α-tubulin tail modifications regulate microtubule stability through selective effector recruitment, not changes in intrinsic polymer dynamics

Microtubule-associated protein MAP7 promotes tubulin posttranslational modifications and cargo transport to enable osmotic adaptation

Cells remodel their cytoskeletal networks to adapt to their environment. Here, we analyze the mechanisms utilized by the cell to tailor its microtubule landscape in response to changes in osmolarity that alter macromolecular crowding. By integrating live-cell imaging, ex vivo enzymatic assays, and in vitro reconstitution, we probe the impact of cytoplasmic density on microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) and tubulin posttranslational modifications (PTMs). We find that human epithelial cells respond to fluctuations in cytoplasmic density by modulating microtubule acetylation, detyrosination, or MAP7 association without differentially affecting polyglutamylation, tyrosination, or MAP4 association. These MAP-PTM combinations alter intracellular cargo transport, enabling the cell to respond to osmotic challenges. We further dissect the molecular mechanisms governing tubulin PTM specification and find that MAP7 promotes acetylation and inhibits detyrosination. Our data identify MAP7 in modulating the tubulin code, resulting in microtubule cytoskeleton remodeling and alteration of intracellular transport as an integrated mechanism of cellular adaptation.

Decoding microtubule detyrosination: enzyme families, structures, and functional implications

Microtubules are a major component of the cytoskeleton and can accumulate a plethora of modifications. The microtubule detyrosination cycle is one of these modifications; it involves the enzymatic removal of the C-terminal tyrosine of α-tubulin on assembled microtubules and the re-ligation of tyrosine on detyrosinated tubulin dimers. This modification cycle has been implicated in cardiac disease, neuronal development, and mitotic defects. The vasohibin and microtubule-associated tyrosine carboxypeptidase enzyme families are responsible for microtubule detyrosination. Their long-sought discovery allows to review and summarise differences and similarities between the two enzymes families and discuss how they interplay with other modifications and functions of the tubulin code.

Decreasing microtubule detyrosination modulates Nav1.5 subcellular distribution and restores sodium current in mdx cardiomyocytes

AIMS

The microtubule (MT) network plays a major role in the transport of the cardiac sodium channel Nav1.5 to the membrane, where the latter associates with interacting proteins such as dystrophin. Alterations in MT dynamics are known to impact on ion channel trafficking. Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), caused by dystrophin deficiency, is associated with an increase in MT detyrosination, decreased sodium current (INa), and arrhythmias. Parthenolide (PTL), a compound that decreases MT detyrosination, has shown beneficial effects on cardiac function in DMD. We here investigated its impact on INa and Nav1.5 subcellular distribution.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Ventricular cardiomyocytes (CMs) from wild-type (WT) and mdx (DMD) mice were incubated with either 10 µM PTL, 20 µM EpoY, or dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) for 3-5 h, followed by patch-clamp analysis to assess INa and action potential (AP) characteristics in addition to immunofluorescence and stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) to investigate MT detyrosination and Nav1.5 cluster size and density, respectively. In accordance with previous studies, we observed increased MT detyrosination, decreased INa and reduced AP upstroke velocity (Vmax) in mdx CMs compared to WT. PTL decreased MT detyrosination and significantly increased INa magnitude (without affecting INa gating properties) and AP Vmax in mdx CMs, but had no effect in WT CMs. Moreover, STORM analysis showed that in mdx CMs, Nav1.5 clusters were decreased not only in the grooves of the lateral membrane (LM; where dystrophin is localized) but also at the LM crests. PTL restored Nav1.5 clusters at the LM crests (but not at the grooves), indicating a dystrophin-independent trafficking route to this subcellular domain. Interestingly, Nav1.5 cluster density was also reduced at the intercalated disc (ID) region of mdx CMs, which was restored to WT levels by PTL. Treatment of mdx CMs with EpoY, a specific MT detyrosination inhibitor, also increased INa density, while decreasing the amount of detyrosinated MTs, confirming a direct mechanistic link.

CONCLUSION

Attenuating MT detyrosination in mdx CMs restored INa and enhanced Nav1.5 localization at the LM crest and ID. Hence, the reduced whole-cell INa density characteristic of mdx CMs is not only the consequence of the lack of dystrophin within the LM grooves but is also due to reduced Nav1.5 at the LM crest and ID secondary to increased baseline MT detyrosination. Overall, our findings identify MT detyrosination as a potential therapeutic target for modulating INa and subcellular Nav1.5 distribution in pathophysiological conditions.

Structural basis for α-tubulin-specific and modification state-dependent glutamylation

Microtubules have spatiotemporally complex posttranslational modification patterns. Tubulin tyrosine ligase-like (TTLL) enzymes introduce the most prevalent modifications on α-tubulin and β-tubulin. How TTLLs specialize for specific substrate recognition and ultimately modification-pattern generation is largely unknown. TTLL6, a glutamylase implicated in ciliopathies, preferentially modifies tubulin α-tails in microtubules. Cryo-electron microscopy, kinetic analysis and single-molecule biochemistry reveal an unprecedented quadrivalent recognition that ensures simultaneous readout of microtubule geometry and posttranslational modification status. By binding to a β-tubulin subunit, TTLL6 modifies the α-tail of the longitudinally adjacent tubulin dimer. Spanning two tubulin dimers along and across protofilaments (PFs) ensures fidelity of recognition of both the α-tail and the microtubule. Moreover, TTLL6 reads out and is stimulated by glutamylation of the β-tail of the laterally adjacent tubulin dimer, mediating crosstalk between α-tail and β-tail. This positive feedback loop can generate localized microtubule glutamylation patterns. Our work uncovers general principles that generate tubulin chemical and topographic complexity.

The microtubule cytoskeleton: A validated target for the development of 2-Aryl-1H-benzo[d]imidazole derivatives as potential anticancer agents

In this study, a series of 2-Aryl-1H-benzo[d]imidazole derivatives were developed to target intra- and extracellular microtubule networks. Compounds O-7 and O-10 showed impressive anti-proliferative activity across various tested cell lines, demonstrating selectivity indexes of 151.7 and 61.9, respectively. O-7 achieved an IC50 value of 0.236 ± 0.096 μM, while O-10 showed an IC50 value of 0.622 ± 0.13 μM against A549 cell lines. The induction of early-stage apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner further underscored the potential of O-7 and O-10 as effective anti-proliferative agents. O-7 and O-10 exhibited substantial inhibition of wound closure, with wound closure percentages decreasing from 23% at 0 μM to 0.43% and 2.62% at 20 μM, respectively. Colony formation reduction rates were impressive, with O-7 at 74.2% and O-10 at 81.2%. These results indicate that the O-7 and O-10 can impede cancer cell migration and have a high potential to curtail colony formation. The mode of action investigations for O-7 and O-10 revealed that O-7 could inhibit in vitro tubulin polymerization and disrupt the intracellular microtubule cytoskeleton. This disruption led to cell cycle arrest in the G2/M phase, indicating that O-7 exerts its anticancer activity through microtubule destabilization. However, O-10 shows a different mode of action than O-7 and requires further investigation. Overall, our study showcases the potential of the synthesized benzimidazole derivatives as novel and selective anticancer agents, motivating further exploration of their pharmacological properties and therapeutic applications.

Interplay between stochastic enzyme activity and microtubule stability drives detyrosination enrichment on microtubule subsets

Microtubules in cells consist of functionally diverse subpopulations carrying distinct post-translational modifications (PTMs). Akin to the histone code, the tubulin code regulates a myriad of microtubule functions, ranging from intracellular transport to chromosome segregation. However, how individual PTMs only occur on subsets of microtubules to contribute to microtubule specialization is not well understood. In particular, microtubule detyrosination, the removal of the C-terminal tyrosine on α-tubulin subunits, marks the stable population of microtubules and modifies how microtubules interact with other microtubule-associated proteins to regulate a wide range of cellular processes. Previously, we found that in certain cell types, only ∼30% of microtubules are highly enriched with the detyrosination mark and that detyrosination spans most of the length of a microtubule, often adjacent to a completely tyrosinated microtubule. How the activity of a cytosolic detyrosinase, vasohibin (VASH), leads to only a small subpopulation of highly detyrosinated microtubules is unclear. Here, using quantitative super-resolution microscopy, we visualized nascent microtubule detyrosination events in cells consisting of 1-3 detyrosinated α-tubulin subunits after nocodazole washout. Microtubule detyrosination accumulates slowly and in a dispersed pattern across the microtubule length. By visualizing single molecules of VASH in live cells, we found that VASH engages with microtubules stochastically on a short timescale, suggesting limited removal of tyrosine per interaction, consistent with the super-resolution results. Combining these quantitative imaging results with simulations incorporating parameters from our experiments, we provide evidence for a stochastic model for cells to establish a subset of detyrosinated microtubules via a detyrosination-stabilization feedback mechanism.

More is different: Reconstituting complexity in microtubule regulation

Microtubules are dynamic cytoskeletal filaments that undergo stochastic switching between phases of polymerization and depolymerization-a behavior known as dynamic instability. Many important cellular processes, including cell motility, chromosome segregation, and intracellular transport, require complex spatiotemporal regulation of microtubule dynamics. This coordinated regulation is achieved through the interactions of numerous microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) with microtubule ends and lattices. Here, we review the recent advances in our understanding of microtubule regulation, focusing on results arising from biochemical in vitro reconstitution approaches using purified multiprotein ensembles. We discuss how the combinatory effects of MAPs affect both the dynamics of individual microtubule ends, as well as the stability and turnover of the microtubule lattice. In addition, we highlight new results demonstrating the roles of protein condensates in microtubule regulation. Our overall intent is to showcase how lessons learned from reconstitution approaches help unravel the regulatory mechanisms at play in complex cellular environments.

The Tubulin Code, from Molecules to Health and Disease

Microtubules are essential dynamic polymers composed of α/β-tubulin heterodimers. They support intracellular trafficking, cell division, cellular motility, and other essential cellular processes. In many species, both α-tubulin and β-tubulin are encoded by multiple genes with distinct expression profiles and functionality. Microtubules are further diversified through abundant posttranslational modifications, which are added and removed by a suite of enzymes to form complex, stereotyped cellular arrays. The genetic and chemical diversity of tubulin constitute a tubulin code that regulates intrinsic microtubule properties and is read by cellular effectors, such as molecular motors and microtubule-associated proteins, to provide spatial and temporal specificity to microtubules in cells. In this review, we synthesize the rapidly expanding tubulin code literature and highlight limitations and opportunities for the field. As complex microtubule arrays underlie essential physiological processes, a better understanding of how cells employ the tubulin code has important implications for human disease ranging from cancer to neurological disorders.

Phase separation of +TIP networks regulates microtubule dynamics

Regulation of microtubule dynamics is essential for diverse cellular functions, and proteins that bind to dynamic microtubule ends can regulate network dynamics. Here, we show that two conserved microtubule end-binding proteins, CLIP-170 and EB3, undergo phase separation and form dense liquid networks. When CLIP-170 and EB3 act together, the multivalency of the network increases, which synergistically increases the amount of protein in the dense phase. In vitro and in cells, these liquid networks can concentrate tubulin. In vitro, in the presence of microtubules, phase separation of EB3/CLIP-170 can enrich tubulin all along the microtubule. In this condition, microtubule growth speed increases up to twofold and the frequency of depolymerization events are strongly reduced compared to conditions in which there is no phase separation. Our data show that phase separation of EB3/CLIP-170 adds an additional layer of regulation to the control of microtubule growth dynamics.

It Takes Tau to Tango: Investigating the Fuzzy Interaction between the R2-Repeat Domain and Tubulin C-Terminal Tails

The microtubule-associated protein (MAP) tau plays a key role in the regulation of microtubule assembly and spatial organization. Tau hyperphosphorylation affects its binding on the tubulin surface and has been shown to be involved in several pathologies such as Alzheimer's disease. As the tau binding site on the microtubule lays close to the disordered and highly flexible tubulin C-terminal tails (CTTs), these are likely to impact the tau-tubulin interaction. Since the disordered tubulin CTTs are missing from the available experimental structures, we used homology modeling to build two complete models of tubulin heterotrimers with different isotypes for the β-tubulin subunit (βI/αI/βI and βIII/αI/βIII). We then performed long timescale classical Molecular Dynamics simulations for the tau-R2/tubulin assembly (in systems with and without CTTs) and analyzed the resulting trajectories to obtain a detailed view of the protein interface in the complex and the impact of the CTTs on the stability of this assembly. Additional analyses of the CTT mobility in the presence, or in the absence, of tau also highlight how tau might modulate the CTT activity as hooks that are involved in the recruitment of several MAPs. In particular, we observe a wrapping phenomenon, where the β-tubulin CTTs form a loop over tau-R2, thus stabilizing its interaction with the tubulin surface and simultaneously reducing the CTT availability for interactions with other MAPs.

Control of motor landing and processivity by the CAP-Gly domain in the KIF13B tail

Microtubules are major components of the eukaryotic cytoskeleton. Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of tubulin regulates interactions with microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). One unique PTM is the cyclical removal and re-addition of the C-terminal tyrosine of α-tubulin and MAPs containing CAP-Gly domains specifically recognize tyrosinated microtubules. KIF13B, a long-distance transport kinesin, contains a conserved CAP-Gly domain, but the role of the CAP-Gly domain in KIF13B's motility along microtubules remains unknown. To address this, we investigate the interaction between KIF13B's CAP-Gly domain, and tyrosinated microtubules. We find that KIF13B's CAP-Gly domain influences the initial motor-microtubule interaction, as well as processive motility along microtubules. The effect of the CAP-Gly domain is enhanced when the motor domain is in the ADP state, suggesting an interplay between the N-terminal motor domain and C-terminal CAP-Gly domain. These results reveal that specialized kinesin tail domains play active roles in the initiation and continuation of motor movement.

Tubulin engineering by semi-synthesis reveals that polyglutamylation directs detyrosination

Microtubules, a critical component of the cytoskeleton, carry post-translational modifications (PTMs) that are important for the regulation of key cellular processes. Long-lived microtubules, in neurons particularly, exhibit both detyrosination of α-tubulin and polyglutamylation. Dysregulation of these PTMs can result in developmental defects and neurodegeneration. Owing to a lack of tools to study the regulation and function of these PTMs, the mechanisms that govern such PTM patterns are not well understood. Here we produce fully functional tubulin carrying precisely defined PTMs within its C-terminal tail. We ligate synthetic α-tubulin tails-which are site-specifically glutamylated-to recombinant human tubulin heterodimers by applying a sortase- and intein-mediated tandem transamidation strategy. Using microtubules reconstituted with these designer tubulins, we find that α-tubulin polyglutamylation promotes its detyrosination by enhancing the activity of the tubulin tyrosine carboxypeptidase vasohibin/small vasohibin-binding protein in a manner dependent on the length of polyglutamyl chains. We also find that modulating polyglutamylation levels in cells results in corresponding changes in detyrosination, corroborating the link between the detyrosination cycle to polyglutamylation.

Integrated regulation of tubulin tyrosination and microtubule stability by human α-tubulin isotypes

Tubulin isotypes are critical for the functions of cellular microtubules, which exhibit different stability and harbor various post-translational modifications. However, how tubulin isotypes determine the activities of regulators for microtubule stability and modifications remains unknown. Here, we show that human α4A-tubulin, a conserved genetically detyrosinated α-tubulin isotype, is a poor substrate for enzymatic tyrosination. To examine the stability of microtubules reconstituted with defined tubulin compositions, we develop a strategy to site-specifically label recombinant human tubulin for single-molecule TIRF microscopy-based in vitro assays. The incorporation of α4A-tubulin into the microtubule lattice stabilizes the polymers from passive and MCAK-stimulated depolymerization. Further characterization reveals that the compositions of α-tubulin isotypes and tyrosination/detyrosination states allow graded control for the microtubule binding and the depolymerization activities of MCAK. Together, our results uncover the tubulin isotype-dependent enzyme activity for an integrated regulation of α-tubulin tyrosination/detyrosination states and microtubule stability, two well-correlated features of cellular microtubules.

Macromolecular Crowding Tailors the Microtubule Cytoskeleton Through Tubulin Modifications and Microtubule-Associated Proteins

Cells remodel their cytoskeletal networks to adapt to their environment. Here, we analyze the mechanisms utilized by the cell to tailor its microtubule landscape in response to changes in osmolarity that alter macromolecular crowding. By integrating live cell imaging, ex vivo enzymatic assays, and in vitro reconstitution, we probe the impact of acute perturbations in cytoplasmic density on microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) and tubulin posttranslational modifications (PTMs), unraveling the molecular underpinnings of cellular adaptation via the microtubule cytoskeleton. We find that cells respond to fluctuations in cytoplasmic density by modulating microtubule acetylation, detyrosination, or MAP7 association, without differentially affecting polyglutamylation, tyrosination, or MAP4 association. These MAP-PTM combinations alter intracellular cargo transport, enabling the cell to respond to osmotic challenges. We further dissect the molecular mechanisms governing tubulin PTM specification, and find that MAP7 promotes acetylation by biasing the conformation of the microtubule lattice, and directly inhibits detyrosination. Acetylation and detyrosination can therefore be decoupled and utilized for distinct cellular purposes. Our data reveal that the MAP code dictates the tubulin code, resulting in remodeling of the microtubule cytoskeleton and alteration of intracellular transport as an integrated mechanism of cellular adaptation.

Glutamylation is a negative regulator of microtubule growth

Microtubules are noncovalent polymers built from αβ-tubulin dimers. The disordered C-terminal tubulin tails are functionalized with multiple glutamate chains of variable lengths added and removed by tubulin tyrosine ligases (TTLLs) and carboxypeptidases (CCPs). Glutamylation is abundant on stable microtubule arrays such as in axonemes and axons, and its dysregulation leads to human pathologies. Despite this, the effects of glutamylation on intrinsic microtubule dynamics are unclear. Here we generate tubulin with short and long glutamate chains and show that glutamylation slows the rate of microtubule growth and increases catastrophes as a function of glutamylation levels. This implies that the higher stability of glutamylated microtubules in cells is due to effectors. Interestingly, EB1 is minimally affected by glutamylation and thus can report on the growth rates of both unmodified and glutamylated microtubules. Finally, we show that glutamate removal by CCP1 and 5 is synergistic and occurs preferentially on soluble tubulin, unlike TTLL enzymes that prefer microtubules. This substrate preference establishes an asymmetry whereby once the microtubule depolymerizes, the released tubulin is reset to a less-modified state, while polymerized tubulin accumulates the glutamylation mark. Our work shows that a modification on the disordered tubulin tails can directly affect microtubule dynamics and furthers our understanding of the mechanistic underpinnings of the tubulin code.

Microtubule detyrosination drives symmetry breaking to polarize cells for directed cell migration

To initiate directed movement, cells must become polarized, establishing a protrusive leading edge and a contractile trailing edge. This symmetry-breaking process involves reorganization of cytoskeleton and asymmetric distribution of regulatory molecules. However, what triggers and maintains this asymmetry during cell migration remains largely elusive. Here, we established a micropatterning-based 1D motility assay to investigate the molecular basis of symmetry breaking required for directed cell migration. We show that microtubule (MT) detyrosination drives cell polarization by directing kinesin-1-based transport of the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein to cortical sites. This is essential for the formation of cell's leading edge during 1D and 3D cell migration. These data, combined with biophysical modeling, unveil a key role for MT detyrosination in the generation of a positive feedback loop linking MT dynamics and kinesin-1-based transport. Thus, symmetry breaking during cell polarization relies on a feedback loop driven by MT detyrosination that supports directed cell migration.

A live-cell marker to visualize the dynamics of stable microtubules throughout the cell cycle

The microtubule (MT) cytoskeleton underlies processes such as intracellular transport and cell division. Immunolabeling for posttranslational modifications of tubulin has revealed the presence of different MT subsets, which are believed to differ in stability and function. Whereas dynamic MTs can readily be studied using live-cell plus-end markers, the dynamics of stable MTs have remained obscure due to a lack of tools to directly visualize these MTs in living cells. Here, we present StableMARK (Stable Microtubule-Associated Rigor-Kinesin), a live-cell marker to visualize stable MTs with high spatiotemporal resolution. We demonstrate that a rigor mutant of Kinesin-1 selectively binds to stable MTs without affecting MT organization and organelle transport. These MTs are long-lived, undergo continuous remodeling, and often do not depolymerize upon laser-based severing. Using this marker, we could visualize the spatiotemporal regulation of MT stability before, during, and after cell division. Thus, this live-cell marker enables the exploration of different MT subsets and how they contribute to cellular organization and transport.

A Tale of 12 Tails: Katanin Severing Activity Affected by Carboxy-Terminal Tail Sequences

In cells, microtubule location, length, and dynamics are regulated by a host of microtubule-associated proteins and enzymes that read where to bind and act based on the microtubule “tubulin code,” which is predominantly encoded in the tubulin carboxy-terminal tail (CTT). Katanin is a highly conserved AAA ATPase enzyme that binds to the tubulin CTTs to remove dimers and sever microtubules. We have previously demonstrated that short CTT peptides are able to inhibit katanin severing. Here, we examine the effects of CTT sequences on this inhibition activity. Specifically, we examine CTT sequences found in nature, alpha1A (TUBA1A), detyrosinated alpha1A, Δ2 alpha1A, beta5 (TUBB/TUBB5), beta2a (TUBB2A), beta3 (TUBB3), and beta4b (TUBB4b). We find that these natural CTTs have distinct abilities to inhibit, most noticeably beta3 CTT cannot inhibit katanin. Two non-native CTT tail constructs are also unable to inhibit, despite having 94% sequence identity with alpha1 or beta5 sequences. Surprisingly, we demonstrate that poly-E and poly-D peptides are capable of inhibiting katanin significantly. An analysis of the hydrophobicity of the CTT constructs indicates that more hydrophobic polypeptides are less inhibitory than more polar polypeptides. These experiments not only demonstrate inhibition, but also likely interaction and targeting of katanin to these various CTTs when they are part of a polymerized microtubule filament.

Mechanistic Analysis of CCP1 in Generating ΔC2 α-Tubulin in Mammalian Cells and Photoreceptor Neurons

An important post-translational modification (PTM) of α-tubulin is the removal of amino acids from its C-terminus. Removal of the C-terminal tyrosine residue yields detyrosinated α-tubulin, and subsequent removal of the penultimate glutamate residue produces ΔC2-α-tubulin. These PTMs alter the ability of the α-tubulin C-terminal tail to interact with effector proteins and are thereby thought to change microtubule dynamics, stability, and organization. The peptidase(s) that produces ΔC2-α-tubulin in a physiological context remains unclear. Here, we take advantage of the observation that ΔC2-α-tubulin accumulates to high levels in cells lacking tubulin tyrosine ligase (TTL) to screen for cytosolic carboxypeptidases (CCPs) that generate ΔC2-α-tubulin. We identify CCP1 as the sole peptidase that produces ΔC2-α-tubulin in TTLΔ HeLa cells. Interestingly, we find that the levels of ΔC2-α-tubulin are only modestly reduced in photoreceptors of ccp1^-/- mice, indicating that other peptidases act synergistically with CCP1 to produce ΔC2-α-tubulin in post-mitotic cells. Moreover, the production of ΔC2-α-tubulin appears to be under tight spatial control in the photoreceptor cilium: ΔC2-α-tubulin persists in the connecting cilium of ccp1^-/- but is depleted in the distal portion of the photoreceptor. This work establishes the groundwork to pinpoint the function of ΔC2-α-tubulin in proliferating and post-mitotic mammalian cells.

α-Tubulin detyrosination links the suppression of MCAK activity with taxol cytotoxicity

α/β-Tubulin posttranslational modifications (PTMs) generate microtubule diversity, but whether they account for cancer cell resistance to microtubule-targeting drugs remains unknown. Here, we performed a pilot dissection of the "cancer tubulin code" using the NCI-60 cancer cell panel. We found that acetylated, detyrosinated, and ∆2-α-tubulin that typically accumulate on stable microtubules were uncoupled in many cancer cells. Acetylated α-tubulin did not affect microtubule dynamics, whereas its levels correlated with, but were not required for, taxol-induced cytotoxicity. In contrast, experimental increase of α-tubulin detyrosination, and/or depletion of the detyrosination-sensitive microtubule-depolymerizing enzyme MCAK, enhanced taxol-induced cytotoxicity by promoting cell death in mitosis and the subsequent interphase, without causing a cumulative effect. Interestingly, only increased detyrosinated α-tubulin aggravated taxol-induced spindle multipolarity. Overall, we identified high α-tubulin acetylation as a potential biomarker for cancer cell response to taxol and uncovered a mechanistic link between α-tubulin detyrosination and the suppression of MCAK activity in taxol-induced cytotoxicity, likely by promoting chromosome missegregation, regardless of spindle defects.

Mitochondrial dysfunction in human hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is linked to cardiomyocyte architecture disruption and corrected by improving NADH-driven mitochondrial respiration

AIMS

Genetic hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is caused by mutations in sarcomere protein-encoding genes (i.e. genotype-positive HCM). In an increasing number of patients, HCM occurs in the absence of a mutation (i.e. genotype-negative HCM). Mitochondrial dysfunction is thought to be a key driver of pathological remodelling in HCM. Reports of mitochondrial respiratory function and specific disease-modifying treatment options in patients with HCM are scarce.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Respirometry was performed on septal myectomy tissue from patients with HCM (n = 59) to evaluate oxidative phosphorylation and fatty acid oxidation. Mitochondrial dysfunction was most notably reflected by impaired NADH-linked respiration. In genotype-negative patients, but not genotype-positive patients, NADH-linked respiration was markedly depressed in patients with an indexed septal thickness ≥10 compared with <10. Mitochondrial dysfunction was not explained by reduced abundance or fragmentation of mitochondria, as evaluated by transmission electron microscopy. Rather, improper organization of mitochondria relative to myofibrils (expressed as a percentage of disorganized mitochondria) was strongly associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Pre-incubation with the cardiolipin-stabilizing drug elamipretide and raising mitochondrial NAD+ levels both boosted NADH-linked respiration.

CONCLUSION

Mitochondrial dysfunction is explained by cardiomyocyte architecture disruption and is linked to septal hypertrophy in genotype-negative HCM. Despite severe myocardial remodelling mitochondria were responsive to treatments aimed at restoring respiratory function, eliciting the mitochondria as a drug target to prevent and ameliorate cardiac disease in HCM. Mitochondria-targeting therapy may particularly benefit genotype-negative patients with HCM, given the tight link between mitochondrial impairment and septal thickening in this subpopulation.

Regulatory mechanisms of the dynein-2 motility by post-translational modification revealed by MD simulation

Intraflagellar transport for ciliary assembly and maintenance is driven by dynein and kinesins specific to the cilia. It has been shown that anterograde and retrograde transports run on different regions of the doublet microtubule, i.e., separate train tracks. However, little is known about the regulatory mechanism of this selective process. Since the doublet microtubule is known to display specific post-translational modifications of tubulins, i.e., "tubulin code", for molecular motor regulations, we investigated the motility of ciliary specific dynein-2 under different post-translational modification by coarse-grained molecular dynamics. Our setup allows us to simulate the landing behaviors of dynein-2 on un-modified, detyrosinated, poly-glutamylated and poly-glycylated microtubules in silico. Our study revealed that poly-glutamylation can play an inhibitory effect on dynein-2 motility. Our result indicates that poly-glutamylation of the B-tubule of the doublet microtubule can be used as an efficient means to target retrograde intraflagellar transport onto the A-tubule.

Cellular cartography: Towards an atlas of the neuronal microtubule cytoskeleton

Microtubules, one of the major components of the cytoskeleton, play a crucial role during many aspects of neuronal development and function, such as neuronal polarization and axon outgrowth. Consequently, the microtubule cytoskeleton has been implicated in many neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. The polar nature of microtubules is quintessential for their function, allowing them to serve as tracks for long-distance, directed intracellular transport by kinesin and dynein motors. Most of these motors move exclusively towards either the plus- or minus-end of a microtubule and some have been shown to have a preference for either dynamic or stable microtubules, those bearing a particular post-translational modification or those decorated by a specific microtubule-associated protein. Thus, it becomes important to consider the interplay of these features and their combinatorial effects on transport, as well as how different types of microtubules are organized in the cell. Here, we discuss microtubule subsets in terms of tubulin isotypes, tubulin post-translational modifications, microtubule-associated proteins, microtubule stability or dynamicity, and microtubule orientation. We highlight techniques used to study these features of the microtubule cytoskeleton and, using the information from these studies, try to define the composition, role, and organization of some of these subsets in neurons.

MAPping tubulin mutations

Microtubules are filamentous structures that play a critical role in a diverse array of cellular functions including, mitosis, nuclear translocation, trafficking of organelles and cell shape. They are composed of α/β-tubulin heterodimers which are encoded by a large multigene family that has been implicated in an umbrella of disease states collectively known as the tubulinopathies. De novo mutations in different tubulin genes are known to cause lissencephaly, microcephaly, polymicrogyria, motor neuron disease, and female infertility. The diverse clinical features associated with these maladies have been attributed to the expression pattern of individual tubulin genes, as well as their distinct Functional repertoire. Recent studies, however, have highlighted the impact of tubulin mutations on microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). MAPs can be classified according to their effect on microtubules and include polymer stabilizers (e.g., tau, MAP2, doublecortin), destabilizers (e.g., spastin, katanin), plus-end binding proteins (e.g., EB1-3, XMAP215, CLASPs) and motor proteins (e.g., dyneins, kinesins). In this review we analyse mutation-specific disease mechanisms that influence MAP binding and their phenotypic consequences, and discuss methods by which we can exploit genetic variation to identify novel MAPs.

VASH1-SVBP and VASH2-SVBP generate different detyrosination profiles on microtubules

The detyrosination/tyrosination cycle of α-tubulin is critical for proper cell functioning. VASH1-SVBP and VASH2-SVBP are ubiquitous enzymes involved in microtubule detyrosination, whose mode of action is little known. Here, we show in reconstituted systems and cells that VASH1-SVBP and VASH2-SVBP drive the global and local detyrosination of microtubules, respectively. We solved the cryo-electron microscopy structure of VASH2-SVBP bound to microtubules, revealing a different microtubule-binding configuration of its central catalytic region compared to VASH1-SVBP. We show that the divergent mode of detyrosination between the two enzymes is correlated with the microtubule-binding properties of their disordered N- and C-terminal regions. Specifically, the N-terminal region is responsible for a significantly longer residence time of VASH2-SVBP on microtubules compared to VASH1-SVBP. We suggest that this VASH region is critical for microtubule detachment and diffusion of VASH-SVBP enzymes on lattices. Our results suggest a mechanism by which VASH1-SVBP and VASH2-SVBP could generate distinct microtubule subpopulations and confined areas of detyrosinated lattices to drive various microtubule-based cellular functions.

Engineering metaphase spindles: Construction site and building blocks

In an active, crowded cytoplasm, eukaryotic cells construct metaphase spindles from conserved building blocks to segregate chromosomes. Yet, spindles execute their function in a stunning variety of cell shapes and sizes across orders of magnitude. Thus, the current challenge is to understand how unique mesoscale spindle characteristics emerge from the interaction of molecular collectives. Key components of these collectives are tubulin dimers, which polymerise into microtubules. Despite all conservation, tubulin is a genetically and biochemically complex protein family, and we only begin to uncover how tubulin diversity affects microtubule dynamics and thus spindle assembly. Moreover, it is increasingly appreciated that spindles are dynamically intertwined with the cytoplasm that itself exhibits cell-type specific emergent properties with yet mostly unexplored consequences for spindle construction. Therefore, on our way toward a quantitative picture of spindle function, we need to understand molecular behaviour of the building blocks and connect it to the entire cellular context.

Combinatorial and antagonistic effects of tubulin glutamylation and glycylation on katanin microtubule severing

Microtubules have spatiotemporally complex posttranslational modification patterns. How cells interpret this tubulin modification code is largely unknown. We show that C. elegans katanin, a microtubule severing AAA ATPase mutated in microcephaly and critical for cell division, axonal elongation, and cilia biogenesis, responds precisely, differentially, and combinatorially to three chemically distinct tubulin modifications-glycylation, glutamylation, and tyrosination-but is insensitive to acetylation. Glutamylation and glycylation are antagonistic rheostats with glycylation protecting microtubules from severing. Katanin exhibits graded and divergent responses to glutamylation on the α- and β-tubulin tails, and these act combinatorially. The katanin hexamer central pore constrains the polyglutamate chain patterns on β-tails recognized productively. Elements distal to the katanin AAA core sense α-tubulin tyrosination, and detyrosination downregulates severing. The multivalent microtubule recognition that enables katanin to read multiple tubulin modification inputs explains in vivo observations and illustrates how effectors can integrate tubulin code signals to produce diverse functional outcomes.

Tension of plus-end tracking protein Clip170 confers directionality and aggressiveness during breast cancer migration

The microtubule (MT) plus-end binding protein Clip170 is associated closely with breast cancer invasion and migration. In this study, Clip170 tension observed by a newly designed cpstFRET tension probe was suggested to be positive related to breast cancer aggressiveness, which could be regulated by α-tubulin detyrosination-induced MT disassembly. Clip170 phosphorylation induced by Ribosomal protein S6 kinase (RSK) could also increase its tension and promote the conversion of a discrete comet-like Clip-170 distribution into a spotty pattern during cancer metastasis. Heightened Clip170 tension was correlated with the formation of cortactin-associated filopodia and lamellipodia, and then promoted invasion and metastasis both in vitro and in vivo. Meanwhile, Clip170 tension enhanced at the leading edge in directional migration, accompanying with IQGAP1 subcellular distribution variation. Our work indicates that the malignancy and directionality during breast cancer migration depend on the magnitude and polarization of Clip170 tension, and we suggest Clip170 tension as a new potential drug target for breast cancer therapy.

Two Important Anticancer Mechanisms of Natural and Synthetic Chalcones

ATP-binding cassette subfamily G and tubulin pharmacological mechanisms decrease the effectiveness of anticancer drugs by modulating drug absorption and by creating tubulin assembly through polymerization. A series of natural and synthetic chalcones have been reported to have very good anticancer activity, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration lower than 1 µM. By modulation, it is observed in case of the first mechanism that methoxy substituents on the aromatic cycle of acetophenone residue and substitution of phenyl nucleus by a heterocycle and by methoxy or hydroxyl groups have a positive impact. To inhibit tubulin, compounds bind to colchicine binding site. Presence of methoxy groups, amino groups or heterocyclic substituents increase activity.

EML2-S constitutes a new class of proteins that recognizes and regulates the dynamics of tyrosinated microtubules

Tubulin post-translational modifications (PTMs) alter microtubule properties by affecting the binding of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs). Microtubule detyrosination, which occurs by proteolytic removal of the C-terminal tyrosine from ɑ-tubulin, generates the oldest known tubulin PTM, but we lack comprehensive knowledge of MAPs that are regulated by this PTM. We developed a screening pipeline to identify proteins that discriminate between Y- and ΔY-microtubules and found that echinoderm microtubule-associated protein-like 2 (EML2) preferentially interacts with Y-microtubules. This activity depends on a Y-microtubule interaction motif built from WD40 repeats. We show that EML2 tracks the tips of shortening microtubules, a behavior not previously seen among human MAPs in vivo, and influences dynamics to increase microtubule stability. Our screening pipeline is readily adapted to identify proteins that specifically recognize a wide range of microtubule PTMs.

Manipulation of the Tubulin Code Alters Directional Cell Migration and Ciliogenesis

Conjunction of epithelial cells into monolayer sheets implies the ability to migrate and to undergo apicobasal polarization. Both processes comprise reorganization of cytoskeletal elements and rearrangements of structural protein interactions. We modulated expression of tubulin tyrosin ligase (TTL), the enzyme that adds tyrosine to the carboxy terminus of detyrosinated α-tubulin, to study the role of tubulin detyrosination/-tyrosination in the orientation of cell motility and in epithelial morphogenesis. Oriented cell migration and the organization of focal adhesions significantly lose directionality with diminishing amounts of microtubules enriched in detyrosinated tubulin. On the other hand, increasing quantities of detyrosinated tubulin results in faster plus end elongation of microtubules in migrating and in polarized epithelial cells. These plus ends are decorated by the plus end binding protein 1 (EB1), which mediates interaction between microtubules enriched in detyrosinated tubulin and the integrin-ILK complex at focal adhesions. EB1 accumulates at the apical cell pole at the base of the primary cilium following apicobasal polarization. Polarized cells almost devoid of detyrosinated tubulin form stunted primary cilia and multiluminal cysts in 3D-matrices. We conclude that the balance between detyrosinated and tyrosinated tubulin alters microtubule dynamics, affects the orientation of focal adhesions and determines the organization of primary cilia on epithelial cells.

Mathematical modeling of the microtubule detyrosination/tyrosination cycle for cell-based drug screening design

Microtubules and their post-translational modifications are involved in major cellular processes. In severe diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders, tyrosinated tubulin and tyrosinated microtubules are in lower concentration. We present here a mechanistic mathematical model of the microtubule tyrosination cycle combining computational modeling and high-content image analyses to understand the key kinetic parameters governing the tyrosination status in different cellular models. That mathematical model is parameterized, firstly, for neuronal cells using kinetic values taken from the literature, and, secondly, for proliferative cells, by a change of two parameter values obtained, and shown minimal, by a continuous optimization procedure based on temporal logic constraints to formalize experimental high-content imaging data. In both cases, the mathematical models explain the inability to increase the tyrosination status by activating the Tubulin Tyrosine Ligase enzyme. The tyrosinated tubulin is indeed the product of a chain of two reactions in the cycle: the detyrosinated microtubule depolymerization followed by its tyrosination. The tyrosination status at equilibrium is thus limited by both reaction rates and activating the tyrosination reaction alone is not effective. Our computational model also predicts the effect of inhibiting the Tubulin Carboxy Peptidase enzyme which we have experimentally validated in MEF cellular model. Furthermore, the model predicts that the activation of two particular kinetic parameters, the tyrosination and detyrosinated microtubule depolymerization rate constants, in synergy, should suffice to enable an increase of the tyrosination status in living cells.

Targeting Microtubules for the Treatment of Heart Disease

Heart disease remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. With the advancement of modern technology, the role(s) of microtubules in the pathogenesis of heart disease has become increasingly apparent, though currently there are limited treatments targeting microtubule-relevant mechanisms. Here, we review the functions of microtubules in the cardiovascular system and their specific adaptive and pathological phenotypes in cardiac disorders. We further explore the use of microtubule-targeting drugs and highlight promising druggable therapeutic targets for the future treatment of heart diseases.

The microtubule cytoskeleton in cardiac mechanics and heart failure

The microtubule network of cardiac muscle cells has unique architectural and biophysical features to accommodate the demands of the working heart. Advances in live-cell imaging and in deciphering the 'tubulin code' have shone new light on this cytoskeletal network and its role in heart failure. Microtubule-based transport orchestrates the growth and maintenance of the contractile apparatus through spatiotemporal control of translation, while also organizing the specialized membrane systems required for excitation-contraction coupling. To withstand the high mechanical loads of the working heart, microtubules are post-translationally modified and physically reinforced. In response to stress to the myocardium, the microtubule network remodels, typically through densification, post-translational modification and stabilization. Under these conditions, physically reinforced microtubules resist the motion of the cardiomyocyte and increase myocardial stiffness. Accordingly, modified microtubules have emerged as a therapeutic target for reducing stiffness in heart failure. In this Review, we discuss the latest evidence on the contribution of microtubules to cardiac mechanics, the drivers of microtubule network remodelling in cardiac pathologies and the therapeutic potential of targeting cardiac microtubules in acquired heart diseases.

Regulation of microtubule detyrosination by calcium and conventional calpains

Detyrosination is a major post-translational modification of microtubules (MTs), which has significant impact on MT function in cell division, differentiation, growth, migration, and intracellular trafficking. Detyrosination of α-tubulin occurs mostly via the recently identified complex of vasohibin1/2 (VASH1/2) and small vasohibin binding protein (SVBP). However, there is still remaining detyrosinating activity in the absence of VASH1/2:SVBP, and little is known about the regulation of detyrosination. Here, we found that intracellular calcium is required for efficient MT detyrosination. Furthermore, we show that calcium-dependent proteases calpains 1 and 2 regulate MT detyrosination in VASH1:SVBP overexpressing human embryonal kidney (HEK293T) cells. We identified new calpain cleavage sites in the N-terminal disordered region of VASH1. However, this cleavage did not affect the enzymatic activity of VASH. In conclusion, we suggest that the regulation of VASH1-mediated MT detyrosination by calpains could occur independent of VASH catalytic activity or via another yet unknown tubulin carboxypeptidase. Importantly, calpains’ calcium dependency could allow a fine regulation of MT detyrosination. Thus, identifying the calpain-regulated pathway of MT detyrosination can be of major importance for basic and clinical research.

Direct and indirect effects of tubulin post-translational modifications on microtubule stability: Insights and regulations

Microtubules (MTs) mediate various cellular functions such as structural support, chromosome segregation, and intracellular transport. To achieve this, the pivotal properties of MTs have to be changeable and tightly controlled. This is enabled by a high variety of tubulin posttranslational modifications, which influence MT properties directly, via altering the MT lattice structurally, or indirectly by changing MT interaction partners. Here, the distinction between these direct and indirect effects of MT PTMs are exemplified by acetylation of the luminal α-tubulin K40 resulting in decreased rigidity of MTs, and by MT detyrosination which decreases interaction with depolymerizing proteins, thus causing more stable MTs. We discuss how these PTMs are reversed and regulated, e.g. on the level of enzyme transcription, localization, and activity via various signalling pathways including the conventional calcium-dependent proteases calpains and how advances in microscopy techniques and development of live-sensors facilitate the understanding of MT PTM interaction and effects.

Acetylated α-tubulin K394 regulates microtubule stability to shape the growth of axon terminals

Microtubules are essential to neuron shape and function. Acetylation of tubulin has the potential to directly tune the behavior and function of microtubules in cells. Although proteomic studies have identified several acetylation sites in α-tubulin, the effects of acetylation at these sites remains largely unknown. This includes the highly conserved residue lysine 394 (K394), which is located at the αβ-tubulin dimer interface. Using a fly model, we show that α-tubulin K394 is acetylated in the nervous system and is an essential residue. We found that an acetylation-blocking mutation in endogenous α-tubulin, K394R, perturbs the synaptic morphogenesis of motoneurons and reduces microtubule stability. Intriguingly, the K394R mutation has opposite effects on the growth of two functionally and morphologically distinct motoneurons, revealing neuron-type-specific responses when microtubule stability is altered. Eliminating the deacetylase HDAC6 increases K394 acetylation, and the over-expression of HDAC6 reduces microtubule stability similar to the K394R mutant. Thus, our findings implicate α-tubulin K394 and its acetylation in the regulation of microtubule stability and suggest that HDAC6 regulates K394 acetylation during synaptic morphogenesis.

Desmin intermediate filaments and tubulin detyrosination stabilize growing microtubules in the cardiomyocyte

In heart failure, an increased abundance of post-translationally detyrosinated microtubules stiffens the cardiomyocyte and impedes its contractile function. Detyrosination promotes interactions between microtubules, desmin intermediate filaments, and the sarcomere to increase cytoskeletal stiffness, yet the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown. We hypothesized that detyrosination may regulate the growth and shrinkage of dynamic microtubules to facilitate interactions with desmin and the sarcomere. Through a combination of biochemical assays and direct observation of growing microtubule plus-ends in adult cardiomyocytes, we find that desmin is required to stabilize growing microtubules at the level of the sarcomere Z-disk, where desmin also rescues shrinking microtubules from continued depolymerization. Further, reducing detyrosination (i.e. tyrosination) below basal levels promotes frequent depolymerization and less efficient growth of microtubules. This is concomitant with tyrosination promoting the interaction of microtubules with the depolymerizing protein complex of end-binding protein 1 (EB1) and CAP-Gly domain-containing linker protein 1 (CLIP1/CLIP170). The dynamic growth and shrinkage of tyrosinated microtubules reduce their opportunity for stabilizing interactions at the Z-disk region, coincident with tyrosination globally reducing microtubule stability. These data provide a model for how intermediate filaments and tubulin detyrosination establish long-lived and physically reinforced microtubules that stiffen the cardiomyocyte and inform both the mechanism of action and therapeutic index for strategies aimed at restoring tyrosination for the treatment of cardiac disease.

Transcriptional, Post-Transcriptional, and Post-Translational Mechanisms Rewrite the Tubulin Code During Cardiac Hypertrophy and Failure

A proliferated and post-translationally modified microtubule network underlies cellular growth in cardiac hypertrophy and contributes to contractile dysfunction in heart failure. Yet how the heart achieves this modified network is poorly understood. Determining how the "tubulin code"-the permutations of tubulin isoforms and post-translational modifications-is rewritten upon cardiac stress may provide new targets to modulate cardiac remodeling. Further, while tubulin can autoregulate its own expression, it is unknown if autoregulation is operant in the heart or tuned in response to stress. Here we use heart failure patient samples and murine models of cardiac remodeling to interrogate transcriptional, autoregulatory, and post-translational mechanisms that contribute to microtubule network remodeling at different stages of heart disease. We find that autoregulation is operant across tubulin isoforms in the heart and leads to an apparent disconnect in tubulin mRNA and protein levels in heart failure. We also find that within 4 h of a hypertrophic stimulus and prior to cardiac growth, microtubule detyrosination is rapidly induced to help stabilize the network. This occurs concomitant with rapid transcriptional and autoregulatory activation of specific tubulin isoforms and microtubule motors. Upon continued hypertrophic stimulation, there is an increase in post-translationally modified microtubule tracks and anterograde motors to support cardiac growth, while total tubulin content increases through progressive transcriptional and autoregulatory induction of tubulin isoforms. Our work provides a new model for how the tubulin code is rapidly rewritten to establish a proliferated, stable microtubule network that drives cardiac remodeling, and provides the first evidence of tunable tubulin autoregulation during pathological progression.

The detyrosination/re-tyrosination cycle of tubulin and its role and dysfunction in neurons and cardiomyocytes

Among the variety of post-translational modifications to which microtubules are subjected, the detyrosination/re-tyrosination cycle is specific to tubulin. It is conserved by evolution and characterized by the enzymatic removal and re-addition of a gene-encoded tyrosine residue at the C-terminus of α-tubulin. Detyrosinated tubulin can be further converted to Δ2-tubulin by the removal of an additional C-terminal glutamate residue. Detyrosinated and Δ2-tubulin are carried by stable microtubules whereas tyrosinated microtubules are present on dynamic polymers. The cycle regulates trafficking of many cargo transporting molecular motors and is linked to the microtubule dynamics via regulation of microtubule interactions with specific cellular effectors such as kinesin-13. Here, we give an historical overview of the general features discovered for the cycle. We highlight the recent progress toward structure and functioning of the enzymes that keep the levels of tyrosinated and detyrosinated tubulin in cells, the long-known tubulin tyrosine ligase and the recently discovered vasohibin-SVBP complexes. We further describe how the cycle controls microtubule functions in healthy neurons and cardiomyocytes and how deregulations of the cycle are involved in dysfunctions of these highly differentiated cells, leading to neurodegeneration and heart failure in humans.

The centriolar tubulin code

Centrioles are microtubule-based cell organelles present in most eukaryotes. They participate in the control of cell division as part of the centrosome, the major microtubule-organizing center of the cell, and are also essential for the formation of primary and motile cilia. During centriole assembly as well as across its lifetime, centriolar tubulin display marks defined by post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as glutamylation or acetylation. To date, the functions of these PTMs at centrioles are not well understood, although pioneering experiments suggest a role in the stability of this organelle. Here, we review the current knowledge regarding PTMs at centrioles with a particular focus on a possible link between these modifications and centriole's architecture, and propose possible hypothesis regarding centriolar tubulin PTMs's function.

Regulation of microtubule dynamics, mechanics and function through the growing tip

Microtubule dynamics and their control are essential for the normal function and division of all eukaryotic cells. This plethora of functions is, in large part, supported by dynamic microtubule tips, which can bind to various intracellular targets, generate mechanical forces and couple with actin microfilaments. Here, we review progress in the understanding of microtubule assembly and dynamics, focusing on new information about the structure of microtubule tips. First, we discuss evidence for the widely accepted GTP cap model of microtubule dynamics. Next, we address microtubule dynamic instability in the context of structural information about assembly intermediates at microtubule tips. Three currently discussed models of microtubule assembly and dynamics are reviewed. These are considered in the context of established facts and recent data, which suggest that some long-held views must be re-evaluated. Finally, we review structural observations about the tips of microtubules in cells and describe their implications for understanding the mechanisms of microtubule regulation by associated proteins, by mechanical forces and by microtubule-targeting drugs, prominently including cancer chemotherapeutics.

Posttranslational modifications of the cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton plays important roles in many essential processes at the cellular and organismal levels, including cell migration and motility, cell division, and the establishment and maintenance of cell and tissue architecture. In order to facilitate these varied functions, the main cytoskeletal components-microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments-must form highly diverse intracellular arrays in different subcellular areas and cell types. The question of how this diversity is conferred has been the focus of research for decades. One key mechanism is the addition of posttranslational modifications (PTMs) to the major cytoskeletal proteins. This posttranslational addition of various chemical groups dramatically increases the complexity of the cytoskeletal proteome and helps facilitate major global and local cytoskeletal functions. Cytoskeletal proteins undergo many PTMs, most of which are not well understood. Recent technological advances in proteomics and cell biology have allowed for the in-depth study of individual PTMs and their functions in the cytoskeleton. Here, we provide an overview of the major PTMs that occur on the main structural components of the three cytoskeletal systems-tubulin, actin, and intermediate filament proteins-and highlight the cellular function of these modifications.

The tail wags the tubulin

The C-terminal tail of tubulin influences microtubule assembly and stability. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Chen et al. combine in vitro experiments using recombinant tubulin with molecular dynamics simulations to provide molecular-level insights into the importance of α-tubulin tail and its post-translational modifications in microtubule assembly and stability.