Development of a robotic cluster for automated and scalable cell therapy manufacturing

BACKGROUND AIMS

The production of commercial autologous cell therapies such as chimeric antigen receptor T cells requires complex manual manufacturing processes. Skilled labor costs and challenges in manufacturing scale-out have contributed to high prices for these products.

METHODS

We present a robotic system that uses industry-standard cell therapy manufacturing equipment to automate the steps involved in cell therapy manufacturing. The robotic cluster consists of a robotic arm and customized modules, allowing the robot to manipulate a variety of standard cell therapy instruments and materials such as incubators, bioreactors, and reagent bags. This system enables existing manual manufacturing processes to be rapidly adapted to robotic manufacturing, without having to adopt a completely new technology platform. Proof-of-concept for the robotic cluster's expansion module was demonstrated by expanding human CD8+ T cells.

RESULTS

The robotic cultures showed comparable cell yields, viability, and identity to those manually performed. In addition, the robotic system was able to maintain culture sterility.

CONCLUSIONS

Such modular robotic solutions may support scale-up and scale-out of cell therapies that are developed using classical manual methods in academic laboratories and biotechnology companies. This approach offers a pathway for overcoming manufacturing challenges associated with manual processes, ultimately contributing to the broader accessibility and affordability for personalized immunotherapies.

Polyclonal Regulatory T Cell Manufacturing Under cGMP: A Decade of Experience

We report on manufacturing outcomes for 41 autologous polyclonal regulatory T cell (PolyTreg) products for 7 different Phase 1 clinical trials over a 10-year period (2011-2020). Data on patient characteristics, manufacturing parameters, and manufacturing outcomes were collected from manufacturing batch records and entered into a secure database. Overall, 88% (36/41) of PolyTreg products met release criteria and 83% (34/41) of products were successfully infused into patients. Of the 7 not infused, 5 failed release criteria, and 2 were not infused because the patient became ineligible due to a change in clinical status. The median fold expansion over the 14-day manufacturing process was 434.8 -fold (range 29.8-2,232), resulting in a median post-expansion cell count of 1,841 x 10⁶ (range 56.9-16,179 x 10⁶). The main correlate of post-expansion cell number was starting cell number, which positively correlates with absolute circulating Treg cell count. Other parameters, including date of PolyTreg production, patient sex, and patient age did not significantly correlate with fold expansion of Treg during product manufacturing. In conclusion, PolyTreg manufacturing outcomes are consistent across trials and dates of production.

Transmission, infectivity, and neutralization of a spike L452R SARS-CoV-2 variant

We identified an emerging severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variant by viral whole-genome sequencing of 2,172 nasal/nasopharyngeal swab samples from 44 counties in California, a state in the western United States. Named B.1.427/B.1.429 to denote its two lineages, the variant emerged in May 2020 and increased from 0% to >50% of sequenced cases from September 2020 to January 2021, showing 18.6%-24% increased transmissibility relative to wild-type circulating strains. The variant carries three mutations in the spike protein, including an L452R substitution. We found 2-fold increased B.1.427/B.1.429 viral shedding in vivo and increased L452R pseudovirus infection of cell cultures and lung organoids, albeit decreased relative to pseudoviruses carrying the N501Y mutation common to variants B.1.1.7, B.1.351, and P.1. Antibody neutralization assays revealed 4.0- to 6.7-fold and 2.0-fold decreases in neutralizing titers from convalescent patients and vaccine recipients, respectively. The increased prevalence of a more transmissible variant in California exhibiting decreased antibody neutralization warrants further investigation.

Hospital-Based Donor Recruitment and Predonation Serologic Testing for COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma

Objectives

Serologic testing for antibodies to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in potential donors of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) convalescent plasma (CCP) may not be performed until after blood donation. A hospital-based recruitment program for CCP may be an efficient way to identify potential donors prospectively

Methods

Patients who recovered from known or suspected COVID-19 were identified and recruited through medical record searches and public appeals in March and April 2020. Participants were screened with a modified donor history questionnaire and, if eligible, were asked for consent and tested for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (IgG and IgM). Participants positive for SARS-CoV-2 IgG were referred for CCP collection.

Results

Of 179 patients screened, 128 completed serologic testing and 89 were referred for CCP donation. IgG antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 were detected in 23 of 51 participants with suspected COVID-19 and 66 of 77 participants with self-reported COVID-19 confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The anti–SARS-CoV-2 IgG level met the US Food and Drug Administration criteria for “high-titer” CCP in 39% of participants confirmed by PCR, as measured by the Ortho VITROS IgG assay. A wide range of SARS-CoV-2 IgG levels were observed.

Conclusions

A hospital-based CCP donor recruitment program can prospectively identify potential CCP donors. Variability in SARS-CoV-2 IgG levels has implications for the selection of CCP units for transfusion.

Transmission, infectivity, and antibody neutralization of an emerging SARS-CoV-2 variant in California carrying a L452R spike protein mutation

We identified a novel SARS-CoV-2 variant by viral whole-genome sequencing of 2,172 nasal/nasopharyngeal swab samples from 44 counties in California. Named B.1.427/B.1.429 to denote its 2 lineages, the variant emerged around May 2020 and increased from 0% to >50% of sequenced cases from September 1, 2020 to January 29, 2021, exhibiting an 18.6-24% increase in transmissibility relative to wild-type circulating strains. The variant carries 3 mutations in the spike protein, including an L452R substitution. Our analyses revealed 2-fold increased B.1.427/B.1.429 viral shedding in vivo and increased L452R pseudovirus infection of cell cultures and lung organoids, albeit decreased relative to pseudoviruses carrying the N501Y mutation found in the B.1.1.7, B.1.351, and P.1 variants. Antibody neutralization assays showed 4.0 to 6.7-fold and 2.0-fold decreases in neutralizing titers from convalescent patients and vaccine recipients, respectively. The increased prevalence of a more transmissible variant in California associated with decreased antibody neutralization warrants further investigation.

A diagnostic host response biosignature for COVID-19 from RNA profiling of nasal swabs and blood

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19), has emerged as the cause of a global pandemic. We used RNA sequencing to analyze 286 nasopharyngeal (NP) swab and 53 whole-blood (WB) samples from 333 patients with COVID-19 and controls. Overall, a muted immune response was observed in COVID-19 relative to other infections (influenza, other seasonal coronaviruses, and bacterial sepsis), with paradoxical down-regulation of several key differentially expressed genes. Hospitalized patients and outpatients exhibited up-regulation of interferon-associated pathways, although heightened and more robust inflammatory responses were observed in hospitalized patients with more clinically severe illness. Two-layer machine learning-based host classifiers consisting of complete (>1000 genes), medium (<100), and small (<20) gene biomarker panels identified COVID-19 disease with 85.1-86.5% accuracy when benchmarked using an independent test set. SARS-CoV-2 infection has a distinct biosignature that differs between NP swabs and WB and can be leveraged for COVID-19 diagnosis.

Evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 serology assays reveals a range of test performance

Appropriate use and interpretation of serological tests for assessments of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) exposure, infection and potential immunity require accurate data on assay performance. We conducted a head-to-head evaluation of ten point-of-care-style lateral flow assays (LFAs) and two laboratory-based enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgM and IgG antibodies in 5-d time intervals from symptom onset and studied the specificity of each assay in pre-coronavirus disease 2019 specimens. The percent of seropositive individuals increased with time, peaking in the latest time interval tested (>20 d after symptom onset). Test specificity ranged from 84.3% to 100.0% and was predominantly affected by variability in IgM results. LFA specificity could be increased by considering weak bands as negative, but this decreased detection of antibodies (sensitivity) in a subset of SARS-CoV-2 real-time PCR-positive cases. Our results underline the importance of seropositivity threshold determination and reader training for reliable LFA deployment. Although there was no standout serological assay, four tests achieved more than 80% positivity at later time points tested and more than 95% specificity.

SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and neutralizing activity in donor and patient blood

Given the limited availability of serological testing to date, the seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies in different populations has remained unclear. Here, we report very low SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in two San Francisco Bay Area populations. Seroreactivity was 0.26% in 387 hospitalized patients admitted for non-respiratory indications and 0.1% in 1,000 blood donors in early April 2020. We additionally describe the longitudinal dynamics of immunoglobulin-G (IgG), immunoglobulin-M (IgM), and in vitro neutralizing antibody titers in COVID-19 patients. The median time to seroconversion ranged from 10.3-11.0 days for these 3 assays. Neutralizing antibodies rose in tandem with immunoglobulin titers following symptom onset, and positive percent agreement between detection of IgG and neutralizing titers was >93%. These findings emphasize the importance of using highly accurate tests for surveillance studies in low-prevalence populations, and provide evidence that seroreactivity using SARS-CoV-2 anti-nucleocapsid protein IgG and anti-spike IgM assays are generally predictive of in vitro neutralizing capacity.

SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and neutralizing activity in donor and patient blood from the San Francisco Bay Area

We report very low SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in two San Francisco Bay Area populations. Seropositivity was 0.26% in 387 hospitalized patients admitted for non-respiratory indications and 0.1% in 1,000 blood donors. We additionally describe the longitudinal dynamics of immunoglobulin-G, immunoglobulin-M, and in vitro neutralizing antibody titers in COVID-19 patients. Neutralizing antibodies rise in tandem with immunoglobulin levels following symptom onset, exhibiting median time to seroconversion within one day of each other, and there is >93% positive percent agreement between detection of immunoglobulin-G and neutralizing titers.

Test performance evaluation of SARS-CoV-2 serological assays

Background:

Serological tests are crucial tools for assessments of SARS-CoV-2 exposure, infection and potential immunity. Their appropriate use and interpretation require accurate assay performance data.

Method:

We conducted an evaluation of 10 lateral flow assays (LFAs) and two ELISAs to detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. The specimen set comprised 128 plasma or serum samples from 79 symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-positive individuals; 108 pre-COVID-19 negative controls; and 52 recent samples from individuals who underwent respiratory viral testing but were not diagnosed with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Samples were blinded and LFA results were interpreted by two independent readers, using a standardized intensity scoring system.

Results:

Among specimens from SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR-positive individuals, the percent seropositive increased with time interval, peaking at 81.8–100.0% in samples taken >20 days after symptom onset. Test specificity ranged from 84.3–100.0% in pre-COVID-19 specimens. Specificity was higher when weak LFA bands were considered negative, but this decreased sensitivity. IgM detection was more variable than IgG, and detection was highest when IgM and IgG results were combined. Agreement between ELISAs and LFAs ranged from 75.7–94.8%. No consistent cross-reactivity was observed.

Conclusion:

Our evaluation showed heterogeneous assay performance. Reader training is key to reliable LFA performance, and can be tailored for survey goals. Informed use of serology will require evaluations covering the full spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 infections, from asymptomatic and mild infection to severe disease, and later convalescence. Well-designed studies to elucidate the mechanisms and serological correlates of protective immunity will be crucial to guide rational clinical and public health policies.

Lnk/Sh2b3 deficiency restores hematopoietic stem cell function and genome integrity in Fancd2 deficient Fanconi anemia

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a bone marrow failure (BMF) syndrome that arises from mutations in a network of FA genes essential for DNA interstrand crosslink (ICL) repair and replication stress tolerance. While allogeneic stem cell transplantation can replace defective HSCs, interventions to mitigate HSC defects in FA do not exist. Remarkably, we reveal here that Lnk (Sh2b3) deficiency restores HSC function in Fancd2^−/− mice. Lnk deficiency does not impact ICL repair, but instead stabilizes stalled replication forks in a manner, in part, dependent upon alleviating blocks to cytokine−mediated JAK2 signaling. Lnk deficiency restores proliferation and survival of Fancd2^−/− HSCs, while reducing replication stress and genomic instability. Furthermore, deletion of LNK in human FA-like HSCs promotes clonogenic growth. These findings highlight a new role for cytokine/JAK signaling in promoting replication fork stability, illuminate replication stress as a major underlying origin of BMF in FA, and have strong therapeutic implications.

Loss of Fancd2 leads to replication stress intolerance and Fanconi Anemia, where haematopoietic stem cell (HSC) function is compromised. Here, the authors show that Lnk/Sh2b3 loss restores HSC proliferation and survival in Fancd2 knockout mice and ameliorates replication stress in a cytokine/JAK2 signaling dependent manner.

LNK/SH2B3 Loss of Function Promotes Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis

RATIONALE

Human genome-wide association studies have revealed novel genetic loci that are associated with coronary heart disease. One such locus resides in LNK/SH2B3, which in mice is expressed in hematopoietic cells and suppresses thrombopoietin signaling via its receptor myeloproliferative leukemia virus oncogene. However, the mechanisms underlying the association of LNK single-nucleotide polymorphisms with coronary heart disease are poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

To understand the functional effects of LNK single-nucleotide polymorphisms and explore the mechanisms whereby LNK loss of function impacts atherosclerosis and thrombosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using human cord blood, we show that the common TT risk genotype (R262W) of LNK is associated with expansion of hematopoietic stem cells and enhanced megakaryopoiesis, demonstrating reduced LNK function and increased myeloproliferative leukemia virus oncogene signaling. In mice, hematopoietic Lnk deficiency leads to accelerated arterial thrombosis and atherosclerosis, but only in the setting of hypercholesterolemia. Hypercholesterolemia acts synergistically with LNK deficiency to increase interleukin 3/granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor signaling in bone marrow myeloid progenitors, whereas in platelets cholesterol loading combines with Lnk deficiency to increase activation. Platelet LNK deficiency increases myeloproliferative leukemia virus oncogene signaling and AKT activation, whereas cholesterol loading decreases SHIP-1 phosphorylation, acting convergently to increase AKT and platelet activation. Together with increased myelopoiesis, platelet activation promotes prothrombotic and proatherogenic platelet/leukocyte aggregate formation.

CONCLUSIONS

LNK (R262W) is a loss-of-function variant that promotes thrombopoietin/myeloproliferative leukemia virus oncogene signaling and platelet and leukocyte production. In mice, LNK deficiency is associated with both increased platelet production and activation. Hypercholesterolemia acts in platelets and hematopoietic progenitors to exacerbate thrombosis and atherosclerosis associated with LNK deficiency.

Lnk deficiency partially mitigates hematopoietic stem cell aging

Upon aging, the number of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in the bone marrow increases while their repopulation potential declines. Moreover, aged HSCs exhibit lineage bias in reconstitution experiments with an inclination toward myeloid at the expense of lymphoid potential. The adaptor protein Lnk is an important negative regulator of HSC homeostasis, as Lnk deficiency is associated with a 10-fold increase in HSC numbers in young mice. However, the age-related increase in functional HSC numbers found in wild-type HSCs was not observed in Lnk-deficient animals. Importantly, HSCs from aged Lnk null mice possess greatly enhanced self-renewal capacity and diminished exhaustion, as evidenced by serial transplant experiments. In addition, Lnk deficiency ameliorates the aging-associated lineage bias. Transcriptome analysis revealed that WT and Lnk-deficient HSCs share many aging-related changes in gene expression patterns. Nonetheless, Lnk null HSCs displayed altered expression of components in select signaling pathways with potential involvement in HSC self-renewal and aging. Taken together, these results suggest that loss of Lnk partially mitigates age-related HSC alterations.

14-3-3 regulates the LNK/JAK2 pathway in mouse hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) functions are governed by intricate signaling networks. The tyrosine kinase JAK2 plays an essential role in cytokine signaling during hematopoiesis. The adaptor protein LNK is a critical determinant of this process through its inhibitory interaction with JAK2, thereby limiting HSPC self-renewal. LNK deficiency promotes myeloproliferative neoplasm (MPN) development in mice, and LNK loss-of-function mutations are found in human MPNs, emphasizing its pivotal role in normal and malignant HSPCs. Here, we report the identification of 14-3-3 proteins as LNK binding partners. 14-3-3 interfered with the LNK-JAK2 interaction, thereby alleviating LNK inhibition of JAK2 signaling and cell proliferation. Binding of 14-3-3 required 2 previously unappreciated serine phosphorylation sites in LNK, and we found that their phosphorylation is mediated by glycogen synthase kinase 3 and PKA kinases. Mutations of these residues abrogated the interaction and augmented the growth inhibitory function of LNK. Conversely, forced 14-3-3 binding constrained LNK function. Furthermore, interaction with 14-3-3 sequestered LNK in the cytoplasm away from the plasma membrane-proximal JAK2. Importantly, bone marrow transplantation studies revealed an essential role for 14-3-3 in HSPC reconstitution that can be partially mitigated by LNK deficiency. We believe that, together, this work implicates 14-3-3 proteins as novel and positive HSPC regulators by impinging on the LNK/JAK2 pathway.

Lnk constrains myeloproliferative diseases in mice

Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) expansion is regulated by intrinsic signaling pathways activated by cytokines. The intracellular kinase JAK2 plays an essential role in cytokine signaling, and activating mutations in JAK2 are found in a number of hematologic malignancies. We previously demonstrated that lymphocyte adaptor protein (Lnk, also known as Sh2b3) binds JAK2 and attenuates its activity, thereby limiting HSPC expansion. Here we show that loss of Lnk accelerates and exacerbates oncogenic JAK2-induced myeloproliferative diseases (MPDs) in mice. Specifically, Lnk deficiency enhanced cytokine-independent JAK/STAT signaling and augmented the ability of oncogenic JAK2 to expand myeloid progenitors in vitro and in vivo. An activated form of JAK2, unable to bind Lnk, caused greater myeloid expansion than activated JAK2 alone and accelerated myelofibrosis, indicating that Lnk directly inhibits oncogenic JAK2 in constraining MPD development. In addition, Lnk deficiency cooperated with the BCR/ABL oncogene, the product of which does not directly interact with or depend on JAK2 or Lnk, in chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) development, suggesting that Lnk also acts through endogenous pathways to constrain HSPCs. Consistent with this idea, aged Lnk-/- mice spontaneously developed a CML-like MPD. Taken together, our data establish Lnk as a bona fide suppressor of MPD in mice and raise the possibility that Lnk dysfunction contributes to the development of hematologic malignancies in humans.

Lnk controls mouse hematopoietic stem cell self-renewal and quiescence through direct interactions with JAK2

In addition to its role in megakaryocyte production, signaling initiated by thrombopoietin (TPO) activation of its receptor, myeloproliferative leukemia virus protooncogene (c-Mpl, or Mpl), controls HSC homeostasis and self-renewal. Under steady-state conditions, mice lacking the inhibitory adaptor protein Lnk harbor an expanded HSC pool with enhanced self-renewal. We found that HSCs from Lnk-/- mice have an increased quiescent fraction, decelerated cell cycle kinetics, and enhanced resistance to repeat treatments with cytoablative 5-fluorouracil in vivo compared with WT HSCs. We further provide genetic evidence demonstrating that Lnk controls HSC quiescence and self-renewal, predominantly through Mpl. Consistent with this observation, Lnk-/- HSCs displayed potentiated activation of JAK2 specifically in response to TPO. Biochemical experiments revealed that Lnk directly binds to phosphorylated tyrosine residues in JAK2 following TPO stimulation. Of note, the JAK2 V617F mutant, found at high frequencies in myeloproliferative diseases, retains the ability to bind Lnk. Therefore, we identified Lnk as a physiological negative regulator of JAK2 in stem cells and TPO/Mpl/JAK2/Lnk as a major regulatory pathway in controlling stem cell self-renewal and quiescence.