 30 min to release 99.94 ± 1.57% of NIT (Gandhi et al., AAPS PharmSciTech 22 (1):1-15, 2021). The in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rabbits inferred the achievement of significantly (p < 0.05) higher bioavailability of NIT on release from N-ODF in comparison to the conventional NIT tablet. Thus, the generation of N-ODF can be considered as a propitious move toward improving the efficacy of NIT to treat hypertension and angina pectoris.

Nanocarriers Used in Drug Delivery to Enhance Immune System in Cancer Therapy

Cancer, a group of diseases responsible for the second largest cause of global death, is considered one of the main public health problems today. Despite the advances, there are still difficulties in the development of more efficient cancer therapies and fewer adverse effects for the patients. In this context, nanobiotechnology, a materials science on a nanometric scale specified for biology, has been developing and acquiring prominence for the synthesis of nanocarriers that provide a wide surface area in relation to volume, better drug delivery, and a maximization of therapeutic efficiency. Among these carriers, the ones that stand out are those focused on the activation of the immune system. The literature demonstrates the importance of this system for anticancer therapy, given that the best treatment for this disease also activates the immune system to recognize, track, and destroy all remaining tumor cells.

Processing Chitosan for Preparing Chitosan-Functionalized Nanoparticles by Polyelectrolyte Adsorption

Chitosan-coated nanoparticles are a promising class of drug delivery vehicles that have been studied as tools for improving the gastrointestinal delivery of therapeutics. Here we present an analysis of chitosan-coated nanoparticles with an emphasis on characterizing the chitosan polymer properties. Cationic nanoparticles are produced by adsorbing a layer of chitosan HCl on an anionic (-40 mV ζ-potential) polyacrylic acid (PAA) coated primary nanoparticle. Commercially available chitosan (90% deacetylated) must be processed into a nearly completely deacetylated HCl salt form (99% deacetylation); otherwise, primary nanoparticle aggregation occurs. Deacetylated chitosan HCl produces stable, cationic (+35 mV ζ-potential) nanoparticles within 10% of the original anionic particle hydrodynamic diameter at a 1:2 molar ratio of chitosan glucosamine HCl monomers to PAA acrylic acid monomers.

Challenges in Oral Drug Delivery and Applications of Lipid Nanoparticles as Potent Oral Drug Carriers for Managing Cardiovascular Risk Factors

BACKGROUND

The oral application of drugs is the most popular route through which the systemic effect can be achieved. Nevertheless, oral administration is limited by difficulties related to the physicochemical properties of the drug molecule, including low aqueous solubility, instability, low permeability, and rapid metabolism, all of which result in low and irregular oral bioavailability.

OBJECTIVE

The enhancement of oral bioavailability of drug molecules with such properties could lead to extreme complications in drug preparations. Oral lipid-based nanoparticles seem to possess extensive advantages due to their ability to increase the solubility, simplifying intestinal absorption and decrease or eradicate the effect of food on the absorption of low soluble, lipophilic drugs and therefore improving the oral bioavailability.

METHODS

The present review provides a summary of the general theory of lipid-based nanoparticles, their preparation methods, as well as their oral applications. Moreover, oral drug delivery challenges are discussed.

RESULTS

According to this review, the most frequent types of lipid-based nanoparticle, the solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured lipid carriers are potent oral carriers due to their ability to penetrate the oral drug adsorption barriers. Moreover, such lipid nanoparticles can be beneficial drug carriers against cardiovascular risk disorders as diabetes, hypertension, etc. Conclusion: In this review, the most current and promising studies involving Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers as oral drug carriers are reported aiming to assist researchers who focus their research on lipid-based nanoparticles.

Cross-linked Histone as a Nanocarrier for Gut Delivery of Hydrophobic Cargos

Delivering hydrophobic molecules through the intestine can be challenging due to limited cargo solubility and the harsh biochemical environment of the stomach. Here, we show that a protein-based nanocarrier system based on the abundant protein histone and the natural cross-linker genipin can deliver hydrophobic cargos, such as dyes and therapeutic molecules, through the gastrointestinal tract. Using hydrophobic near-infrared dyes as model cargos, a panel of potential protein carriers was screened, and histone was identified as the one with the best loading capability. The resulting nanoparticles had a positive ζ potential and were mucoadhesive. Cross-linking of the amine-rich nanocarrier with genipin was particularly effective relative to other proteins and increased the stability of the system during incubation with pepsin. Cross-linking was required for successful delivery of a hydrophobic dye to the colon of mice after oral gavage. To assess the platform for therapeutic delivery, another hydrophobic model compound, curcumin, was delivered using cross-linked histone nanoparticles in a murine colitis model and significantly alleviated the disease. Taken together, these results demonstrate that histone is a cationic, mucoadhesive, and cross-linkable protein nanocarrier that can be considered for oral delivery.

Nanotechnology-Based Celastrol Formulations and Their Therapeutic Applications

Celastrol (also called tripterine) is a quinone methide triterpene isolated from the root extract of Tripterygium wilfordii (thunder god vine in traditional Chinese medicine). Over the past two decades, celastrol has gained wide attention as a potent anti-inflammatory, anti-autoimmune, anti-cancer, anti-oxidant, and neuroprotective agent. However, its clinical translation is very challenging due to its lower aqueous solubility, poor oral bioavailability, and high organ toxicity. To deal with these issues, various formulation strategies have been investigated to augment the overall celastrol efficacy in vivo by attempting to increase the bioavailability and/or reduce the toxicity. Among these, nanotechnology-based celastrol formulations are most widely explored by pharmaceutical scientists worldwide. Based on the survey of literature over the past 15 years, this mini-review is aimed at summarizing a multitude of celastrol nanoformulations that have been developed and tested for various therapeutic applications. In addition, the review highlights the unmet need in the clinical translation of celastrol nanoformulations and the path forward.

Olanzapine Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers via High Shear Homogenization and Ultrasonication

The aim of this study was to understand the effect of high shear homogenization (HSH) and ultrasonication (US) on the physicochemical properties of blank and olanzapine loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) along with their drug loading potential and drug release profiles from formulated particles. NLCs were prepared with different ratios of Compritol and Miglyol as the solid and liquid lipids, respectively, under changing HSH and US times between 0 to 15 min. The surfactants (Poloxamer 188 (P188) and tween 80) and the drug content was kept constant in all formulations. The prepared NLCs were evaluated for particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, drug crystallinity and chemical interactions between lipids and OLZ. The in-vitro drug release was performed using dialysis tube method in phosphate buffer solution (PBS) at pH 7.4. The formulated NLCs were negatively charged, spherically shaped and monodisperse, with particle sizes ranging from 112 to 191 nm. There was a significant influence of US time on the preparation of NLCs in comparison to HSH, where a significant reduction in the mean particle diameter was seen after 5 min of sonication. An increase of Miglyol content in NLCs led to an increase in particle size. In general, application of US led to decrease in particle size after HSH but an increase in particle diameter of low Miglyol containing preparation was also observed with longer sonication time. OLZ was successfully encapsulated in the NLCs and a total release of 89% was achieved in 24 h in PBS at pH 7.4.

Achievements in Thermosensitive Gelling Systems for Rectal Administration

Rectal drug delivery is an effective alternative to oral and parenteral treatments. This route allows for both local and systemic drug therapy. Traditional rectal dosage formulations have historically been used for localised treatments, including laxatives, hemorrhoid therapy and antipyretics. However, this form of drug dosage often feels alien and uncomfortable to a patient, encouraging refusal. The limitations of conventional solid suppositories can be overcome by creating a thermosensitive liquid suppository. Unfortunately, there are currently only a few studies describing their use in therapy. However, recent trends indicate an increase in the development of this modern therapeutic system. This review introduces a novel rectal drug delivery system with the goal of summarising recent developments in thermosensitive liquid suppositories for analgesic, anticancer, antiemetic, antihypertensive, psychiatric, antiallergic, anaesthetic, antimalarial drugs and insulin. The report also presents the impact of various types of components and their concentration on the properties of this rectal dosage form. Further research into such formulations is certainly needed in order to meet the high demand for modern, efficient rectal gelling systems. Continued research and development in this field would undoubtedly further reveal the hidden potential of rectal drug delivery systems.

Stabilization of Etoricoxib Nanosuspension Using Acacia chundra Gum and Copolymers: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vitro Cytotoxic Study

Present communication deals with the stabilization of etoricoxib nanosuspension using Acacia chundra gum and its acrylamide-grafted and carboxymethylated copolymers. Acrylamide grafting and carboxymethylation of A. chundra gum were carried out and synthesized copolymers were characterized. Ultrasound-assisted solvent-antisolvent method was utilized to co-precipitate the stabilizers over etoricoxib nanoprecipitates. A 3² full factorial design was used to evaluate the effect of independent variables, that is, the concentration of drug and stabilizer over the dependent variables, that is, particle size (PS), and entrapment efficiency (EE%) of nanoparticles. The effect of process parameters over super saturation, nucleation, and PS were studied and the role of mixing and ultrasound radiation was correlated. FTIR, DSC, and ¹H NMR analysis showed a significant difference between the copolymers. The application of stabilizers leads to the synthesis of small, spherical, no aggregated, and composite nanoparticles. PS growth analysis after 45 days showed no sign of "Ostwald repining" and aggregation. Optimized formulations prepared using A. chundra gum (formulation K9), acrylamide-grafted (formulation A8), and carboxymethylated (formulation C1) copolymers showed t₈₀% in 190, 270, and 170 min, respectively. Cytotoxic studies showed that the formulation A8 had better control over cell growth than the pure drug against MCF-7 cell line. The results indicated that the A. chundra gum and its acrylamide and carboxymethylated copolymers can be easily synthesized and utilized for the fabrication of stabilized nanosuspension.

Development of Perphenazine-Loaded Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Statistical Optimization and Cytotoxicity Studies

OBJECTIVE

Perphenazine (PPZ), as a typical antipsychotic medical substance, has the same effectiveness compared to atypical antipsychotic medications for the treatment of schizophrenia. Despite the lipophilic essence, PPZ encounters limited bioavailability caused by the first-pass metabolism following oral administration. In the present study, PPZ-containing solid lipid nanoparticles (PPZ-SLNs) were prepared and optimized based on different factors, including lipid and surfactant amount, to develop appropriate and safe novel oral dosage forms of PPZ.

METHODS

The solvent emulsification-evaporation method was utilized to form SLNs by using soybean lecithin, glycerol monostearate (GMS), and Tween 80. Statistical optimization was done by the Box-Behnken design method to achieve formulation with optimized particle size, entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential. Also, transmission electron microscopy, in vitro release behavior, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and powder X-ray diffractometry (P-XRD) studies and cytotoxicity studies were assessed.

RESULTS

Optimization exhibited the significant effect of various excipients on SLN characteristics. Our finding indicated that the mean particle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of optimized PPZ-SLN were, respectively, 104 ± 3.92 nm, -28 ± 2.28 mV, and 83% ± 1.29. Drug release of PPZ-SLN was observed to be greater than 90% for 48 h that emphasized a sustained-release pattern. The DSC and P-XRD studies revealed the amorphous state of PPZ-SLN. FTIR spectra showed no incompatibility between the drug and the lipid. Performing cytotoxicity studies indicated no significant cytotoxicity on HT-29 cell culture.

CONCLUSION

Our study suggests that PPZ-SLNs can make a promising vehicle for a suitable therapy of schizophrenia for the oral drug delivery system.

A study to enhance the oral bioavailability of s-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe): SLN and SLN nanocomposite particles

The endogenous molecule, S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe) is a key factor due to its role in the methylation cycle and modulation of monoaminergic neurotransmission. Since many mental disorders have linked to the monoaminergic system, the level of SAMe in blood and cerebrospinal fluid is important in the treatment of major depression. In this study, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were prepared in order to increase the limited oral bioavailability of SAMe, and SLN based nanocomposite particles (SAMe-SLN-NC) were further developed using an enteric polymer for passive targeting of intestinal lymphatic system. In this manner, it was also aimed to protect SAMe loaded SLN from harsh gastric environment as well as hepatic first-pass metabolism. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis of SLN was performed, drug content was measured, SAMe release patterns were examined and the permeation ability of SAMe was investigated by the Parallel Artificial Membrane Permeability Assay (PAMPA) to characterize SAMe loaded SLN formulation. According to the PAMPA results, SAMe-SLN with the average particle size of 242 nm showed enhanced SAMe permeability in comparison to pure drug. Delayed drug release obtained by SLN nanocomposite particles indicated the protection of drug-loaded SLN in the acidic gastric medium and their intact presence in the intestine. SAMe solution or particle suspensions were prepared using 0.45 (w/v) hydroxypropyl methylcellulose aqueous solution to be applied to groups of animals for pharmacokinetic studies. In vivo pharmacokinetic parameters revealed enhancement in relative bioavailability of SAMe upon oral administration of SLN based formulations. This was attributed to intact absorption of lipid matrix through lymphatic path. A statistically significant increase in SAMe plasma levels was obtained at 15th and 30th minutes with SAMe-SLN and at 2nd and 4th hours with SAMe-SLN-NC. Overall results suggest that SLN is a promising carrier to passive lymphatic targeting of SAMe and novel SLN nanocomposite particles which presented efficient oral bioavailability is a potential way for oral delivery of SAMe and treatment of major depression.

Lipid Nanoparticles as Carriers for Bioactive Delivery

Nanotechnology has made a great impact on the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, food, and cosmetics industries. More than 40% of the approved drugs are lipophilic and have poor solubility. This is the major rate-limiting step that influences the release profile and bioavailability of drugs. Several approaches have been reported to administer lipophilic drugs with improved solubility and bioavailability. Nanotechnology plays a crucial role in the targeted delivery of poorly soluble drugs. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems can be classified as solid lipid nanoparticulate drug delivery systems, emulsion-based nanodrug delivery systems, vesicular drug delivery systems, etc. Nanotechnology presents a new frontier in research and development to conquer the limitations coupled with the conventional drug delivery systems through the formation of specific functionalized particles. This review presents a bird's eye view on various aspects of lipid nanoparticles as carriers of bioactive molecules that is, synthesis, characterization, advantage, disadvantage, toxicity, and application in the medical field. Update on recent development in terms of patents and clinical trials of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructure lipid carriers (NLCs) have also been discussed in this article.

Capsaicin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: design, biodistribution, in silico modeling and in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation

Lower doses of capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) have the potential to serve as an anticancer drug, however, due to its pungency, irritant effect, poor water solubility and high distribution volume often linked to various off-target effects, its therapeutic use is limited. This study aimed to determine the biodistribution and anticancer efficacy of capsaicin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) in human hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro. In this study, SLNs of stearic acid loaded with capsaicin was formulated by the solvent evaporation-emulsification technique and were instantly characterized for their encapsulation efficiency, morphology, loading capacity, stability, particle size, charge and in vitro drug release profile. Synthesized SLNs were predominantly spherical, 80 nm diameter particles that proved to be biocompatible with good stability in aqueous conditions. In vivo biodistribution studies of the formulated SLNs showed that 48 h after injection in the lateral tail vein, up to 15% of the cells in the liver, 1.04% of the cells in the spleen, 3.05% of the cells in the kidneys, 3.76% of the cells in the heart, 1.31% of the cells in the lungs and 0% of the cells in the brain of rats were determined. Molecular docking studies against the identified targets in HepG2 cells showed that the capsaicin is able to bind Abelson tyrosine-protein kinase, c-Src kinase, p38 MAP kinase and VEGF-receptor. Molecular dynamic simulation showed that capsaicin-VEGF receptor complex is highly stable at 50 nano seconds. The IC₅₀ of capsaicin loaded SLNs in HepG2 cells in vitro was 21.36 μg × ml^-1. These findings suggest that capsaicin loaded SLNs are stable in circulation for a period up to 3 d, providing a controlled release of loaded capsaicin and enhanced anticancer activity.

Nanostructured lipid carrier potentiated oral delivery of raloxifene for breast cancer treatment

Nanotherapeutics in cancer treatment are dominating global science and research, and have been recognized as the pioneering medical care regimen. Raloxifene (RLN) has been used for its anti-proliferative action on mammary tissue, however, it suffers from poor oral bioavailability. This investigation gives an account of the design and development of RLN-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (RLN-NLCs) using a simple and scalable ultrasonication method for improved oral efficacy and limited offsite toxicity using Compritol^® 888 ATO as a solid lipid and Transcutol^® HP as a liquid lipid. In addition, the optimized RLN-NLCs were in the nanometric range (121 nm) with high % entrapment efficiency (%EE) (81%) for RLN, and were further freeze-dried in the presence of mannitol to enhance the stability of RLN-NLCs in the dry state for long-term use. Morphological observation under a transmission electron microscope and scanning electron microscope revealed the spherical smooth surface nanometric size of RLN-NLCs. Powder x-ray diffraction confirmed the encapsulation of RLN into the RLN-NLC's matrix with reduced crystallinity of the drug. The in vitro release study showed a burst release for an initial 4 h, and sustained release for up to 24 h. Furthermore, the RLN-NLCs showed higher cytotoxicity towards MCF-7 cells in vitro in comparison to RLN suspension, and an ex vivo intestinal permeation study demonstrated improved intestinal permeability of RLN-NLCs. Moreover, the in vivo pharmacokinetic study in female Wistar rats showed a 4.79-fold increment in oral bioavailability of RLN from RLN-NLCs compared to RLN suspension. Taken together, our results pave the way for a new nanotherapeutic approach towards breast cancer treatment.

Selected Factors Affecting Oral Bioavailability of Nanoparticles Surface-Conjugated with Glycocholic Acid via Intestinal Lymphatic Pathway

Here, we describe the absorption pathways of nanoparticles whose surface is modified with bile acid and present environmental factors that influence oral bioavailability (BA) from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The approach utilized 100 nm sized fluorescence-labeled, carboxylated polystyrene nanoparticles (CPN) conjugated with glycocholic acid (G/CPN) to exclude potential artifacts, if existing, and instability issues in evaluating the transit of G/CPN in the GIT and measuring BA. The in vitro study using SK-BR-3 that expresses the apical sodium bile acid transporter showed that once G/CPN is internalized, it stayed 2.9 times longer in the cells than CPN, indirectly suggesting that G/CPN takes intracellular trafficking pathways different from CPN in SK-BR-3 cells. In a Caco-2 cell monolayer, G/CPN passed through the monolayer without damaging the tight junction. G/CPN, when administered orally in rodents, showed sustained transit time in the GIT for at least 4 h and was absorbed into the intestinal lymphatic system and circulated into the blood. Ingestion of food before and after oral administration delays G/CPN absorption and decreases BA. A decrease in gastrointestinal motility by anesthetic condition increased the relative BA of G/CPN by up to 74%. Thus, the oral BA of G/CPN can be optimized by taking food ingestion and gastrointestinal motility into account.

Self-Assembled Casein Nanoparticles Loading Triptolide for the Enhancement of Oral Bioavailability

Triptolide (TP), a broad-spectrum antitumor drug, has very poor solubility and oral bioavailability, which limits its clinical use. Compared with conventional formulations of TP, a casein (Cas)-based drug delivery system has been reported to have significant advantages for the improvement of solubility and bioavailability of insoluble drugs. In this paper, we report the successful preparation of TP-loaded Cas nanoparticles (TP-Cas) using the self-assembly characteristics of Cas in water and the optimization of the formulation by evaluation of entrapment efficiency (EE) and loading efficiency (LE). Dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was adopted to characterize the TP-Cas. Results showed that the obtained TP-Cas were approximately spherical with a particle size of 128.7 ± 11.5 nm, EE of 72.7 ± 4.7 %, and LE of 8.0% ± 0.5%. Furthermore, in vitro release behavior of TP-Cas in PBS (pH = 7.4) was also evaluated, showing a sustained-release profile. Additionally, an in vivo study in rats displayed that the mean plasma concentration of TP after oral administration of TP-Cas was significantly higher than that treated with TP oral suspension. The C max value for TP-Cas (8.0 ± 4.4 μg/mL) was significantly increased compared with the free TP (0.9 ± 0.3 μg/mL). Accordingly, the area under the curve (AUC0-8) of TP-Cas was 2.8 ± 0.8 mg/L·h, 4.3-fold higher than that of TP suspension (0.6 ± 0.1 mg/L·h). Therefore, it can be concluded that TP-Cas enhanced the absorption and improved oral bioavailability of TP. Taking the good oral safety of Cas into consideration, TP-Cas should be a more promising preparation of TP for clinical application.

Optimization of the synthetic parameters of lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles dual loaded with darunavir and ritonavir for the treatment of HIV

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a global health concern to which nanomedicine approaches provide opportunities to improve the bioavailability of existing drugs used to treat HIV.In this article, lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNs) were developed as a system to provide a combination drug delivery of two leading antiretroviral drugs; darunavir (DRV) and its pharmacokinetic enhancer ritonavir (RTV).The LPHNs were designed with a poly(D, l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) core, and soybean lecithin (SBL) and Brij 78 as the stabilizers. The LPHNs were prepared by modified nanoprecipitation and the effect of synthetic conditions on the particle properties was studied, which included the Z-average diameter and polydispersity index of LPHNs in water and phosphate buffered saline, and the morphology of the particles. This investigation aimed to prepare a formulation that could be stored in its dry and redispersible form, therefore avoiding the challenges associated with storage of dispersions. The optimum ratio of stabilizer to polymer core was established at 20% w/w, and Brij 78 was found to be crucial in providing colloidal stability in physiological solutions; the minimum amount of Brij 78 required to provide stability in phosphate buffered saline was 70% w/w of the total stabilizer mass. Viable formulations of LPHNs containing DRV and RTV in the clinically used 8:1 ratio were prepared containing 20% w/w DRV with respect to the PLGA mass. The use of cryoprotectant, polyethylene glycol, combined with freeze-drying yielded LPHNs with a Z-average diameter of 150 nm when the particles were re-dispersed in water. The oral absorption behavior was assessed using an in vitro triple culture model. Whilst the use of cryoprotectant and freeze-drying led to no improvement of the transcellular permeability compared to the unformulated drugs, the non-freeze-dried samples with the highest soybean lecithin led to increased transcellular permeability, revealing the potential of LPHNs for enhancing HIV treatment.

A transport system based on a quantum dot-modified nanotracer is genetically and developmentally stable in pregnant mice

The use of nanoscale materials (NMs) could cause problems such as cytotoxicity, genomic aberration, and effects on human health, but the impacts of NM exposure during pregnancy remain uncharacterized in the context of clinical applications. It was sought to determine whether nanomaterials pass through the maternal-fetal junction at any stage of pregnancy. Quantum dots (QDs) coated with heparinized Pluronic 127 nanogels and polyethyleneimine (PEI) were administered to pregnant mice. The biodistribution of QDs, as well as their biological impacts on maternal and fetal health, was evaluated. Encapsulation of QDs with a nanogel coating produces a petal-like nanotracer (PNt), which could serve as a nano-carrier of genes or drugs. PNts were injected through the tail vein and accumulated in the liver, kidneys, and lungs. QD accumulation in reproductive organs (uterus, placenta, and fetus) differed among phases of pregnancy. In phase I (7 days of pregnancy), the QDs did not accumulate in the placenta or fetus, but by phase III (19 days) they had accumulated at high levels in both tissues. Karyotype analysis revealed that the PNt-treated pups did not have genetic abnormalities when dams were treated at any phase of pregnancy. PNts have the potential to serve as carriers of therapeutic agents for the treatment of the mother or fetus and these results have a significant impact on the development and application of QD-based NPs in pregnancy.

Nanoformulation strategies for improving intestinal permeability of drugs: A more precise look at permeability assessment methods and pharmacokinetic properties changes

The therapeutic efficacy of orally administered drugs is often restricted by their inherent limited oral bioavailability. Low water solubility, limited permeability through the intestinal barrier, instability in harsh environment of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and being substrate of the efflux pumps and the cytochrome P450 (CYP) can impair oral drug bioavailability resulting in erratic and variable plasma drug profile. As more drugs with low membrane permeability are developed, new interest is growing to enhance their intestinal permeability and bioavailability. A wide variety of nanosystems have been developed to improve drug transport and absorption. Sufficient evidence exists to suggest that nanoparticles are able to increase the transepithelial transport of drug molecules. However, key questions remained unanswered. What types of nanoparticles are more efficient? What are preclinical (or clinical) achievements of each type of nanoformulation in terms of pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters? Addressing this issue in this paper, we have reviewed the current literature regarding permeability enhancement, permeability assessment methods and changes in PK parameters following administration of various nanoformulations. Although permeability enhancement by various nanoformulations holds great promise for oral drug delivery, many challenges still need to be addressed before development of more clinically successful nanoproducts.

Oral nanoparticles based on gellan gum/pectin for colon-targeted delivery of resveratrol

Nanoparticles based on gellan gum/pectin blends were designed for colon-targeted release of resveratrol (RES). Their impact on drug release rates and permeability were evaluated using Caco-2 cell model and mucus secreting triple co-culture model. Polymeric nanoparticles (PNP) were successfully prepared by nebulization/ionotropic gelation, achieving high drug loading (>80%). PNP were spherical with a low positive charge density (+5mV) and exhibited diameters of around 330 nm. Developed PNP were able to promote effective modulation of drug release rates, so that only 3% of RES was released in acidic media over 2 h, and, in pH 6.8, the drug was released in a sustained manner, reaching 85% in 30 h. The permeability of RES-loaded PNP in the Caco-2 model was 0.15%, while in the triple co-culture model, in the presence of mucus, it reached 5.5%. The everted gut sac experiment corroborated the low permeability of RES-loaded PNP in the presence or absence of mucus and highlighted their high ability to interact with the intestinal tissue. Results indicate that the novel PNP developed in this work are safe and promising carriers for controlled delivery of RES at the colon.

Docetaxel-Loaded Disulfide Cross-Linked Nanoparticles Derived from Thiolated Sodium Alginate for Colon Cancer Drug Delivery

In this study, fluorescein-labelled wheat germ agglutinin (fWGA)-conjugated disulfide cross-linked sodium alginate nanoparticles were developed to specifically target docetaxel (DTX) to colon cancer cells. Different amounts of 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) were covalently attached to sodium alginate to form thiolated sodium alginate (MPA1-5). These polymers were then self-assembled and air-oxidised to form disulfide cross-linked nanoparticles (MP1-5) under sonication. DTX was successfully loaded into the resulting MP1-5 to form DTX-loaded nanoparticles (DMP1-5). DMP2 had the highest loading efficiency (17.8%), thus was chosen for fWGA surface conjugation to form fWGA-conjugated nanoparticles (fDMP2) with a conjugation efficiency of 14.1%. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses showed spherical nanoparticles, and an in vitro drug release study recorded a cumulative drug release of 48.6%. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis revealed a mean diameter (MD) of 289 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.3 and a zeta potential of -2.2 mV for fDMP2. HT-29 human colon cancer cells treated with fDMP2 showed lower viability than that of L929 mouse fibroblast cells. These results indicate that fDMP2 was efficiently taken up by HT-29 cells (29.9%). Fluorescence and confocal imaging analyses also showed possible internalisation of nanoparticles by HT-29 cells. In conclusion, fDMP2 shows promise as a DTX carrier for colon cancer drug delivery.

Preparation and in vitro characterization of valsartan-loaded ethyl cellulose and poly(methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles

Valsartan is an antihypertensive drug used primarily orally, however, due to its hydrophobic nature it has got low bio-availability thus requiring higher dosage/frequency and causing more side effects. The aim of our work was to prepare valsartan-loaded nanoparticles by using ethyl cellulose and poly(methyl methacrylate) polymers which can be administered orally and to investigate the preparation conditions and their significance as potential drug carriers for valsartan delivery by in vitro release studies. Ethyl cellulose and poly(methyl methacrylate) polymers were used for the preparation of nanoparticles by single emulsion-solvent evaporation technique. The formation of drug-loaded nanoparticles was designed by experimental design for size and encapsulation efficiency, in addition the prepared nanosuspensions were nano spray dried in order to gain a powder form that is easy to handle and store. Both of the nano spray dried formulations had an amorphous structure in contrast to the pure drug according to differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction analysis, which can be advantageous in drug absorption. The originally processed ethyl cellulose-valsartan nanoparticles increased the solubility of the drug in the model intestinal medium, while poly(methyl methacrylate)-valsartan nanoparticles enabled substantially prolonged drug release. The release kinetics of both types of nanoparticles could be described by the Weibull model.

Valsartan-loaded ethyl cellulose and poly(methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles were prepared and nano spray-dried. The active agent was structurally changed in the nanoparticles, which could be advantageous in the intestinal absorption.

Targeted therapy in chronic diseases using nanomaterial-based drug delivery vehicles

The application of nanomedicines is increasing rapidly with the promise of targeted and efficient drug delivery. Nanomedicines address the shortcomings of conventional therapy, as evidenced by several preclinical and clinical investigations indicating site-specific drug delivery, reduced side effects, and better treatment outcome. The development of suitable and biocompatible drug delivery vehicles is a prerequisite that has been successfully achieved by using simple and functionalized liposomes, nanoparticles, hydrogels, micelles, dendrimers, and mesoporous particles. A variety of drug delivery vehicles have been established for the targeted and controlled delivery of therapeutic agents in a wide range of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, asthma, pulmonary tuberculosis, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease. After successful outcomes in preclinical and clinical trials, many of these drugs have been marketed for human use, such as Abraxane®, Caelyx®, Mepact®, Myocet®, Emend®, and Rapamune®. Apart from drugs/compounds, novel therapeutic agents, such as peptides, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), and genes have also shown potential to be used as nanomedicines for the treatment of several chronic ailments. However, a large number of extensive clinical trials are still needed to ensure the short-term and long-term effects of nanomedicines in humans. This review discusses the advantages of various drug delivery vehicles for better understanding of their utility in terms of current medical needs. Furthermore, the application of a wide range of nanomedicines is also described in the context of major chronic diseases.

Preparation and Comparison of Oral Bioavailability for Different Nano-formulations of Olaparib

Olaparib (OLA) is a poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitor approved for germline BRCA-mutated (gBRCAm) advanced ovarian cancer and breast cancer. Low oral bioavailability of this drug requires increase in the dose and frequency causing haematological toxicity in the patients. The purpose of this study is to prepare different nano-formulations of OLA lipospheres (LP) by melt dispersion and nano-suspensions (NSP) by solvent evaporation (SE) and wet milling (WM) techniques and compare oral bioavailability of these formulations. Size of the nano-formulations OLA-LP, OLA-NSP_SE and OLA-NSP_WM were found to be 126.71 ± 4.54, 128.6 ± 2.34 and 531.1 ± 5.34 nm with polydispersity index below 0.3. In vitro release studies were performed by dialysis bag method where the sustained drug release was observed from nano-formulations until 9 h with Higuchi for OLA suspended in 2.5% w/v sodium carboxy methyl cellulose (OLA-SP), OLA-LP and OLA-NSP_WM and Peppas for OLA-NSP_SE-based drug release kinetics. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies, haematological toxicity and distribution studies were performed on rats. Results showed that there was an improvement in C_max, AUC_total, t_1/2 and MRT by OLA nano-formulations when compared with OLA-SP. OLA-SP has shown reduction in WBC, platelets and lymphocytes at 12 and 36 h time points; however, no reduction in cell count was observed with OLA nano-formulations. Distribution studies proved FITC nano-formulations were most rapidly absorbed and distributed when compared with FITC-loaded suspension. From the above results, it was concluded that OLA nano-formulations can be an alternative to enhance the oral bioavailability and to reduce the haematological toxicity of OLA.

Loratadine self-microemulsifying drug delivery systems (SMEDDS) in combination with sulforaphane for the synergistic chemoprevention of pancreatic cancer

Pancreatic cancer (PC), currently the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths in the USA, is projected to become the second leading cause, behind lung cancer, by 2020. The increasing incidence, low survival rate, and limited treatment opportunities necessitate the use of alternative approaches such as chemoprevention, to tackle PC. In this study, we report significant synergistic chemoprevention efficacy for the first time from a low-dose combination of a classical antihistaminic drug, Loratadine (LOR) and a neutraceutical compound, Sulforaphane (SFN) using a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) formulation. The formulation was developed using Quality by Design approach (globule size, 95.13 ± 7.9 nm; PDI, 0.17 ± 0.04) and revealed significant (p < 0.05) enhancement in the in vitro dissolution profile confirming the enhanced solubility of BCS class II drug LOR with SMEDDS formulation. The LOR-SFN combination revealed ~ 40-fold reduction in IC50 concentration compared to LOR alone in MIA PaCa-2 and Panc-1 cell lines respectively, confirming the synergistic enhancement in chemoprevention. Further, the nanoformulation resulted in ~ 7-fold and ~ 11-fold reduction in IC50 values compared to LOR-SFN combination. Hence, our studies successfully demonstrate that a unique low-dose combination of LOR encapsulated within SMEDDs with SFN shows significantly enhanced chemopreventive efficacy of PC.

Nanoparticle Based Treatment for Cardiovascular Diseases

Nanotechnology has gained increased attention for delivering therapeutic agents effectively to the cardiovascular system. Heart targeted nanocarrier based drug delivery is a new, effective and efficacious approach for treating various cardiac related disorders such as atherosclerosis, hypertension, and myocardial infarction. Nanocarrier based drug delivery system circumvents the problems associated with conventional drug delivery systems, including their nonspecificity, severe side effects and damage to the normal cells. Modification of physicochemical properties of nanocarriers such as size, shape and surface modifications can immensely alter its invivo pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data and will provide better treatment strategy. Several nanocarriers such as lipid, phospholipid nanoparticles have been developed for delivering drugs to the target sites within the heart. This review summarizes and increases the understanding of the advanced nanosized drug delivery systems for treating cardiovascular disorders with the promising use of nanotechnology.

Role of Nanotechnology in Diabetic Management

BACKGROUND

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) has emerged as an epidemic that has affected millions of people worldwide in the last few decades. Nanotechnology is a discipline that is concerned with material characteristics at nanoscale and offers novel techniques for disease detection, management and prevention.

OBJECTIVE

Diabetes mellitus is an epidemic disease that has affected millions of people globally. Nanotechnology has greatly enhanced the health status by providing non-obtrusive techniques for the management and treatment of diabetic patients.

METHOD

In diabetes research, the nanotechnology has encouraged the advancement of novel glucose monitoring and several modalities for insulin delivery holding possibilities to enhance the personal satisfaction and life quality for diabetic patients.

RESULT

Nanoparticles hold a great potential in the areas of drug delivery and are explored as vehicles for orally administered insulin formulations. Glucose biosensors equipped with nanoscale materials such as Quantum Dots (QDs), Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs), Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs) etc. have shown greater sensitivity. Nanotechnology in diabetic research is heading towards the novel techniques which can provide continuous glucose monitoring offering accurate information and improving patient's compliance.

CONCLUSION

The present review addresses the different aspects of nanoparticles and recent patents related to diabetic management based on nanotechnology.