Quantification of Self-Renewal Capacity in Single Hematopoietic Stem Cells from Normal and Lnk-Deficient Mice

Hematopoietic stem cell heterogeneity in non-human primates revealed by five-lineage output bias analysis

Understanding hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) heterogeneity is crucial for treating malignant blood disorders. Compared with mice, we have limited knowledge of the heterogeneity of human HSCs. Fortunately, non-human primates (NHPs) have become the best animal models for studying human HSCs. Here, we employed a public dataset derived from NHP autologous bone marrow transplantation, and focused on a total of 820 HSC clones with reconstitution capacity of all available five lineages (granulocyte, monocyte, B cell, T cell, and natural killer cell) at two time points (11/12 and/or 42/43 months). Intriguingly, unsupervised clustering on these clones revealed six HSC subtypes, including a lymphoid/myeloid balanced (LM-balanced) subtype and five single-lineage-biased subtypes. We also observed that the subtypes of these HSC clones might change over time, and a given subtype could transition into any one of the other five subtypes, albeit with a certain degree of selectivity. Particularly, each of the six subtypes was more likely to turn into lymphoid-biased rather than myeloid-biased ones. Additionally, our five-lineage classification method exhibited strong correlation with traditional lymphoid/myeloid bias classification method. Specifically, our granulocyte- and monocyte-biased subtypes were predominantly attributed to α-HSCs, while LM-balanced, B cell-biased, and T cell-biased subtypes were primarily associated with β-HSCs. The γ-HSCs were composed of a small subset of B cell-biased and T cell-biased subtypes. In summary, our five-lineage classification identifies more finely tuned HSC subtypes based on lineage output bias. These findings enrich our understanding of HSC heterogeneity in NHPs and provide important insights for human research.

Lessons from early life: understanding development to expand stem cells and treat cancers

Haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) self-renewal is a process that is essential for the development and homeostasis of the blood system. Self-renewal expansion divisions, which create two daughter HSCs from a single parent HSC, can be harnessed to create large numbers of HSCs for a wide range of cell and gene therapies, but the same process is also a driver of the abnormal expansion of HSCs in diseases such as cancer. Although HSCs are first produced during early embryonic development, the key stage and location where they undergo maximal expansion is in the foetal liver, making this tissue a rich source of data for deciphering the molecules driving HSC self-renewal. Another equally interesting stage occurs post-birth, several weeks after HSCs have migrated to the bone marrow, when HSCs undergo a developmental switch and adopt a more dormant state. Characterising these transition points during development is key, both for understanding the evolution of haematological malignancies and for developing methods to promote HSC expansion. In this Spotlight article, we provide an overview of some of the key insights that studying HSC development have brought to the fields of HSC expansion and translational medicine, many of which set the stage for the next big breakthroughs in the field.

Immune dysregulation associated with co-occurring germline CBL and SH2B3 variants

Background

CBL syndrome is a RASopathy caused by heterozygous germline mutations of the Casitas B-lineage lymphoma (CBL) gene. It is characterized by heterogeneous clinical phenotype, including developmental delay, facial dysmorphisms, cardiovascular malformations and an increased risk of cancer development, particularly juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML). Although the clinical phenotype has been progressively defined in recent years, immunological manifestations have not been well elucidated to date.

Methods

We studied the genetic, immunological, coagulative, and clinical profile of a family with CBL syndrome that came to our observation after the diagnosis of JMML, with homozygous CBL mutation, in one of the members.

Results

Variant analysis revealed the co-occurrence of CBL heterozygous mutation (c.1141 T > C) and SH2B3 mutation (c.1697G > A) in two other members. Patients carrying both mutations showed an ALPS-like phenotype characterized by lymphoproliferation, cytopenia, increased double-negative T-cells, impaired Fas-mediated lymphocyte apoptosis, altered cell death in PBMC and low TRECs expression. A coagulative work-up was also performed and showed the presence of subclinical coagulative alterations in patients carrying both mutations.

Conclusion

In the reported family, we described immune dysregulation, as part of the clinical spectrum of CBL mutation with the co-occurrence of SH2B3.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40246-022-00414-y.

Hematopoietic Stem Cells and Regeneration

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) regeneration is the remarkable process by which extremely rare, normally inactive cells of the bone marrow can replace an entire organ if called to do so by injury or harnessed by transplantation. HSC research is arguably the first quantitative single-cell science and the foundation of adult stem cell biology. Bone marrow transplant is the oldest and most refined technique of regenerative medicine. Here we review the intertwined history of the discovery of HSCs and bone marrow transplant, the molecular and cellular mechanisms of HSC self-renewal, and the use of HSCs and their derivatives for cell therapy.

Stem Cells, Hematopoiesis and Lineage Tracing: Transplantation-Centric Views and Beyond

An appropriate production of mature blood cells, or hematopoiesis, is essential for organismal health and homeostasis. In this developmental cascade, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) differentiate into intermediate progenitor types, that subsequently give rise to the many distinct blood cell lineages. Here, we describe tools and methods that permit for temporal and native clonal-level HSC lineage tracing in the mouse, and that can now be combined with emerging single-cell molecular analyses. We integrate new insights derived from such experimental paradigms with past knowledge, which has predominantly been derived from transplantation-based approaches. Finally, we outline current knowledge and novel strategies derived from studies aimed to trace human HSC-derived hematopoiesis.

LNK (SH2B3) Inhibition Expands Healthy and Fanconi Anemia Human Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) remains the only curative treatment for a variety of hematological diseases. Allogenic HSCT requires hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) from matched donors and comes with cytotoxicity and mortality. Recent advances in genome modification of HSCs have demonstrated the possibility of using autologous HSCT-based gene therapy to cure monogenic diseases, such as the inherited bone marrow failure (BMF) syndrome Fanconi Anemia (FA). However, for FA and other BMF syndromes insufficient HSC numbers with functional defects results in delayed hematopoietic recovery and increased risk of graft failure. We and others previously identified the adaptor protein Lnk (Sh2b3) as a critical negative regulator of murine HSC homeostasis. However, whether LNK (SH2B3) controls human HSCs has not been studied. Here, we demonstrate that depletion of LNK via lentiviral expression of miR30-based short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) resulted in robust expansion of transplantable human HSCs that provided balanced multilineage reconstitution in primary and secondary mouse recipients. Importantly, LNK depletion enhanced cytokine mediated JAK/STAT activation in CD34+ hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). Moreover, we demonstrate that LNK depletion expands primary HSPCs associated with FA. In xenotransplant, engraftment defects of FANCD2-depleted FA-like HSCs were markedly improved by LNK inhibition. Finally, targeting LNK in primary bone marrow HSPCs from FA patients enhanced their colony forming potential in vitro. Together, these results demonstrate the potential of targeting LNK to expand HSCs to improve HSCT and HSCT-based gene therapy.

The JAK/STAT signaling pathway: from bench to clinic

The Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathway was discovered more than a quarter-century ago. As a fulcrum of many vital cellular processes, the JAK/STAT pathway constitutes a rapid membrane-to-nucleus signaling module and induces the expression of various critical mediators of cancer and inflammation. Growing evidence suggests that dysregulation of the JAK/STAT pathway is associated with various cancers and autoimmune diseases. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge about the composition, activation, and regulation of the JAK/STAT pathway. Moreover, we highlight the role of the JAK/STAT pathway and its inhibitors in various diseases.

Nf1 and Sh2b3 mutations cooperate in vivo in a mouse model of juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia

Juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML) is initiated in early childhood by somatic mutations that activate Ras signaling. Although some patients have only a single identifiable oncogenic mutation, others have 1 or more additional alterations. Such secondary mutations, as a group, are associated with an increased risk of relapse after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation or transformation to acute myeloid leukemia. These clinical observations suggest a cooperative effect between initiating and secondary mutations. However, the roles of specific genes in the prognosis or clinical presentation of JMML have not been described. In this study, we investigate the impact of secondary SH2B3 mutations in JMML. We find that patients with SH2B3 mutations have adverse outcomes, as well as higher white blood cell counts and hemoglobin F levels in the peripheral blood. We further demonstrate this interaction in genetically engineered mice. Deletion of Sh2b3 cooperates with conditional Nf1 deletion in a dose-dependent fashion. These studies illustrate that haploinsufficiency for Sh2b3 contributes to the severity of myeloproliferative disease and provide an experimental system for testing treatments for a high-risk cohort of JMML patients.

Hematopoietic stem cell stretches and moves in its bone marrow niche

Hematopoietic stem cells are the most illustrious inhabitants of the bone marrow. Direct visualization of endogenous hematopoietic stem cells in this niche is essential to study their functions. Until recently this was not possible in live animals. Recent studies, using state-of-the-art technologies, including sophisticated in vivo inducible genetic approaches in combination with two-photon laser scanning microscopy, allow the follow-up of endogenous hematopoietic stem cells' behavior in their habitat. Strikingly, the new findings reveal that quiescent hematopoietic stem cells are more mobile than previously thought, and link their retained steady state within the niche to a mobile behavior. The arising knowledge from this research will be critical for the therapy of several hematological diseases. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of hematopoietic stem cell biology in their niches.

Recent Advances in the Use of Molecular Analyses to Inform the Diagnosis and Prognosis of Patients with Polycythaemia Vera

Genetic studies in the past decade have improved our understanding of the molecular basis of the BCR-ABL1-negative myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) polycythaemia vera (PV). Such breakthroughs include the discovery of the JAK2V617F driver mutation in approximately 95% of patients with PV, as well as some very rare cases of familial hereditary MPN caused by inherited germline mutations. Patients with PV often progress to fibrosis or acute myeloid leukaemia, both associated with very poor clinical outcome. Moreover, thrombosis and major bleeding are the principal causes of morbidity and mortality. As a result of increasingly available and economical next-generation sequencing technologies, mutational studies have revealed the prognostic relevance of a few somatic mutations in terms of thrombotic risk and risk of transformation, helping to improve the risk stratification of patients with PV. Finally, knowledge of the molecular basis of PV has helped identify targets for directed therapy. The constitutive activation of the tyrosine kinase JAK2 is targeted by ruxolitinib, a JAK1/JAK2 tyrosine kinase inhibitor for PV patients who are resistant or intolerant to cytoreductive treatment with hydroxyurea. Other molecular mechanisms have also been revealed, and numerous agents are in various stages of development. Here, we will provide an update of the recent published literature on how molecular testing can improve the diagnosis and prognosis of patients with PV and present recent advances that may have prognostic value in the near future.

Haematopoietic stem cell self-renewal in vivo and ex vivo

The self-renewal capacity of multipotent haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) supports blood system homeostasis throughout life and underlies the curative capacity of clinical HSC transplantation therapies. However, despite extensive characterization of the HSC state in the adult bone marrow and embryonic fetal liver, the mechanism of HSC self-renewal has remained elusive. This Review presents our current understanding of HSC self-renewal in vivo and ex vivo, and discusses important advances in ex vivo HSC expansion that are providing new biological insights and offering new therapeutic opportunities.

Metabolic Regulation and Related Molecular Mechanisms in Various Stem Cell Functions

Recent studies on the mechanisms that link metabolic changes with stem cell fate have deepened our understanding of how specific metabolic pathways can regulate various stem cell functions during the development of an organism. Although it was originally thought to be merely a consequence of the specific cell state, metabolism is currently known to play a critical role in regulating the self-renewal capacity, differentiation potential, and quiescence of stem cells. Many studies in recent years have revealed that metabolic pathways regulate various stem cell behaviors (e.g., selfrenewal, migration, and differentiation) by modulating energy production through glycolysis or oxidative phosphorylation and by regulating the generation of metabolites, which can modulate multiple signaling pathways. Therefore, a more comprehensive understanding of stem cell metabolism could allow us to establish optimal culture conditions and differentiation methods that would increase stem cell expansion and function for cell-based therapies. However, little is known about how metabolic pathways regulate various stem cell functions. In this context, we review the current advances in metabolic research that have revealed functional roles for mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, anaerobic glycolysis, and oxidative stress during the self-renewal, differentiation and aging of various adult stem cell types. These approaches could provide novel strategies for the development of metabolic or pharmacological therapies to promote the regenerative potential of stem cells and subsequently promote their therapeutic utility.

The Molecular Genetics of Myeloproliferative Neoplasms

Activated JAK-STAT signaling is central to the pathogenesis of BCR-ABL-negative myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) and occurs as a result of MPN phenotypic driver mutations in JAK2, CALR, or MPL The spectrum of concomitant somatic mutations in other genes has now largely been defined in MPNs. With the integration of targeted next-generation sequencing (NGS) panels into clinical practice, the clinical significance of concomitant mutations in MPNs has become clearer. In this review, we describe the consequences of concomitant mutations in the most frequently mutated classes of genes in MPNs: (1) DNA methylation pathways, (2) chromatin modification, (3) RNA splicing, (4) signaling pathways, (5) transcription factors, and (6) DNA damage response/stress signaling. The increased use of molecular genetics for early risk stratification of patients brings the possibility of earlier intervention to prevent disease progression in MPNs. However, additional studies are required to decipher underlying molecular mechanisms and effectively target them.

Role of growth factors in hematopoietic stem cell niche

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) produce new blood cells everyday throughout life, which is maintained by the self-renewal and differentiation ability of HSCs. This is not controlled by the HSCs alone, but rather by the complex and exquisite microenvironment surrounding the HSCs, which is called the bone marrow niche and consists of various bone marrow cells, growth factors, and cytokines. It is essential to understand the characteristic role of the stem cell niche and the growth factors in the niche formation. In this review, we describe the role of the bone marrow niche and factors for niche homeostasis, and also summarize the latest research related to stem cell niche.

Embryonic lineage tracing with Procr-CreER marks balanced hematopoietic stem cell fate during entire mouse lifespan

The functional heterogeneity of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) has been comprehensively investigated by single-cell transplantation assay. However, the heterogeneity regarding their physiological contribution remains an open question, especially for those with life-long hematopoietic fate of rigorous self-renewing and balanced differentiation capacities. In this study, we revealed that Procr expression was detected principally in phenotypical vascular endothelium co-expressing Dll4 and CD44 in the mid-gestation mouse embryos, and could enrich all the HSCs of the embryonic day 11.5 (E11.5) aorta-gonad-mesonephros (AGM) region. We then used a temporally restricted genetic tracing strategy to irreversibly label the Procr-expressing cells at E9.5. Interestingly, most labeled mature HSCs in multiple sites (such as AGM) around E11.5 were functionally categorized as lymphomyeloid-balanced HSCs assessed by direct transplantation. Furthermore, the labeled cells contributed to an average of 7.8% of immunophenotypically defined HSCs in E14.5 fetal liver (FL) and 6.9% of leukocytes in peripheral blood (PB) during one-year follow-up. Surprisingly, in aged mice of 24 months, the embryonically tagged cells displayed constant contribution to leukocytes with no bias to myeloid or lymphoid lineages. Altogether, we demonstrated, for the first time, the existence of a subtype of physiologically long-lived balanced HSCs as hypothesized, whose precise embryonic origin and molecular identity await further characterization.

Synergy of NUP98-HOXA10 Fusion Gene and NrasG12D Mutation Preserves the Stemness of Hematopoietic Stem Cells on Culture Condition

Natural hematopoietic stem cells (HSC) are susceptible and tend to lose stemness, differentiate, or die on culture condition in vitro, which adds technical challenge for maintaining bona fide HSC-like cells, if ever generated, in protocol screening from pluripotent stem cells. It remains largely unknown whether gene-editing of endogenous genes can genetically empower HSC to endure the culture stress and preserve stemness. In this study, we revealed that both NUP98-HOXA10HD fusion and endogenous Nras mutation modifications (NrasG12D) promoted the engraftment competitiveness of HSC. Furthermore, the synergy of these two genetic modifications endowed HSC with super competitiveness in vivo. Strikingly, single NAV-HSC successfully maintained its stemness and showed robust multi-lineage engraftments after undergoing the in vitro culture. Mechanistically, NUP98-HOXA10HD fusion and NrasG12D mutation distinctly altered multiple pathways involving the cell cycle, cell division, and DNA replication, and distinctly regulated stemness-related genes including Hoxa9, Prdm16, Hoxb4, Trim27, and Smarcc1 in the context of HSC. Thus, we develop a super-sensitive transgenic model reporting the existence of HSC at the single cell level on culture condition, which could be beneficial for protocol screening of bona fide HSC regeneration from pluripotent stem cells in vitro.

Interleukin-12 supports in vitro self-renewal of long-term hematopoietic stem cells

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) self-renew or differentiate through division. Cytokines are essential for inducing HSC division, but the optimal cytokine combination to control self-renewal of HSC in vitro remains unclear. In this study, we compared the effects of interleukin-12 (IL-12) and thrombopoietin (TPO) in combination with stem cell factor (SCF) on in vitro self-renewal of HSCs. Single-cell assays were used to overcome the heterogeneity issue of HSCs, and serum-free conditions were newly established to permit reproduction of data. In single-cell cultures, CD150⁺CD48⁻CD41⁻CD34⁻c-Kit⁺Sca-1⁺lineage⁻ HSCs divided significantly more slowly in the presence of SCF+IL-12 compared with cells in the presence of SCF+TPO. Serial transplantation of cells from bulk and clonal cultures revealed that TPO was more effective than IL-12 at supporting in vitro self-renewal of short-term (<6 months) HSCs, resulting in a monophasic reconstitution wave formation, whereas IL-12 was more effective than TPO at supporting the in vitro self-renewal of long-term (>6 months) HSCs, resulting in a biphasic reconstitution wave formation. The control of division rate in HSCs appeared to be crucial for preventing the loss of self-renewal potential from their in vitro culture.

The BRISC deubiquitinating enzyme complex limits hematopoietic stem cell expansion by regulating JAK2 K63-ubiquitination

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) homeostasis is controlled by cytokine receptor-mediated Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) signaling. We previously found that JAK2 is promptly ubiquitinated upon cytokine stimulation. Whether a competing JAK2 deubiquitination activity exists is unknown. LNK is an essential adaptor protein that constrains HSC expansion through dampening thrombopoietin (TPO)-induced JAK2 signaling. We show here that a LNK-associated lysine-63 (K63)-deubiquitinating enzyme complex, Brcc36 isopeptidase complex (BRISC), attenuates HSC expansion through control of JAK2 signaling. We pinpoint a direct interaction between the LNK SH2 domain and a phosphorylated tyrosine residue in KIAA0157 (Abraxas2), a unique and defining BRISC component. Kiaa0157 deficiency in mice led to an expansion of phenotypic and functional HSCs. Endogenous JAK2 and phospho-JAK2 were rapidly K63-ubiquitinated upon TPO stimulation, and this action was augmented in cells depleted of the BRISC core components KIAA0157, MERIT40, or BRCC36. This increase in JAK2 ubiquitination after BRISC knockdown was associated with increased TPO-mediated JAK2 activation and protein levels, and increased MPL receptor presence at the cell surface. In addition, BRISC depletion promoted membrane proximal association between the MPL receptor and pJAK2/JAK2, thus enhancing activated JAK2/MPL at the cell membrane. These findings define a novel pathway by which K63-ubiquitination promotes JAK2 stability and activation in a proteasome-independent manner. Moreover, mutations in BRCC36 are found in clonal hematopoiesis in humans. This research may shed light on the mechanistic understanding of a potential role of BRCC36 in human HSCs.

Lnk/Sh2b3 deficiency restores hematopoietic stem cell function and genome integrity in Fancd2 deficient Fanconi anemia

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a bone marrow failure (BMF) syndrome that arises from mutations in a network of FA genes essential for DNA interstrand crosslink (ICL) repair and replication stress tolerance. While allogeneic stem cell transplantation can replace defective HSCs, interventions to mitigate HSC defects in FA do not exist. Remarkably, we reveal here that Lnk (Sh2b3) deficiency restores HSC function in Fancd2^−/− mice. Lnk deficiency does not impact ICL repair, but instead stabilizes stalled replication forks in a manner, in part, dependent upon alleviating blocks to cytokine−mediated JAK2 signaling. Lnk deficiency restores proliferation and survival of Fancd2^−/− HSCs, while reducing replication stress and genomic instability. Furthermore, deletion of LNK in human FA-like HSCs promotes clonogenic growth. These findings highlight a new role for cytokine/JAK signaling in promoting replication fork stability, illuminate replication stress as a major underlying origin of BMF in FA, and have strong therapeutic implications.

Loss of Fancd2 leads to replication stress intolerance and Fanconi Anemia, where haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) function is compromised. Here, the authors show that Lnk/Sh2b3 loss restores HSC proliferation and survival in Fancd2 knockout mice and ameliorates replication stress in a cytokine/JAK2 signaling dependent manner.

TGF-β1 Negatively Regulates the Number and Function of Hematopoietic Stem Cells

Transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) plays a role in the maintenance of quiescent hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in vivo. We asked whether TGF-β1 controls the cell cycle status of HSCs in vitro to enhance the reconstitution activity. To examine the effect of TGF-β1 on the HSC function, we used an in vitro culture system in which single HSCs divide with the retention of their short- and long-term reconstitution ability. Extensive single-cell analyses showed that, regardless of its concentration, TGF-β1 slowed down the cell cycle progression of HSCs but consequently suppressed their self-renewal potential. Cycling HSCs were not able to go back to quiescence with TGF-β1. This study revealed a negative role of TGF-β1 in the regulation of the HSC number and reconstitution activity.

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TGF-β1 slows down the cell cycle progression of HSCs

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Cycling HSCs were unable to go back to the G0 state with TGF-β1

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TGF-β1 suppresses the self-renewal potential in HSCs

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The reduced division rate with TGF-β1 is reversible

Hematopoietic Hierarchy - An Updated Roadmap

The classical roadmap of hematopoietic hierarchy has been proposed for nearly 20 years and has become a dogma of stem cell research for most types of adult stem cells, including hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). However, with the development of new technologies such as omics approaches at single-cell resolution, recent studies in vitro and in vivo have suggested that heterogeneity is a common feature of HSCs and their progenies. While these findings broaden our understanding of hematopoiesis, they also challenge the well-accepted hematopoietic hierarchy roadmap. Here, we review recent advances in the hematopoiesis field and provide an updated view to incorporate these new findings as well as to reflect on the complexity of HSCs and their derivatives in development and adulthood.

SH2B3 aberrations enriched in iAMP21 B lymphoblastic leukemia

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) represents the most common childhood malignancy. Although survival for pediatric B-ALL has approached 90%, variability in outcome among and within cytogenetically defined subgroups persists. While G-banding and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) have been used to characterize leukemic clones, there is added value of chromosomal microarray and next generation sequencing in screening genome-wide for copy number aberrations, copy neutral loss of heterozygosity and nucleotide variations. Evaluation of novel genetic aberrations can provide information about the biologic mechanisms of cytogenetically defined subgroups associated with poor prognosis, explain heterogeneity in patient outcome and identify novel targets for therapeutic intervention. The high risk B-ALL intrachromosomal amplification of chromosome 21, (iAMP21), subtype is characterized by amplification of a region of chromosome 21 that typically encompasses the RUNX1 gene and is associated with poor prognosis. Analysis of chromosomal microarray and FISH data revealed that deletions of SH2B3, encoding a negative regulator of multiple tyrosine kinase and cytokine signaling pathways, are enriched among leukemias harboring iAMP21. Enrichment of SH2B3 aberrations in the iAMP21 subtype may indicate that loss of SH2B3 contributes to disease progression and raises the possibility that these leukemias may be sensitive to tyrosine kinase inhibitors.

Stretching the limits: from homeostasis to stem cell plasticity in wound healing and cancer

Stem cells (SCs) govern tissue homeostasis and wound repair. They reside within niches, the special microenvironments within tissues that control SC lineage outputs. Upon injury or stress, new signals emanating from damaged tissue can divert nearby cells into adopting behaviours that are not part of their homeostatic repertoire. This behaviour, known as SC plasticity, typically resolves as wounds heal. However, in cancer, it can endure. Recent studies have yielded insights into the orchestrators of maintenance and lineage commitment for SCs belonging to three mammalian tissues: the haematopoietic system, the skin epithelium and the intestinal epithelium. We delineate the multifactorial determinants and general principles underlying the remarkable facets of SC plasticity, which lend promise for regenerative medicine and cancer therapeutics.

Aging of hematopoietic stem cells

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ensure a balanced production of all blood cells throughout life. As they age, HSCs gradually lose their self-renewal and regenerative potential, whereas the occurrence of cellular derailment strongly increases. Here we review our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms that contribute to HSC aging. We argue that most of the causes that underlie HSC aging result from cell-intrinsic pathways, and reflect on which aspects of the aging process may be reversible. Because many hematological pathologies are strongly age-associated, strategies to intervene in aspects of the stem cell aging process may have significant clinical relevance.

Adipocytes role in the bone marrow niche

Adipocyte infiltration in the bone marrow follows chemotherapy or irradiation. Previous studies indicate that bone marrow fat cells inhibit hematopoietic stem cell function. Recently, Zhou et al. (2017) using state-of-the-art techniques, including sophisticated Cre/loxP technologies, confocal microscopy, in vivo lineage-tracing, flow cytometry, and bone marrow transplantation, reveal that adipocytes promote hematopoietic recovery after irradiation. This study challenges the current view of adipocytes as negative regulators of the hematopoietic stem cells niche, and reopens the discussion about adipocytes' roles in the bone marrow. Strikingly, genetic deletion of stem cell factor specifically from adipocytes leads to deficiency in hematopoietic stem cells, and reduces animal survival after myeloablation, The emerging knowledge from this research will be important for the treatment of multiple hematologic disorders. © 2017 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.

Lung as a Niche for Hematopoietic Progenitors

Platelets are released from megakaryocytes. The bone marrow has been proposed to be the major site where this process occurs. Lefrançais et al. (2017) using state-of-the-art techniques including two-photon microscopy, in vivo lineage-tracing technologies, and sophisticated lung transplants reveal that the lung is also a primary site for platelet biogenesis. Strikingly, lung megakaryocytes can completely reconstitute platelet counts in the blood in mice with thrombocytopenia. This study also shows that hematopoietic progenitors, with capacity to repopulate the bone marrow after irradiation, are present in the lungs. This work brings a novel unexpected role for the lung as a niche for hematopoiesis. The emerging knowledge from this research may be important for the treatment of several disorders.

The many faces of hematopoietic stem cell heterogeneity

Not all hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are alike. They differ in their physical characteristics such as cell cycle status and cell surface marker phenotype, they respond to different extrinsic signals, and they have different lineage outputs following transplantation. The growing body of evidence that supports heterogeneity within HSCs, which constitute the most robust cell fraction at the foundation of the adult hematopoietic system, is currently of great interest and raises questions as to why HSC subtypes exist, how they are generated and whether HSC heterogeneity affects leukemogenesis or treatment options. This Review provides a developmental overview of HSC subtypes during embryonic, fetal and adult stages of hematopoiesis and discusses the possible origins and consequences of HSC heterogeneity.

Summary: This Review takes a close look at hematopoietic stem cell heterogeneity during development and in the adult, and discusses several different ways in which this heterogeneity may arise.

CBL family E3 ubiquitin ligases control JAK2 ubiquitination and stability in hematopoietic stem cells and myeloid malignancies

Here, Lv et al. report that the CBL family E3 ubiquitin ligases down-regulate JAK2 stability and signaling via the adaptor protein LNK/SH2B3. Their results reveal a novel signaling axis that regulates JAK2 in normal and malignant HSPCs and suggest new therapeutic strategies for treating CBL^mut myeloid malignancies.

Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) is a central kinase in hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells (HSPCs), and its uncontrolled activation is a prominent oncogenic driver of hematopoietic neoplasms. However, molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of JAK2 have remained elusive. Here we report that the Casitas B-cell lymphoma (CBL) family E3 ubiquitin ligases down-regulate JAK2 stability and signaling via the adaptor protein LNK/SH2B3. We demonstrated that depletion of CBL/CBL-B or LNK abrogated JAK2 ubiquitination, extended JAK2 half-life, and enhanced JAK2 signaling and cell growth in human cell lines as well as primary murine HSPCs. Built on these findings, we showed that JAK inhibitor (JAKi) significantly reduced aberrant HSPCs and mitigated leukemia development in a mouse model of aggressive myeloid leukemia driven by loss of Cbl and Cbl-b. Importantly, primary human CBL mutated (CBL^mut) leukemias exhibited increased JAK2 protein levels and signaling and were hypersensitive to JAKi. Loss-of-function mutations in CBL E3 ubiquitin ligases are found in a wide range of myeloid malignancies, which are diseases without effective treatment options. Hence, our studies reveal a novel signaling axis that regulates JAK2 in normal and malignant HSPCs and suggest new therapeutic strategies for treating CBL^mut myeloid malignancies.

The role of LNK/SH2B3 genetic alterations in myeloproliferative neoplasms and other hematological disorders

Malignant hematological diseases are mainly because of the occurrence of molecular abnormalities leading to the deregulation of signaling pathways essential for precise cell behavior. High-resolution genome analysis using microarray and large-scale sequencing have helped identify several important acquired gene mutations that are responsible for such signaling deregulations across different hematological malignancies. In particular, the genetic landscape of classical myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) has been in large part completed with the identification of driver mutations (targeting the cytokine receptor/Janus-activated kinase 2 (JAK2) pathway) that determine MPN phenotype, as well as additional mutations mainly affecting the regulation of gene expression (epigenetics or splicing regulators) and signaling. At present, most efforts concentrate in understanding how all these genetic alterations intertwine together to influence disease evolution and/or dictate clinical phenotype in order to use them to personalize diagnostic and clinical care. However, it is now evident that factors other than somatic mutations also play an important role in MPN disease initiation and progression, among which germline predisposition (single-nucleotide polymorphisms and haplotypes) may strongly influence the occurrence of MPNs. In this context, the LNK inhibitory adaptor protein encoded by the LNK/SH2B adaptor protein 3 (SH2B3) gene is the target of several genetic variations, acquired or inherited in MPNs, lymphoid leukemia and nonmalignant hematological diseases, underlying its importance in these pathological processes. As LNK adaptor is a key regulator of normal hematopoiesis, understanding the consequences of LNK variants on its protein functions and on driver or other mutations could be helpful to correlate genotype and phenotype of patients and to develop therapeutic strategies to target this molecule. In this review we summarize the current knowledge of LNK function in normal hematopoiesis, the different SH2B3 mutations reported to date and discuss how these genetic variations may influence the development of hematological malignancies.

Pivotal Cytoprotective Mediators and Promising Therapeutic Strategies for Endothelial Progenitor Cell-Based Cardiovascular Regeneration

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including atherosclerosis, stroke, and myocardial infarction, is a major cause of death worldwide. In aspects of cell therapy against CVD, it is generally accepted that endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are potent neovascular modulators in ischemic tissues. In response to ischemic injury signals, EPCs located in a bone marrow niche migrate to injury sites and form new vessels by secreting various vasculogenic factors including VEGF, SDF-1, and FGF, as well as by directly differentiating into endothelial cells. Nonetheless, in ischemic tissues, most of engrafted EPCs do not survive under harsh ischemic conditions and nutrient depletion. Therefore, an understanding of diverse EPC-related cytoprotective mediators underlying EPC homeostasis in ischemic tissues may help to overcome current obstacles for EPC-mediated cell therapy for CVDs. Additionally, to enhance EPC's functional capacity at ischemic sites, multiple strategies for cell survival should be considered, that is, preconditioning of EPCs with function-targeting drugs including natural compounds and hormones, virus mediated genetic modification, combined therapy with other stem/progenitor cells, and conglomeration with biomaterials. In this review, we discuss multiple cytoprotective mediators of EPC-based cardiovascular repair and propose promising therapeutic strategies for the treatment of CVDs.

CD34 Antigen and the MPL Receptor Expression Defines a Novel Class of Human Cord Blood-Derived Primitive Hematopoietic Stem Cells

In the murine hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) compartment, thrombopoietin (THPO)/MPL (THPO receptor) signaling plays an important role in the maintenance of adult quiescent HSCs. However, the role of THPO/MPL signaling in the human primitive HSC compartment has not yet been elucidated. We have identified very primitive human cord blood (CB)-derived CD34- severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)-repopulating cells (SRCs) using the intra-bone marrow injection method. In this study, we investigated the roles of the MPL expression in the human primitive HSC compartment. The SRC activities of the highly purified CB-derived 18Lin-CD34+/-MPL+/- cells were analyzed using NOG mice. In the primary recipient mice, nearly all mice that received CD34+/-MPL+/- cells were repopulated with human CD45+ cells. Nearly all of these mice that received CD34+MPL+/- and CD34-MPL- cells showed a secondary repopulation. Interestingly, the secondary recipient mice that received CD34+/-MPL- cells showed a distinct tertiary repopulation. These results clearly indicate that the CD34+/- SRCs not expressing MPL sustain a long-term (LT) (>1 year) human cell repopulation in NOG mice. Moreover, CD34- SRCs generate CD34+CD38-CD90+ SRCs in vitro and in vivo. These findings provide a new concept that CD34-MPL- SRCs reside at the apex of the human HSC hierarchy.

Progress towards generation of human haematopoietic stem cells

De novo generation of haematopoietic stem cells from different human pluripotent stem cell sources remains a high priority for haematology and regenerative medicine. At present, efficient derivation of functional haematopoietic stem cells with the capability for definitive in vivo engraftment and multi-lineage potential remains challenging. Here, we discuss recent progress and strategies to overcome obstacles that have thwarted past efforts. In addition, we review promising advances in the generation of mature blood lineages and the potential of induced pluripotent stem cells.

Isolation and Assessment of Single Long-Term Reconstituting Hematopoietic Stem Cells from Adult Mouse Bone Marrow

Hematopoietic stem cells with long-term repopulating activity can now be routinely obtained at purities of 40% to 50% from suspensions of adult mouse bone marrow. Here we describe robust protocols for both their isolation as CD45(+) EPCR(+) CD150(+) CD48(-) (ESLAM) cells using multiparameter cell sorting and for tracking their clonal growth and differentiation activity in irradiated mice transplanted with single ESLAM cells. The simplicity of these procedures makes them attractive for characterizing the molecular and biological properties of individual hematopoietic stem cells with unprecedented power and precision. © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Niche heterogeneity in the bone marrow

In adult mammals, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are defined by their abilities to self-renew and to differentiate to form all blood cell lineages. These rare multipotent cells occupy specific locations in the bone marrow (BM) microenvironment. The specific microenvironment regulating HSCs, commonly referred to as the niche, comprises multiple cell types whose exact contributions are under active investigation. Understanding cellular cross talk involving HSCs in the BM microenvironment is of fundamental importance for harnessing therapies against benign and malignant blood diseases. In this review, we summarize and evaluate recent advances in our understanding of niche heterogeneity and its influence on HSC function.

LNK/SH2B3 regulates IL-7 receptor signaling in normal and malignant B-progenitors

Philadelphia chromosome-like acute lymphoblastic leukemia (Ph-like ALL) is a high-risk ALL commonly associated with alterations that affect the tyrosine kinase pathway, tumor suppressors, and lymphoid transcription factors. Loss-of-function mutations in the gene-encoding adaptor protein LNK (also known as SH2B3) are found in Ph-like ALLs; however, it is not clear how LNK regulates normal B cell development or promotes leukemogenesis. Here, we have shown that combined loss of Lnk and tumor suppressors Tp53 or Ink4a/Arf in mice triggers a highly aggressive and transplantable precursor B-ALL. Tp53-/-Lnk-/- B-ALLs displayed similar gene expression profiles to human Ph-like B-ALLs, supporting use of this model for preclinical and molecular studies. Preleukemic Tp53-/-Lnk-/- pro-B progenitors were hypersensitive to IL-7, exhibited marked self-renewal in vitro and in vivo, and were able to initiate B-ALL in transplant recipients. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that LNK regulates pro-B progenitor homeostasis by attenuating IL-7-stimuated JAK/STAT5 signaling via a direct interaction with phosphorylated JAK3. Moreover, JAK inhibitors were effective in prolonging survival of mice transplanted with Lnk-/-Tp53-/- leukemia. Additionally, synergistic administration of PI3K/mTOR and JAK inhibitors further abrogated leukemia development. Hence, our results suggest that LNK suppresses IL-7R/JAK/STAT signaling to restrict pro-/pre-B progenitor expansion and leukemia development, providing a pathogenic mechanism and a potential therapeutic approach for B-ALLs with LNK mutations.

Regulation of Stem Cell Self-Renewal and Oncogenesis by RNA-Binding Proteins

Throughout their life span, multicellular organisms rely on stem cell systems. During development pluripotent embryonic stem cells give rise to all cell types that make up the organism. After birth, tissue stem cells maintain properly functioning tissues and organs under homeostasis as well as promote regeneration after tissue damage or injury. Stem cells are capable of self-renewal, which is the ability to divide indefinitely while retaining the potential of differentiation into multiple cell types. The ability to self-renew, however, is a double-edged sword; the molecular mechanisms of self-renewal can be a target of malignant transformation driving tumor development and progression. Growing lines of evidence have shown that RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) play pivotal roles in the regulation of self-renewal by modulating metabolism of coding and non-coding RNAs both in normal tissues and in cancers. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of tissue stem cell systems and how RBPs regulate stem cell fates as well as how the regulatory functions of RBPs contribute to oncogenesis.

Brief Report: Single-Cell Analysis Reveals Cell Division-Independent Emergence of Megakaryocytes From Phenotypic Hematopoietic Stem Cells

Despite increasingly stringent methods to isolate hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), considerable heterogeneity remains in terms of their long-term self-renewal and differentiation potential. Recently, the existence of long-lived, self-renewing, myeloid-restricted progenitors in the phenotypically defined HSC compartment has been revealed, but these cells remain poorly characterized. Here, we used an in vitro single-cell analysis approach to track the fate of 330 long-term HSCs (LT-HSC; Lin- cKit+ Sca-1+ CD150+ CD48- CD34-) cultured for 5 days under serum-free basal conditions. Our analysis revealed a highly heterogeneous behavior with approximately 15% of all phenotypic LT-HSCs giving rise to megakaryocytes (Mk). Surprisingly, in 65% of these cases, Mk development occurred in the absence of cell division. This observation suggests that myeloid-restricted progenitors may not derive directly from LT-HSCs but instead could share an identical cell surface marker repertoire.

Novel source of human hematopoietic stem cells from peritoneal dialysis effluents

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) hold great promise for the treatment of various diseases and blood disorders. However, limited availability of these cells has hampered their applications in clinical and biological research. Here we have identified a new source of autologous human HSCs in peritoneal dialysis (PD) effluents from patients with end stage renal diseases (ESRDs). Cells isolated from PD effluents contain a Lin-/CD34+/CD38-/CD90+ sub-population and can repopulate NOD/SCID/gamma-/- mice in serial transplantation. Differing from cord blood HSCs, PD-derived HSCs have high tendencies to repopulate peritoneal cavity and spleen with myeloid cells and B lymphocytes. Repopulating HSCs also reside in peritoneal cavities in mice. The isolation of HSCs from peritoneal cavities provides a novel and promising source of autologous and functional HSCs for stem cell research and possible clinical use.

The analysis, roles and regulation of quiescence in hematopoietic stem cells

Tissue homeostasis requires the presence of multipotent adult stem cells that are capable of efficient self-renewal and differentiation; some of these have been shown to exist in a dormant, or quiescent, cell cycle state. Such quiescence has been proposed as a fundamental property of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the adult bone marrow, acting to protect HSCs from functional exhaustion and cellular insults to enable lifelong hematopoietic cell production. Recent studies have demonstrated that HSC quiescence is regulated by a complex network of cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic factors. In addition, detailed single-cell analyses and novel imaging techniques have identified functional heterogeneity within quiescent HSC populations and have begun to delineate the topological organization of quiescent HSCs. Here, we review the current methods available to measure quiescence in HSCs and discuss the roles of HSC quiescence and the various mechanisms by which HSC quiescence is maintained.

MERIT40 deficiency expands hematopoietic stem cell pools by regulating thrombopoietin receptor signaling

Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) self-renewal and multilineage reconstitution are controlled by positive and negative signaling cues with perturbations leading to disease. Lnk is an essential signaling adaptor protein that dampens signaling by the cytokine thrombopoietin (Tpo) to limit HSC expansion. Here, we show that MERIT40 (Mediator of RAP80 Interactions and Targeting 40 kDa [M40]), a core subunit of an Lnk-associated Lys63 deubiquitinating (DUB) complex, attenuates HSC expansion. M40 deficiency increases the size of phenotypic and functional HSC pools. M40(-/-) HSCs are more resistant to cytoablative stress, and exhibit superior repopulating ability and self-renewal upon serial transplantation. M40(-/-) HSCs display increased quiescence and decelerated cell cycle kinetics accompanied by downregulation of gene sets associated with cell division. Mechanistically, M40 deficiency triggers hypersensitivity to Tpo stimulation and the stem cell phenotypes are abrogated on a background null for the Tpo receptor Mpl. These results establish M40-containing DUB complexes as novel HSC regulators of HSC expansion, implicate Lys63 ubiquitination in HSC signaling, and point to DUB-specific inhibitors as reagents to expand stem cell populations.

Expansion of mouse hematopoietic progenitor cells in three-dimensional cocultures on frozen-thawed stromal cell layers formed within porous scaffolds

To establish a highly efficient method of ex vivo expansion of hematopoietic cells (HCs), three-dimensional (3D) cocultures of HCs and stromal cell lines were performed using porous polymer scaffolds. Hematopoietic cells derived from mouse fetal livers were expanded by two successive cultures without the use of exogenous cytokines, namely, 3D cultures of stromal cells (DAS 104-8 cell line) to form stromal layers within the scaffolds, and, subsequently, by cocultures of the HCs on the stromal cell layers for 2 weeks. To expand the HCs more conveniently, in some experiments the stromal layers formed within the scaffolds were frozen (3D freezing) before the cocultures, then stored and applied to the cocultures after thawing. When the HCs were cocultured on the stromal layers of the DAS 104-8 cells, primitive HCs (c-kit(+) and CD34(+) cells) were expanded several fold during the cocultures. In contrast, the expansion of these primitive HCs was remarkably enhanced in the cocultures using the 3D frozen-thawed DAS 104-8 stromal layers (c-kit(+) cells > fifteenfold and CD34(+) cells > thirtyfold), and these expansions were significantly higher than those without the 3D freezing. The expansions enhanced by cocultures on the 3D frozen-thawed stromal layers were also observed in the cocultures with another stromal cell line (DAS 104-4). Because 3D frozen-thawed stromal cell lines are easy to handle, 3D coculture of HCs on frozen-thawed stromal cell lines may be an effective and convenient method for expanding primitive HCs.

The molecular regulation of Janus kinase (JAK) activation

The JAK (Janus kinase) family members serve essential roles as the intracellular signalling effectors of cytokine receptors. This family, comprising JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2 (tyrosine kinase 2), was first described more than 20 years ago, but the complexities underlying their activation, regulation and pleiotropic signalling functions are still being explored. Here, we review the current knowledge of their physiological functions and the causative role of activating and inactivating JAK mutations in human diseases, including haemopoietic malignancies, immunodeficiency and inflammatory diseases. At the molecular level, recent studies have greatly advanced our knowledge of the structures and organization of the component FERM (4.1/ezrin/radixin/moesin)-SH2 (Src homology 2), pseudokinase and kinase domains within the JAKs, the mechanism of JAK activation and, in particular, the role of the pseudokinase domain as a suppressor of the adjacent tyrosine kinase domain's catalytic activity. We also review recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of negative regulation exerted by the SH2 domain-containing proteins, SOCS (suppressors of cytokine signalling) proteins and LNK. These recent studies highlight the diversity of regulatory mechanisms utilized by the JAK family to maintain signalling fidelity, and suggest alternative therapeutic strategies to complement existing ATP-competitive kinase inhibitors.

Metabolic regulation of stem cell function

Stem cell function is regulated by intrinsic mechanisms, such as transcriptional and epigenetic regulators, as well as extrinsic mechanisms, such as short-range signals from the niche and long-range humoral signals. Interactions between these regulatory mechanisms and cellular metabolism are just beginning to be identified. In multiple systems, differentiation is accompanied by changes in glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation and the levels of reactive oxygen species. Indeed, metabolic pathways regulate proliferation and differentiation by regulating energy production and the generation of substrates for biosynthetic pathways. Some metabolic pathways appear to function differently in stem cells as compared with restricted progenitors and differentiated cells. They also appear to influence stem cell function by regulating signal transduction, epigenetic marks and oxidative stress. Studies to date illustrate the importance of metabolism in the regulation of stem cell function and suggest complex cross-regulation likely exists between metabolism and other stem cell regulatory mechanisms.

Improved HSC reconstitution and protection from inflammatory stress and chemotherapy in mice lacking granzyme B

Granzyme B is expressed by hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and stromal cells in response to bacterial products or chemotherapy agents and limits HSC reconstitution potential.

The serine protease granzyme B (GzmB) is stored in the granules of cytotoxic T and NK cells and facilitates immune-mediated destruction of virus-infected cells. In this study, we use genetic tools to report novel roles for GzmB as an important regulator of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) function in response to stress. HSCs lacking the GzmB gene show improved bone marrow (BM) reconstitution associated with increased HSC proliferation and mitochondrial activity. In addition, recipients deficient in GzmB support superior engraftment of wild-type HSCs compared with hosts with normal BM niches. Stimulation of mice with lipopolysaccharide strongly induced GzmB protein expression in HSCs, which was mediated by the TLR4–TRIF–p65 NF-κB pathway. This is associated with increased cell death and GzmB secretion into the BM environment, suggesting an extracellular role of GzmB in modulating HSC niches. Moreover, treatment with the chemotherapeutic agent 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) also induces GzmB production in HSCs. In this situation GzmB is not secreted, but instead causes cell-autonomous apoptosis. Accordingly, GzmB-deficient mice are more resistant to serial 5-FU treatments. Collectively, these results identify GzmB as a negative regulator of HSC function that is induced by stress and chemotherapy in both HSCs and their niches. Blockade of GzmB production may help to improve hematopoiesis in various situations of BM stress.