Mechanisms of change associated with technology-based interventions for substance use

Booster effects and mechanisms of web-based personalised normative feedback alcohol intervention for college students: A pragmatic randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the effects of booster and no booster versions of web-based alcohol Personalised Normative Feedback (PNF) and whether descriptive norms mediated and/or participant motivation moderated the effectiveness of the intervention in real world conditions (i.e. no financial incentives).

METHODS

Pragmatic randomised controlled trial with 1-, 3-, and 6-month assessments. Brazilian college students reporting alcohol use in the last 12 months (N=931) were recruited from May/2020 to December/2022 and allocated to 1) No booster/single PNF(S-PNF); 2) Booster/multiple PNF(M-PNF); or 3) Assessment-only control. We applied Helmert coding [1: Any intervention (S-PNF or M-PNF) vs. Control; and 2: S-PNF vs. M-PNF].

PRIMARY OUTCOMES

typical number of drinks/week and maximum number of drinks/week; secondary outcomes: drinking frequency and number of consequences. Three-months assessment was the primary interval. Descriptive norms were tested as mediator. Interest, importance, and readiness to change were examined as moderators.

RESULTS

Compared to control, any intervention did not influence primary outcomes at 3-months or 6-months, but did at 1-month, when reduced typical drinking (IRR:0.77, 95%CI:0.66;0.90) and maximum number of drinks (IRR:0.69, 95%CI:0.58;0.82). There was an intervention effect on the consequences at 3-months. No differences were observed between S-PNF and M-PNF. No mediation effects were found at 3-months. At 6-months, there was an indirect effect on typical drinking through norms at 3-months (b=-0.82, 95%CI:-2.03;-0.12) and effects on maximum drinks through norms at 1-month (b=-0.54, 95%CI:-1.65;-0.02). No support for moderation was found.

CONCLUSIONS

Intervention reduced alcohol drinking at 1 month only and was not effective thereafter. Mechanisms of effect remain unclear.

A Digital Counselor-Delivered Intervention for Substance Use Among People With HIV: Development and Usability Study

BACKGROUND

Substance use disorders are prevalent and undertreated among people with HIV. Computer-delivered interventions (CDIs) show promise in expanding reach, delivering evidence-based care, and offering anonymity. Use in HIV clinic settings may overcome access barriers. Incorporating digital counselors may increase CDI engagement, and thereby improve health outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

We aim to develop and pilot a digital counselor-delivered brief intervention for people with HIV who use drugs, called "C-Raven," which is theory grounded and uses evidence-based practices for behavior change.

METHODS

Intervention mapping was used to develop the CDI including a review of the behavior change research in substance use, HIV, and digital counselors. We conducted in-depth interviews applying the situated-information, motivation, and behavior skills model and culturally adapting the content for local use with people with HIV. With a user interaction designer, we created various digital counselors and CDI interfaces. Finally, a mixed methods approach using in-depth interviews and quantitative assessments was used to assess the usability, acceptability, and cultural relevance of the intervention content and the digital counselor.

RESULTS

Participants found CDI easy to use, useful, relevant, and motivating. A consistent suggestion was to provide more information about the negative impacts of drug use and the interaction of drug use with HIV. Participants also reported that they learned new information about drug use and its health effects. The CDI was delivered by a "Raven," digital counselor, programmed to interact in a motivational interviewing style. The Raven was perceived to be nonjudgmental, understanding, and emotionally responsive. The appearance and images in the intervention were perceived as relevant and acceptable. Participants noted that they could be more truthful with a digital counselor, however, it was not unanimously endorsed as a replacement for a human counselor. The C-Raven Satisfaction Scale showed that all participants rated their satisfaction at either a 4 (n=2) or a 5 (n=8) on a 5-point Likert scale and all endorsed using the C-Raven program again.

CONCLUSIONS

CDIs show promise in extending access to care and improving health outcomes but their development necessarily requires integration from multiple disciplines including behavioral medicine and computer science. We developed a cross-platform compatible CDI led by a digital counselor that interacts in a motivational interviewing style and (1) uses evidence-based behavioral change methods, (2) is culturally adapted to people with HIV who use drugs, (3) has an engaging and interactive user interface, and (4) presents personalized content based on participants' ongoing responses to a series of menu-driven conversations. To advance the continued development of this and other CDIs, we recommend expanded testing, standardized measures to evaluate user experience, integration with clinician-delivered substance use treatment, and if effective, implementation into HIV clinical care.

Desire to get drunk partially mediates effects of a combined text message-based alcohol intervention for young adults

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to test the causal effect of different text message interventions on reducing alcohol consumption indirectly by altering desire to get drunk.

METHODS

Participants were young adults randomized to interventions with different behavior change techniques: self-monitoring alone (TRACK); pre-drinking plan feedback (PLAN); post-drinking alcohol consumption feedback (USE); pre- and post-drinking goal feedback (GOAL); and a combination of techniques (COMBO) who completed at least 2 days of both pre- and post-drinking assessments over 12 weeks of intervention exposure. On the two days per week they planned to drank alcohol, participants were asked to report desire to get drunk (0 "none" to 8 "completely"). The next day, participants reported drinking quantity. Outcomes included binge drinking (defined as 4+ drinks for a woman and 5+ drinks for a man) and drinks per drinking day. Mediation was tested using path models of simultaneous between-person and within-person effects using maximum likelihood estimation.

RESULTS

At the between-person level, controlling for race and baseline AUDIT-C and within-person associations, 35.9 % of the effects of USE and 34.4 % of the effects of COMBO on reducing binge drinking were mediated through desire to get drunk. 60.8 % of the effects of COMBO on reducing drinks per drinking day were mediated through desire to get drunk. We did not find significant indirect effects for any other text-message intervention.

DISCUSSION

Findings support the hypothesized mediation model where desire to get drunk partially mediates the effects of a text message intervention using a combination of behavior change techniques on reducing alcohol consumption.

Digital Health Interventions for Delivery of Mental Health Care: Systematic and Comprehensive Meta-Review

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic has shifted mental health care delivery to digital platforms, videoconferencing, and other mobile communications. However, existing reviews of digital health interventions are narrow in scope and focus on a limited number of mental health conditions.

OBJECTIVE

To address this gap, we conducted a comprehensive systematic meta-review of the literature to assess the state of digital health interventions for the treatment of mental health conditions.

METHODS

We searched MEDLINE for secondary literature published between 2010 and 2021 on the use, efficacy, and appropriateness of digital health interventions for the delivery of mental health care.

RESULTS

Of the 3022 records identified, 466 proceeded to full-text review and 304 met the criteria for inclusion in this study. A majority (52%) of research involved the treatment of substance use disorders, 29% focused on mood, anxiety, and traumatic stress disorders, and >5% for each remaining mental health conditions. Synchronous and asynchronous communication, computerized therapy, and cognitive training appear to be effective but require further examination in understudied mental health conditions. Similarly, virtual reality, mobile apps, social media platforms, and web-based forums are novel technologies that have the potential to improve mental health but require higher quality evidence.

CONCLUSIONS

Digital health interventions offer promise in the treatment of mental health conditions. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, digital health interventions provide a safer alternative to face-to-face treatment. However, further research on the applications of digital interventions in understudied mental health conditions is needed. Additionally, evidence is needed on the effectiveness and appropriateness of digital health tools for patients who are marginalized and may lack access to digital health interventions.

Components evaluation of a web-based personalized normative feedback intervention for alcohol use among college students: a pragmatic randomized controlled trial with a dismantling design

AIMS

To evaluate the effects of the two main components of a personalized normative feedback (PNF) [normative feedback only (NFO); and consequences feedback only (CFO)] compared with the full intervention (PNF) in reducing alcohol use and consequences.

DESIGN

Three-arm pragmatic randomized controlled trial with dismantling design and 1-, 3- and 6-month follow-ups.

SETTING

Web-based among Brazilian college students.

PARTICIPANTS

College students (aged 18-30 years) who reported alcohol use in the last 3 months (n = 5476).

INTERVENTIONS

(1) Full PNF (a) drinking profile; (b) normative comparisons; (c) practical costs; (d) alcohol consequences; (e) strategies to decrease risks; (2) NFO components (a), (b) and (e); or (3) CFO components (c), (d) and (e).

MEASUREMENTS

The primary outcome was change in Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) score; secondary outcomes were the number of alcohol consequences, drinking frequency and typical/maximum number of drinks. We used mixed models with multiple imputation and a pattern-mixture model to account for attrition. Subgroup analyses considered participant motivation to know more about their drinking (less motivated versus motivated).

FINDINGS

Dismantled components reduced rather than increased AUDIT score compared to full PNF, with significant effects for NFO at 1 month [b = -0.23, 95% confidence interval (CI) = -0.46; -0.002] and for CFO at 3 months (b = -0.33, 95% CI = -0.62; -0.03). Compared with PNF, NFO reduced the number of alcohol consequences at 1 month (b = -0.16, 95% CI = -0.25; -0.06) and drinking frequency at 3 months (b = -0.42, 95% CI = -0.79; -0.05), but increased the number of typical drinks at 6 months (b = 0.38, 95% CI = 0.04; 0.72). CFO reduced drinking frequency at 3 months (b = -0.37, 95% CI = -0.73; -0.01). Attrition models confirmed all results, except for the NFO effect on typical drinks and drinking frequency. Subgroup analyses indicated superiority of dismantled components among the students less motivated in knowing more about their drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

There was no evidence that either the normative or the consequences components of a web-based personalized normative feedback intervention to reduce alcohol use and its consequences contributed to intervention effects. There was some evidence of adverse effects of personalized normative feedback, and these results were driven by 20% of participants who were less motivated in knowing more about their drinking.

A randomized clinical trial of mobile phone motivational interviewing for alcohol use problems in Kenya

AIM

To test the effectiveness of a motivational interviewing (MI) intervention using the mobile phone among adults with alcohol use problems.

DESIGN

A randomized clinical trial of mobile MI and standard in-person MI with 1- and 6-month follow-up, including a 1-month waitlist control followed by mobile MI.

SETTING

A primary health center in rural Kenya.

PARTICIPANTS

Three hundred adults screening positive for alcohol use problems were randomized and received immediate mobile MI (n = 89), in-person MI (n = 65) or delayed mobile MI (n = 76) for waiting-list controls 1 month after no treatment, with 70 unable to be reached for intervention.

INTERVENTION AND COMPARATOR

One MI session was provided either immediately by mobile phone, in-person at the health center or delayed by 1 month and then provided by mobile phone.

MEASUREMENTS

Alcohol use problems were repeatedly assessed using the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test (AUDIT) and the shorter AUDIT-C. The primary outcome was difference in alcohol score 1 month after no intervention for waiting-list control versus 1 month after MI for mobile MI. The secondary outcomes were difference in alcohol score for in-person MI versus mobile MI one and 6 months after MI.

FINDINGS

For our primary outcome, average AUDIT-C scores were nearly three points higher (difference = 2.88, 95% confidence interval = 2.11, 3.66) for waiting-list controls after 1 month of no intervention versus mobile MI 1 month after intervention. Results for secondary outcomes supported the null hypothesis of no difference between in-person and mobile MI at 1 month (Bayes factor = 0.22), but were inconclusive at 6 months (Bayes factor = 0.41).

CONCLUSION

Mobile phone-based motivational interviewing may be an effective treatment for alcohol use problems among adults visiting primary care in Kenya. Providing mobile motivational interviewing may help clinicians in rural areas to reach patients needing treatment for alcohol use problems.

Workshop on the Development and Evaluation of Digital Therapeutics for Health Behavior Change: Science, Methods, and Projects

The health care field has integrated advances into digital technology at an accelerating pace to improve health behavior, health care delivery, and cost-effectiveness of care. The realm of behavioral science has embraced this evolution of digital health, allowing for an exciting roadmap for advancing care by addressing the many challenges to the field via technological innovations. Digital therapeutics offer the potential to extend the reach of effective interventions at reduced cost and patient burden and to increase the potency of existing interventions. Intervention models have included the use of digital tools as supplements to standard care models, as tools that can replace a portion of treatment as usual, or as stand-alone tools accessed outside of care settings or direct to the consumer. To advance the potential public health impact of this promising line of research, multiple areas warrant further development and investigation. The Center for Technology and Behavioral Health (CTBH), a P30 Center of Excellence supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse at the National Institutes of Health, is an interdisciplinary research center at Dartmouth College focused on the goal of harnessing existing and emerging technologies to effectively develop and deliver evidence-based interventions for substance use and co-occurring disorders. The CTBH launched a series of workshops to encourage and expand multidisciplinary collaborations among Dartmouth scientists and international CTBH affiliates engaged in research related to digital technology and behavioral health (eg, addiction science, behavioral health intervention, technology development, computer science and engineering, digital security, health economics, and implementation science). This paper summarizes a workshop conducted on the Development and Evaluation of Digital Therapeutics for Behavior Change, which addressed (1) principles of behavior change, (2) methods of identifying and testing the underlying mechanisms of behavior change, (3) conceptual frameworks for optimizing applications for mental health and addictive behavior, and (4) the diversity of experimental methods and designs that are essential to the successful development and testing of digital therapeutics. Examples were presented of ongoing CTBH projects focused on identifying and improving the measurement of health behavior change mechanisms and the development and evaluation of digital therapeutics. In summary, the workshop showcased the myriad research targets that will be instrumental in promoting and accelerating progress in the field of digital health and health behavior change and illustrated how the CTBH provides a model of multidisciplinary leadership and collaboration that can facilitate innovative, science-based efforts to address the health behavior challenges afflicting our communities.

Descriptive Norms but not Harm Reduction Strategies as a Mediator of Personalized Boosters After a Computerized College Drinking Intervention

BACKGROUND

Computer-delivered programs to reduce college drinking have strong appeal but are sometimes less efficacious than their in-person counterparts. Boosters may be an ideal way to strengthen and extend the effects of computerized interventions while maintaining low cost and easy dissemination. However, little is known about how they work. Consequently, the current study aimed to explore descriptive perceived drinking norms and use of protective behavioral strategies (PBS) as potential mediators of booster effects. We also examined norms and PBS as mediators of the main intervention. The present study was a follow-up analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial (Alcohol Clin Exp Res 42, 2018, 1735) testing the efficacy of emailed boosters containing personalized feedback after a computerized alcohol intervention.

METHODS

Participants were 537 (67.4% women) emerging adult college drinkers (M age = 19.65, SD = 1.67). They were randomly assigned to one of 3 conditions: general health education, alcohol intervention only, or alcohol intervention plus booster email. Participants completed assessments at baseline and follow-ups through 9 months.

RESULTS

Descriptive norms were a mediator of booster efficacy where receiving the booster yielded stronger reductions in alcohol use through reduced concurrent norms; however, fully longitudinal models did not reach significance. There was also an indirect effect for the intervention where those who received the intervention experienced an increase in drinking through increased concurrent norms. However, a stronger direct effect was found where those who received the intervention experienced a stronger decrease in drinking after controlling for norms. There was no support for PBS as a mediator of booster or intervention efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study was the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate a potential mechanism of change in booster interventions. A simple, succinct reminder via email led to reductions in perceptions of how much peers drink, and this led to reductions in alcohol consumption. Our findings support the promise of utilizing brief and easily implemented targeted messaging to enhance the potency of computerized interventions for college drinkers.

Using Ecological Momentary Assessment to Identify Mechanisms of Change: An Application From a Pharmacotherapy Trial With Adolescent Cannabis Users

OBJECTIVE

The present study used youth's in vivo reports of subjective responses to cannabis while smoking in their natural environments to identify real-world mechanisms of topiramate treatment for cannabis misuse.

METHOD

Participants were 40 cannabis users (≥ twice weekly in past 30 days), ages 15-24 years (47.5% female), with at least one cannabis use episode during the final 3 weeks of a 6-week, randomized clinical trial. Youth reported subjective "high" while smoking, stimulation, sedation, stress, craving, and grams of marijuana used in the natural environment via wireless electronic devices. Bayesian multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) evaluated mediation via indirect effect tests.

RESULTS

Significant within (daily) and between (person) variability and distinctive within and between effects supported the MSEM approach. Subjective high while smoking was significantly reduced for youth in the topiramate condition, relative to placebo, and the indirect effect of reduced subjective high on total grams of cannabis smoked that day was significant. Indirect effects through other subjective responses were not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this initial study suggest that altering subjective responses to smoking, specifically subjective high, may be a key target for developing adjunctive pharmacotherapies for cannabis misuse. More generally, this work provides an example for applying ecological momentary assessment and analytic techniques to evaluate mechanisms of behavior change in longitudinal data.

Smartphone Apps Targeting Alcohol and Illicit Substance Use: Systematic Search in in Commercial App Stores and Critical Content Analysis

Background

Smartphone apps promise to enhance the reach of evidence-based interventions (cognitive behavior therapy, contingency management and therapeutic education system) for populations with substance use disorders, with minimal disruption to health systems. However, further studies are needed to systematically evaluate smartphone apps targeting alcohol and illicit substances.

Objective

The aim of this study was to evaluate the functionality, aesthetics, and quality of information of free or low-cost apps claiming to target alcohol, benzodiazepine, cocaine, crack/cocaine, crystal methamphetamine, and heroin use using the validated Mobile App Rating Scale (MARS) and critical content analysis.

Methods

A systematic search of iTunes and Google Play app stores for free or low-cost apps facilitating recovery was conducted in March 2018 and yielded 904 apps using the keywords described in previous studies (eg, recovery, sobriety, sober, alcohol, and heroin). An interdisciplinary team of clinicians, behavioral informatics, and public health reviewers trained in substance use disorders conducted a descriptive analysis of 74 apps categorized as reducing use. In addition to the MARS scale, a descriptive analysis of relevant apps was conducted by the study team to assess for quality indicators emphasized by expert guidelines and review articles.

Results

Most apps (n=74) claimed to reduce use or promote abstinence and yielded an overall low median MARS score of 2.82 (0.55) and a wide range of scores (1.64, 4.20). Ratings were also low for engagement (2.75 (0.72)), functionality (3.64 (0.78)), aesthetics (3.03 (0.87)), information (2.82 (0.62)), and satisfaction (1.76 (0.67)) subdomains. Innovative design and content features elicited in the review included initial assessments of substance use following app download, tracking substance use, and related consequences (eg, cost or calorie intake), remote and proximate peer support per geospatial positioning, and allowing users and family members of individuals with substance use disorders to locate 12-step meetings, treatment programs, and mental health services. Few apps integrated evidence-based psychotherapeutic (eg, cognitive behavioral therapy [CBT] or motivational interviewing) and pharmacologic interventions (eg, naloxone or buprenorphine).

Conclusions

Few commercially available apps yielded in our search integrated evidence-based interventions (eg, extended-release naltrexone, buprenorphine, naloxone, Self-Management and Recovery Training recovery, or CBT), and a concerning number of apps promoted harmful drinking and illicit substance use.

Expanding the reach of alcohol and other drug services: Prevalence and correlates of US adult engagement with online technology to address substance problems

Online technologies are well integrated into the day-to-day lives of individuals with alcohol and other drug (i.e., substance use) problems. Interventions that leverage online technologies have been shown to enhance outcomes for these individuals. To date, however, little is known about how those with substance use problems naturally engage with such platforms. In addition, the scientific literatures on health behavior change facilitated by technology and harms driven by technology engagement have developed largely independent of one another. In this secondary analysis of the National Recovery Study (NRS), which provides a geo-demographically representative sample of US adults who resolved a substance use problem, we examined a) the weighted prevalence estimate of individuals who engaged with online technologies to "cut down on substance use, abstain from substances, or strengthen one's recovery" (i.e., recovery-related use of online technology, or ROOT), b) clinical/recovery correlates of ROOT, controlling for demographic covariates, and c) the unique association between ROOT and self-reported history of internet addiction. Results showed one in ten (11%) NRS participants reported ROOT. Significant correlates included greater current psychological distress, younger age of first substance use, as well as history of anti-craving/anti-relapse medication, recovery support services, and drug court participation. Odds of lifetime internet addiction were 4 times greater for those with ROOT (vs. no ROOT). These data build on studies of technology-based interventions, highlighting the reach of ROOT, and therefore, the potential for a large, positive impact on substance-related harms in the US.

mHealth for the Detection and Intervention in Adolescent and Young Adult Substance Use Disorder

Purpose of review

The goal of this review is to highlight recent research in mHealth based approaches to the detection and treatment of substance use disorders in adolescents and young adults.

Recent findings

The main methods for mHealth based detection include mobile phone based self-report tools, GPS tracking, and wearable sensors. Wearables can be used to detect physiologic changes (e.g., heart rate, electrodermal activity) or biochemical contents of analytes (i.e. alcohol in sweat) with reasonable accuracy, but larger studies are needed. Detection methods have been combined with interventions based on mindfulness, education, incentives/goals and motivation. Few studies have focused specifically on the young adult population, although those that did indicate high rates of utilization and acceptance.

Summary

Research that explores the pairing of advanced detection methods such as wearables with real time intervention strategies is crucial to realizing the full potential of mHealth in this population.

A text message intervention to reduce 21st birthday alcohol consumption: Evaluation of a two-group randomized controlled trial

Twenty-first birthdays are associated with extreme levels of heavy drinking and alcohol-related harm. Effective preventive interventions that are acceptable to young adults are needed. The current study tested the efficacy of a brief text-message intervention for reducing 21st birthday alcohol involvement designed to correct perceived 21st birthday drinking norms and provide protective behavioral strategies (PBS). We also examined potential moderators and mediators. College students (n = 200) with an upcoming 21st birthday completed a baseline assessment and were randomized to a text-message intervention or an assessment-only control condition. For participants in the intervention group, Message 1 (sent one day before the birthday celebration) focused on personalized normative feedback, and Message 2 (sent day of the birthday celebration) discussed PBS to minimize risk. Primary outcomes were assessed using responses to a follow-up assessment the day after their birthday celebration (93% completion rate). Zero-inflated negative binomial regression analyses did not reveal an overall intervention effect for estimated Blood Alcohol Content (eBAC) or alcohol problems on the 21st birthday celebration. In partial support of our hypothesis, there was an indirect effect of perceived 21st birthday norms on 21st birthday eBAC. The intervention was associated with reduced perceived norms, which was, in turn, related to a lower eBAC. There was a 3-way interaction between drinks per week, anticipated eBAC, and intervention condition for the count portion of actual eBAC such that the intervention reduced eBAC among a high-risk subset of the sample. Future research may benefit from further refining the personalized normative feedback (PNF) component of 21st birthday interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record

Systematic review of social media interventions for smoking cessation

BACKGROUND

Popular social media could extend the reach of smoking cessation efforts. In this systematic review, our objectives were: 1) to determine whether social media interventions for smoking cessation are feasible, acceptable, and potentially effective; 2) to identify approaches for recruiting subjects; and 3) to examine the specific intervention design components and strategies employed to promote user engagement and retention.

METHODS

We searched Scopus, Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Central, PsychINFO, CINAHL, and Web of Science through July 2016 and reference lists of relevant articles. Included studies described social media interventions for smoking cessation and must have reported outcomes related to feasibility, acceptability, usability, or smoking-related outcomes.

RESULTS

We identified 7 studies (all were published since 2014) that enrolled 9755 participants (median=136 [range 40 to 9042]). Studies mainly used Facebook (n=4) or Twitter (n=2), and emerged as feasible and acceptable. Five studies reported smoking-related outcomes such as greater abstinence, reduction in relapse, and an increase in quit attempts. Most studies (n=6) recruited participants using online or Facebook advertisements. Tailored content, targeted reminders, and moderated discussions were used to promote participant engagement. Three studies found that active participation through posting comments or liking content may be associated with improved outcomes. Retention ranged from 35% to 84% (median=70%) across the included studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review highlights the feasibility, acceptability and preliminary effectiveness of social media interventions for smoking cessation. Future research should continue to explore approaches for promoting user engagement and retention, and whether sustained engagement translates to clinically meaningful smoking cessation outcomes.

mHealth Application Areas and Technology Combinations*. A Comparison of Literature from High and Low/Middle Income Countries

BACKGROUND

With the continuous and enormous spread of mobile technologies, mHealth has evolved as a new subfield of eHealth. While eHealth is broadly focused on information and communication technologies, mHealth seeks to explore more into mobile devices and wireless communication. Since mobile phone penetration has exceeded other infrastructure in low and middle-income countries (LMICs), mHealth is seen as a promising component to provide pervasive and patient-centered care.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of our research work for this paper is to examine the mHealth literature to identify application areas, target diseases, and mHealth service and technology types that are most appropriate for LMICs.

METHODS

Based on the 2011 WHO mHealth report, a combination of search terms, all including the word "mHealth", was identified. A literature review was conducted by searching the PubMed and IEEE Xplore databases. Articles were included if they were published in English, covered an mHealth solution/ intervention, involved the use of a mobile communication device, and included a pilot evaluation study. Articles were excluded if they did not provide sufficient detail on the solution covered or did not focus on clinical efficacy/effectiveness. Cross-referencing was also performed on included articles.

RESULTS

842 articles were retrieved and analyzed, 255 of which met the inclusion criteria. North America had the highest number of applications (n=74) followed by Europe (n=50), Asia (n=44), Africa (n=25), and Australia (n=9). The Middle East (n=5) and South America (n=3) had the least number of studies. The majority of solutions addressed diabetes (n=51), obesity (n=25), CVDs (n=24), HIV (n=18), mental health (n=16), health behaviors (n=16), and maternal and child's health (MCH) (n=11). Fewer solutions addressed asthma (n=7), cancer (n=5), family health planning (n=5), TB (n=3), malaria (n=2), chronic obtrusive pulmonary disease (COPD) (n=2), vision care (n=2), and dermatology (n=2). Other solutions targeted stroke, dental health, hepatitis vaccination, cold and flu, ED prescribed antibiotics, iodine deficiency, and liver transplantation (n=1 each). The remainder of solutions (n=14) did not focus on a certain disease. Most applications fell in the areas of health monitoring and surveillance (n=93) and health promotion and raising awareness (n=88). Fewer solutions addressed the areas of communication and reporting (n=11), data collection (n=6), telemedicine (n=5), emergency medical care (n=3), point of care support (n=2), and decision support (n=2). The majority of solutions used SMS messaging (n=94) or mobile apps (n=71). Fewer used IVR/phone calls (n=8), mobile website/email (n=5), videoconferencing (n=2), MMS (n=2), or video (n=1) or voice messages (n=1). Studies were mostly RCTs, with the majority suffering from small sample sizes and short study durations. Problems addressed by solutions included travel distance for reporting, self-management and disease monitoring, and treatment/medication adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

SMS and app solutions are the most common forms of mHealth applications. SMS solutions are prevalent in both high and LMICs while app solutions are mostly used in high income countries. Common application areas include health promotion and raising awareness using SMS and health monitoring and surveillance using mobile apps. Remaining application areas are rarely addressed. Diabetes is the most commonly targeted medical condition, yet remains deficient in LMICs.

Treatment seeking as a mechanism of change in a randomized controlled trial of a mobile health intervention to support recovery from alcohol use disorders

BACKGROUND

We estimated the efficacy of the Addiction-Comprehensive Health Enhancement Support System (A-CHESS) in increasing the use of services for addiction and examined the extent to which this use of services mediated the effects of A-CHESS on risky drinking days and abstinence from drinking.

METHODS

We conducted secondary data analyses of the A-CHESS randomized controlled trial. Recruitment occurred in five residential treatment programs operated by two addiction treatment organizations. Participants were 349 adults with alcohol use disorders recruited two weeks before discharge from residential treatment. We provided intervention arm participants with a smartphone, the A-CHESS application, and an 8-month service plan. Control arm participants received treatment as usual. Telephone interviews at 4, 8, and 12-month follow-ups assessed past-month risky drinking days, past-month abstinence, and post-discharge service utilization (past-month outpatient addiction treatment and past-week mutual help including Alcoholics Anonymous and Narcotics Anonymous). Using mixed effects latent variable models, we estimated the indirect effects of A-CHESS on drinking outcomes, as mediated by post-discharge service utilization.

RESULTS

Approximately 50.5% of participants reported outpatient addiction treatment and 75.5% reported mutual help at any follow-up interview in the year following randomization. Assignment to the A-CHESS intervention was associated with an increased odds of outpatient addiction treatment across follow-ups, but not mutual help. This use of outpatient addiction treatment mediated the effect of A-CHESS on risky drinking days, but not abstinence. The effect of A-CHESS through outpatient addiction treatment appeared to reduce the expected number of risky drinking days across follow-ups by 11%.

CONCLUSIONS

The mobile health (mHealth) intervention promoted the use of outpatient addiction treatment, which appeared to contribute to its efficacy in reducing risky drinking. Future research should investigate how mHealth interventions could link patients to needed treatment services and promote the sustained use of these services.

Can persons with a history of multiple addiction treatment episodes benefit from technology delivered behavior therapy? A moderating role of treatment history at baseline

A growing line of research has shown positive treatment outcomes from technology-based therapy for substance use disorders (SUDs). However, little is known about the effectiveness of technology-based SUD interventions for persons who already had numerous prior SUD treatments. We conducted a secondary analysis on a 12-month trial with patients (N=160) entering methadone maintenance treatment (MMT). Patients were randomly assigned to either standard MMT treatment or a model in which half of standard counseling sessions were replaced with a computer-based intervention, called Therapeutic Education System (standard+TES). Four treatment history factors at baseline, the number of lifetime SUD treatment episodes, detoxification episodes, and inpatient/outpatient treatment episodes were categorized into three levels based on their tertile points, and analyzed as moderators. Dependent variables were urine toxicology results for opioid and cocaine abstinence for 52-weeks. The standard+TES condition produced significantly better opioid abstinence than standard treatment for participants with 1) a moderate or high frequency of lifetime SUD treatment episodes, and 2) those with all three levels (low, moderate and high) of detoxification and inpatient/outpatient treatment episodes, ps<.01. The standard+TES condition enhanced cocaine abstinence compared to standard treatment among people with 1) a moderate or high frequency of lifetime SUD treatment episodes, 2) a high level of detoxification episodes, and 3) a moderate or high level of inpatient treatment history, ps<.01. We found that including technology-based behavioral therapy as part of treatment can be more effective than MMT alone, even among patients with a history of multiple addiction treatment episodes.

Smartphone and Mobile Application Utilization Prior to and Following Treatment Among Individuals Enrolled in Residential Substance Use Treatment

BACKGROUND

Following completion of substance use treatment, it is crucial for patients to continue to utilize skills learned in treatment for optimal treatment outcomes. Mobile applications (apps) on smartphones offer a unique platform to promote utilization of evidence-based skills following completion of substance use treatment. Despite the promise of mobile apps and smartphones for treatment delivery, it remains unknown whether patients in substance use treatment in the United States have access to smartphones and utilize mobile apps on smartphones. The present study sought to determine smartphone utilization among individuals enrolled in one residential substance use treatment center in the U.S. catering specifically to low-income adults.

METHODS

Participants included 251 individuals at a residential substance use treatment center in Washington DC admitted to the center between March, 2014 and January, 2015. During the intake process, participants completed interviewer-administered demographics and psychiatric questionnaires as well as a self-report of technology utilization.

RESULTS

Results indicated that the majority of patients in this residential substance use treatment center owned mobile phones prior to treatment entry (86.9%) and expected to own mobile phones after leaving treatment (92.6%). Moreover, the majority of these phones were (68.5%) or will be smartphones (72.4%) on which patients reported utilizing mobile applications (prior to treatment: 61.3%; post treatment: 64.3%) and accessing the Internet (prior to treatment: 61.3%; post treatment: 65.9%).

CONCLUSIONS

Mobile phone and smartphone ownership among this sample were comparable to ownership among U.S. adults broadly. Findings suggest that smartphones and mobile apps may hold clinical utility for fostering continued use of treatment skills following substance use treatment completion.