A Mouse Model of Hyperproliferative Human Epithelium Validated by Keratin Profiling Shows an Aberrant Cytoskeletal Response to Injury

Increased Susceptibility of WHIM Mice to Papillomavirus-induced Disease is Dependent upon Immune Cell Dysfunction

Warts, Hypogammaglobulinemia, Infections, and Myelokathexis (WHIM) syndrome is a rare primary immunodeficiency disease in humans caused by a gain of function in CXCR4, mostly due to inherited heterozygous mutations in CXCR4. One major clinical symptom of WHIM patients is their high susceptibility to human papillomavirus (HPV) induced disease, such as warts. Persistent high risk HPV infections cause 5% of all human cancers, including cervical, anogenital, head and neck and some skin cancers. WHIM mice bearing the same mutation identified in WHIM patients were created to study the underlying causes for the symptoms manifest in patients suffering from the WHIM syndrome. Using murine papillomavirus (MmuPV1) as an infection model in mice for HPV-induced disease, we demonstrate that WHIM mice are more susceptible to MmuPV1-induced warts (papillomas) compared to wild type mice. Namely, the incidence of papillomas is higher in WHIM mice compared to wild type mice when mice are exposed to low doses of MmuPV1. MmuPV1 infection facilitated both myeloid and lymphoid cell mobilization in the blood of wild type mice but not in WHIM mice. Higher incidence and larger size of papillomas in WHIM mice correlated with lower abundance of infiltrating T cells within the papillomas. Finally, we demonstrate that transplantation of bone marrow from wild type mice into WHIM mice normalized the incidence and size of papillomas, consistent with the WHIM mutation in hematopoietic cells contributing to higher susceptibility of WHIM mice to MmuPV1-induced disease. Our results provide evidence that MmuPV1 infection in WHIM mice is a powerful preclinical infectious model to investigate treatment options for alleviating papillomavirus infections in WHIM syndrome.

Airway basal cells show a dedifferentiated KRT17highPhenotype and promote fibrosis in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal disease with limited treatment options. In this study, we focus on the properties of airway basal cells (ABC) obtained from patients with IPF (IPF-ABC). Single cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) of bronchial brushes revealed extensive reprogramming of IPF-ABC towards a KRT17high PTENlow dedifferentiated cell type. In the 3D organoid model, compared to ABC obtained from healthy volunteers, IPF-ABC give rise to more bronchospheres, de novo bronchial structures resembling lung developmental processes, induce fibroblast proliferation and extracellular matrix deposition in co-culture. Intratracheal application of IPF-ABC into minimally injured lungs of Rag2-/- or NRG mice causes severe fibrosis, remodeling of the alveolar compartment, and formation of honeycomb cyst-like structures. Connectivity MAP analysis of scRNAseq of bronchial brushings suggested that gene expression changes in IPF-ABC can be reversed by SRC inhibition. After demonstrating enhanced SRC expression and activity in these cells, and in IPF lungs, we tested the effects of saracatinib, a potent SRC inhibitor previously studied in humans. We demonstrate that saracatinib modified in-vitro and in-vivo the profibrotic changes observed in our 3D culture system and novel mouse xenograft model.

A model of impaired Langerhans cell maturation associated with HPV induced epithelial hyperplasia

Langerhans cells (LC) are skin-resident antigen-presenting cells that regulate immune responses to epithelial microorganisms. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection can promote malignant epithelial transformation. As LCs are considered important for controlling HPV infection, we compared the transcriptome of murine LCs from skin transformed by K14E7 oncoprotein and from healthy skin. We identified transcriptome heterogeneity at the single cell level amongst LCs in normal skin, associated with ontogeny, cell cycle, and maturation. We identified a balanced co-existence of immune-stimulatory and immune-inhibitory LC cell states in normal skin that was significantly disturbed in HPV16 E7-transformed skin. Hyperplastic skin was depleted of immune-stimulatory LCs and enriched for LCs with an immune-inhibitory gene signature, and LC-keratinocyte crosstalk was dysregulated. We identified reduced expression of interleukin (IL)-34, a critical molecule for LC homeostasis. Enrichment of an immune-inhibitory LC gene signature and reduced levels of epithelial IL-34 were also found in human HPV-associated cervical epithelial cancers.

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Single cell atlas of Langerhans cells in cutaneous skin

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Stimulatory and inhibitory Langerhans cell states are in balance

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Inhibitory Langerhans cell states dominate HPV-transformed hyperplastic skin

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Langerhans cell imbalance is associated with disrupted IL-34 signaling

Dissecting esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma ecosystem by single-cell transcriptomic analysis

Esophageal squamous-cell carcinoma (ESCC), one of the most prevalent and lethal malignant disease, has a complex but unknown tumor ecosystem. Here, we investigate the composition of ESCC tumors based on 208,659 single-cell transcriptomes derived from 60 individuals. We identify 8 common expression programs from malignant epithelial cells and discover 42 cell types, including 26 immune cell and 16 nonimmune stromal cell subtypes in the tumor microenvironment (TME), and analyse the interactions between cancer cells and other cells and the interactions among different cell types in the TME. Moreover, we link the cancer cell transcriptomes to the somatic mutations and identify several markers significantly associated with patients’ survival, which may be relevant to precision care of ESCC patients. These results reveal the immunosuppressive status in the ESCC TME and further our understanding of ESCC.

Esophageal squamous-cell carcinomas (ESCC) have poor prognosis, and detailed molecular profiles are necessary to identify prognostic markers. Here the authors analyse 60 ESCC patient samples using scRNA-seq, TCR-seq and genomics; they find mucosal immunity markers associated with survival and immunosuppressive microenvironments.

Applications of Single-Cell Sequencing in Dermatology

Single-cell sequencing (SCS) is a promising new technique used to assess the genomics, transcriptomics, epigenetics, and other multi-omics at the single-cell level. In addition to elucidating the immune microenvironment and revealing the pathomechanisms of disease and drug resistance, SCS can profile the actual state of an individual cell and identify a novel cell type and differentiation trajectories, which cannot be achieved by bulk tissue sequencing technique. SCS technique serves as powerful tools to explore more meaningful biomarkers of diagnosis, prognosis, and new therapeutic targets in clinical practice. The SCS technique has been widely applied in the field of dermatology. In this review, we summarize the advances of SCS in dermatology.

Mouse models for actinic keratoses

Actinic keratoses (AKs) represent a premalignant skin condition due to chronic sun damage that dramatically increases in prevalence in the aging population. Currently, animal models of AKs utilize photocarcinogenesis, chemical carcinogens, or targeted gene modulation, and each method possesses unique strengths and weaknesses. Models using photodamage most comprehensively describe methods for preferentially selecting AK lesions, while replicating the pathogenesis of AKs with greater fidelity than models utilizing other carcinogenic methods. The following review of current murine models of AKs will aid in the selection of mouse models appropriate for future in vivo studies to test the efficacy of novel therapeutic agents for the treatment of AKs.

Identification of differentially expressed genes in actinic keratosis samples treated with ingenol mebutate gel

Actinic keratosis is a common skin disease that may progress to invasive squamous cell carcinoma if left untreated. Ingenol mebutate has demonstrated efficacy in field treatment of actinic keratosis. However, molecular mechanisms on ingenol mebutate response are not yet fully understood. In this study, we evaluated the gene expression profiles of actinic keratosis lesions before and after treatment with ingenol mebutate using microarray technology. Actinic keratoses on face/scalp of 15 immunocompetent patients were identified and evaluated after treatment with topical ingenol mebutate gel 0.015%, applied once daily for 3 consecutive days. Diagnostic and clearance of lesions was determined by clinical, dermoscopic, and reflectance confocal microscopy criteria. Lesional and non-lesional skin biopsies were subjected to gene expression analysis profiled by Affymetrix microarray. Differentially expressed genes were identified, and enrichment analyses were performed using STRING database. At 8 weeks post-treatment, 60% of patients responded to ingenol mebutate therapy, achieving complete clearance in 40% of cases. A total of 128 differentially expressed genes were identified following treatment, and downregulated genes (114 of 128) revealed changes in pathways important to epidermal development, keratinocyte differentiation and cornification. In responder patients, 388 downregulated genes (of 450 differentially expressed genes) were also involved in development/differentiation of the epidermis, and immune system-related pathways, such as cytokine and interleukin signaling. Cluster analysis revealed two relevant clusters showing upregulated profile patterns in pre-treatment actinic keratoses of responders, as compared to non-responders. Again, differentially expressed genes were mainly associated with cornification, keratinization and keratinocyte differentiation. Overall, the present study provides insight into the gene expression profile of actinic keratoses after treatment with ingenol mebutate, as well as identification of genetic signatures that could predict treatment response.

Stress keratin 17 enhances papillomavirus infection-induced disease by downregulating T cell recruitment

High-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) cause 5% of human cancers. Despite the availability of HPV vaccines, there remains a strong urgency to find ways to treat persistent HPV infections, as current HPV vaccines are not therapeutic for individuals already infected. We used a mouse papillomavirus infection model to characterize virus-host interactions. We found that mouse papillomavirus (MmuPV1) suppresses host immune responses via overexpression of stress keratins. In mice deficient for stress keratin K17 (K17KO), we observed rapid regression of papillomas dependent on T cells. Cellular genes involved in immune response were differentially expressed in the papillomas arising on the K17KO mice correlating with increased numbers of infiltrating CD8+ T cells and upregulation of IFNγ-related genes, including CXCL9 and CXCL10, prior to complete regression. Blocking the receptor for CXCL9/CXCL10 prevented early regression. Our data provide a novel mechanism by which papillomavirus-infected cells evade host immunity and defines new therapeutic targets for treating persistent papillomavirus infections.

Co-expression analysis and ceRNA network reveal eight novel potential lncRNA biomarkers in hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer in the world, with a high degree of malignancy and recurrence. The influence of the ceRNA network in tumor on the biological function of liver cancer is very important, It has been reported that many lncRNA play a key role in liver cancer development. In our study, integrated data analysis revealed potential eight novel lncRNA biomarkers in hepatocellular carcinoma.

METHODS

Transcriptome data and clinical data were downloaded from the The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data portal. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis was performed to identify the expression pattern of genes in liver cancer. Then, the ceRNA network was constructed using transcriptome data.

RESULTS

The integrated analysis of miRNA and RNAseq in the database show eight novel lncRNAs that may be involved in important biological pathways, including TNM and disease development in liver cancer. We performed function enrichment analysis of mRNAs affected by these lncRNAs.

CONCLUSIONS

By identifying the ceRNA network and the lncRNAs that affect liver cancer, we showed that eight novel lncRNAs play an important role in the development and progress of liver cancer.

Keratinocyte-specific ablation of Mcpip1 impairs skin integrity and promotes local and systemic inflammation

MCPIP1 (Regnase-1, encoded by the ZC3H12A gene) regulates the mRNA stability of several inflammatory cytokines. Due to the critical role of this RNA endonuclease in the suppression of inflammation, Mcpip1 deficiency in mice leads to the development of postnatal multiorgan inflammation and premature death. Here, we generated mice with conditional deletion of Mcpip1 in the epidermis (Mcpip1^EKO). Mcpip1 loss in keratinocytes resulted in the upregulated expression of transcripts encoding factors related to inflammation and keratinocyte differentiation, such as IL-36α/γ cytokines, S100a8/a9 antibacterial peptides, and Sprr2d/2h proteins. Upon aging, the Mcpip1^EKO mice showed impaired skin integrity that led to the progressive development of spontaneous skin pathology and systemic inflammation. Furthermore, we found that the lack of epidermal Mcpip1 expression impaired the balance of keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation. Overall, we provide evidence that keratinocyte-specific Mcpip1 activity is crucial for the maintenance of skin integrity as well as for the prevention of excessive local and systemic inflammation. KEY MESSAGES: Loss of murine epidermal Mcpip1 upregulates transcripts related to inflammation and keratinocyte differentiation. Keratinocyte Mcpip1 function is essential to maintain the integrity of skin in adult mice. Ablation of Mcpip1 in mouse epidermis leads to the development of local and systemic inflammation.

Cytokine/chemokine profiles in squamous cell carcinoma correlate with precancerous and cancerous disease stage

Actinic Keratosis (AK), Intraepidermal Carcinoma (IEC), and Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) are generally considered to be advancing stages of the same disease spectrum. However, while AK often regress spontaneously, and IEC often regress in response to immune-activating treatments, SCC typically do not regress. Therefore, it is vital to define whether fundamental immunological changes occur during progression to SCC. Here we show that proinflammatory cytokine expression, chemokine expression, and immune cell infiltration density change during progression to SCC. Our findings suggest a switch from predominantly proinflammatory cytokine production to chemokine production is a key feature of progression from precancer to cancer. Together, these observations propose a model that can underpin current research and open new avenues of exploration into the clinical significance of these profiles with respect to immunotherapeutic or other treatment outcomes.

Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals cell type-specific HPV expression in hyperplastic skin lesions

Human Papillomavirus infection is highly prevalent worldwide. While most types of HPV cause benign warts, some high-risk types are known to cause cervical cancer, as well as cancer of the oral cavity and head and neck. Persistent cutaneous HPV infection can be particularly problematic in patients with chronic immunosuppression, for example following organ transplantation. Due to unknown mechanisms, these patients may develop numerous warts, as well as present with a dramatically increased skin cancer prevalence. Despite an association between HPV persistence in the epidermis and excessive wart or squamous cancer development, the molecular mechanisms linking immunosuppression, HPV expression and excessive epidermal proliferation have not been determined, largely due to low-sensitivity methodology to capture rare viral transcription events. Here, we use single-cell RNA sequencing to profile HPV-positive skin lesions from an immunosuppressed patient that were found to express the alphapapillomavirus HPV78 in basal keratinocytes, suprabasal keratinocytes and hair follicle stem cells. This method can be applied to detect and investigate HPV transcripts in cutaneous lesions, allowing mechanistic links between immunosuppression-induced HPV life cycle and epidermal hyperproliferation to be uncovered.

Papillomavirus Immune Evasion Strategies Target the Infected Cell and the Local Immune System

Persistent infection with human papillomavirus (HPV) initiates ~5% of all human cancers, and particularly cervical and oropharyngeal cancers. HPV vaccines prevent HPV infection, but do not eliminate existing HPV infections. Papillomaviruses induce hyperproliferation of epithelial cells. In this review we discuss how hyperproliferation renders epithelial cells less sensitive to immune attack, and impacts upon the efficiency of the local immune system. These observations have significance for the design of therapeutic HPV cancer immunotherapies.

HPV16 E7-Driven Epithelial Hyperplasia Promotes Impaired Antigen Presentation and Regulatory T-Cell Development

Human papillomaviruses infect keratinocytes and can lead to hyperproliferative dysplasia and malignant transformation if not cleared by the immune system. Human papillomavirus has evolved an array of mechanisms to evade and manipulate the immune system to improve replication efficiency and promote persistent infection. We here demonstrate that hyperproliferative skin expressing the high-risk human papillomavirus 16 E7 oncogene as a transgene drives immunomodulation of dendritic cells (DCs), resulting in reduced capacity to take up antigen and prime effector CD4⁺ T cell responses. The phenotype of DCs in the E7-expressing hyperproliferative skin was not reversible by activation through intradermal immunization. Naïve CD4⁺ T cells primed by E7-driven hyperproliferative skin acquired FoxP3 expression and an anergic phenotype. DC and T help modulation was dependent on E7-retinoblastoma protein interaction-driven epithelial hyperproliferation, rather than on expression of E7. Inhibition of binding of E7 to retinoblastoma protein, and of consequent epithelial hyperplasia, was associated with normal skin DC phenotype, and T helper type 1 effector responses to immunization were restored. We conclude that human papillomavirus-induced epithelial hyperplasia modulates epithelial DCs and inhibits T helper type 1 immunity while polarizing T-cell differentiation to a regulatory or anergic phenotype.

KRT17 confers paclitaxel-induced resistance and migration to cervical cancer cells

AIM

To understand potential pro-oncological effects of lower dose paclitaxel treatment in cervical cancer cells, we investigated the potential roles of KRT17 on migration and proliferation of cervical cancer cells which might respond to cytoskeletal-based drugs treatments.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We extracted the clinic data of cervical cancer patients from TCGA database to investigate mRNA expression of different keratins. HPV genotypes were identified by reverse transcription PCR. krt17 mRNA and EMT markers were quantified by real-time PCR. krt17 and EMT markers protein were immunoblotted by western blot. Cell viability was detected by CCK8. Cell migration was performed by transwell migration assay.

KEY FINDINGS

Our results showed that HPV16 infection correlated with the expression of KRT17 in cervical cancer cell lines. KRT17 knockdown would decrease Snail2 and elevate E-Cadherin to inhibit migration of Caski cells and SiHa cells. Lower dose of paclitaxel promoted SiHa proliferation, it also significantly promoted the migration of Caski cells. Otherwise, colchicine and higher dose of paclitaxel dose-dependently suppressed the proliferation and migration of Caski cells and SiHa cells. Moreover, KRT17 knockdown significantly facilitated cytoskeletal-based drugs to inhibit migration and induce cytotoxicity in cervical cancer cells.

SIGNIFICANCE

KRT17 played pivotal oncogenic roles in cell survival, migration and paclitaxel-induced resistance of cervical cancer cells. Thus, KRT17 would serve as a promising target for compromising paclitaxel-induced resistance and metastasis.

Papillomavirus can be transmitted through the blood and produce infections in blood recipients: Evidence from two animal models

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) contribute to most cervical cancers and are considered to be sexually transmitted. However, papillomaviruses are often found in cancers of internal organs, including the stomach, raising the question as to how the viruses gain access to these sites. A possible connection between blood transfusion and HPV-associated disease has not received much attention. Here we show, in rabbit and mouse models, that blood infected with papillomavirus yields infections at permissive sites with detectable viral DNA, RNA transcripts, and protein products. The rabbit skin tumours induced via blood infection displayed decreased expression of SLN, TAC1, MYH8, PGAM2, and APOBEC2 and increased expression of SDRC7, KRT16, S100A9, IL36G, and FABP9, as seen in tumours induced by local infections. Furthermore, we demonstrate that blood from infected mice can transmit the infection to uninfected animals. Finally, we demonstrate the presence of papillomavirus infections and virus-induced hyperplasia in the stomach tissues of animals infected via the blood. These results indicate that blood transmission could be another route for papillomavirus infection, implying that the human blood supply, which is not screened for papillomaviruses, could be a potential source of HPV infection as well as subsequent cancers in tissues not normally associated with the viruses.

Recruitment of Antigen Presenting Cells to Skin Draining Lymph Node From HPV16E7-Expressing Skin Requires E7-Rb Interaction

“High-risk” human papillomaviruses (HPV) infect keratinocytes of squamous epithelia. The HPV16E7 protein induces epithelial hyperplasia by binding Rb family proteins and disrupting cell cycle termination. Murine skin expressing HPV16E7 as a transgene from a keratin 14 promoter (K14.E7) demonstrates epithelial hyperplasia, dysfunctional antigen presenting cells, ineffective antigen presentation by keratinocytes, and production of immunoregulatory cytokines. Furthermore, grafted K14.E7 skin is not rejected from immunocompetent non-transgenic recipient animals. To establish the contributions of E7, of E7-Rb interaction and of epithelial hyperplasia to altered local skin immunity, K14.E7 skin was compared with skin from K14.E7 mice heterozygous for a mutant Rb unable to bind E7 (K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL mice), that have normoplastic epithelium. Previously, we demonstrated that E7-speicfic T cells do not accumulate in K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL skin grafts. Here, we further show that K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL skin, like K14.E7 skin, is not rejected by immunocompetent non-transgenic animals. There were fewer CD11b⁺ antigen presenting cells in skin draining lymph nodes from animals recipient of K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL grafts, when compared with animals receiving K14.E7 grafts or K5mOVA grafts. Maturation of migratory DCs derived from K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL grafts found in the draining lymph nodes is significantly lower than that of K14.E7 grafts. Surprisingly, K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL keratinocytes, unlike K14.E7 keratinocytes, are susceptible to E7 directed CTL-mediated lysis in vitro. We conclude that E7-Rb interaction and its associated epithelial hyperplasia partially contribute to the suppressive local immune responses in area affected by HPV16E7 expression.

Murine HPV16 E7-expressing transgenic skin effectively emulates the cellular and molecular features of human high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions

Currently available vaccines prevent HPV infection and development of HPV-associated malignancies, but do not cure existing HPV infections and dysplastic lesions. Persistence of infection(s) in immunocompetent patients may reflect induction of local immunosuppressive mechanisms by HPV, providing a target for therapeutic intervention. We have proposed that a mouse, expressing HPV16 E7 oncoprotein under a Keratin 14 promoter (K14E7 mice), and which develops epithelial hyperplasia, may assist with understanding local immune suppression mechanisms that support persistence of HPV oncogene-induced epithelial hyperplasia. K14E7 skin grafts recruit immune cells from immunocompetent hosts, but consistently fail to be rejected. Here, we review the literature on HPV-associated local immunoregulation, and compare the findings with published observations on the K14E7 transgenic murine model, including comparison of the transcriptome of human HPV-infected pre-malignancies with that of murine K14E7 transgenic skin. We argue from the similarity of i) the literature findings and ii) the transcriptome profiles that murine K14E7 transgenic skin recapitulates the cellular and secreted protein profiles of high-grade HPV-associated lesions in human subjects. We propose that the K14E7 mouse may be an appropriate model to further study the immunoregulatory effects of HPV E7 expression, and can facilitate development and testing of therapeutic vaccines.

HPV16E7-Induced Hyperplasia Promotes CXCL9/10 Expression and Induces CXCR3+ T-Cell Migration to Skin

Chemokines regulate tissue immunity by recruiting specific subsets of immune cells. Mice expressing the E7 protein of human papilloma virus 16 as a transgene from a keratin 14 promoter (K14.E7) show increased epidermal and dermal lymphocytic infiltrates, epidermal hyperplasia, and suppressed local immunity. Here, we show that CXCL9 and CXCL10 are overexpressed in non-hematopoietic cells in skin of K14.E7 mice when compared with non-transgenic animals, and recruit CXCR3⁺ lymphocytes to the hyperplastic skin. Overexpression of CXCL9 and CXCL10 is not observed in E7 transgenic mice with mutated Rb gene whose protein product cannot interact with E7 (K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL) and in consequence lack hyperplastic epithelium. CXCR3⁺ T cells are preferentially recruited by CXCL9 and CXCL10 in supernatants of K14.E7 but not K14.E7xRb^ΔL/ΔL skin cultures in vitro. CXCR3 signalling promotes infiltration of a subset of effector T lymphocytes that enables donor lymphocyte deficient, E7-expressing skin graft rejection. Taken together, this suggests that recruitment of CXCR3⁺ T cells can be an important factor in the rejection of precancerous skin epithelium providing they can overcome local immunosuppressive mechanisms driven by skin-resident lymphocytes.

Pleiotropic Effects of White Willow Bark and 1,2-Decanediol on Human Adult Keratinocytes

BACKGROUND

Acne vulgaris is a common skin defect, usually occurring during adolescence, but often it can persist in adults leaving permanent face scarring. Acne is usually treated with topical drugs, oral antibiotics, retinoids, and hormonal therapies, but medicinal plants are increasingly employed.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the protective role of white willow bark (WWB) and 1,2-decanediol (DD) on the damage caused by lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on human adult keratinocytes (HaCaT).

METHODS

HaCaT were exposed to LPS alone or in association with WWB and DD. Epidermal viability, metabolic modulation, inflammatory activity, and cell migration were assessed with both common standardized protocols or high-throughput screening systems.

RESULTS

The preincubation of HaCaT with WWB and DD (used separately or in combination) differently prevented the alterations induced by LPS on HaCaT in terms of growth factor release (IGF, EGF, VEGF), cytokine production (IL-1α, IL-6, IL-8), or expression of the transcription factor FOXO-I. Moreover, they partially restore wound repair lowered by LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that both natural compounds were able to differently affect several functions of LPS-stressed keratinocytes suggesting their potential role for the prevention of acne vulgaris, without adverse effects.

HPV16-E7-Specific Activated CD8 T Cells in E7 Transgenic Skin and Skin Grafts

Human papillomavirus (HPV) 16 E7 (E7) protein expression in skin promotes epithelial hyperproliferation and transformation to malignancy. Grafts of murine skin expressing E7 protein as a transgene in keratinocytes are not rejected from immunocompetent recipients, whereas grafts expressing ovalbumin (OVA), with or without coexpression of E7 protein, are promptly rejected, demonstrating that E7-associated non-antigen-specific local immunosuppression is not a major determinant of lack of rejection of E7 transgenic skin. To determine whether failure of rejection of E7 skin grafts is due to failure to attract E7-specific effector T cells, E7- and OVA-specific effector CD8⁺ T cells, activated in vitro, were transferred to animals bearing E7 transgenic skin grafts. Three days after T cell transfer, E7-specific T cells were present in significantly greater numbers than OVA-specific T cells in the grafted skin on animals bearing recently placed or healed E7 grafts, without graft rejection, and also in the ear skin of E7 transgenic animals, without obvious pathology. E7 and OVA-specific T cells were present in lesser numbers in healed E7 grafts than in recently placed grafts and in lesser numbers in recently placed E7 transgenic epidermal grafts without E7-associated hyperproliferation, derived from E7 transgenic mice with a mutated retinoblastoma gene. These data demonstrate that effector T cells are to some extent attracted to E7 transgenic skin specifically by E7 expression, but in large measure non-specifically by the epithelial proliferation associated with E7 expression, and by the local inflammation produced by grafting. Failure of E7 graft rejection was observed despite trafficking of E7-specific effector T cells to E7-expressing epithelium, a finding of consequence for immunotherapy of HPV 16 E7-associated human cancers.