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Zhang L, Zhang Y, Zhu M, Chen L, Wu B. A critical review on quantitative evaluation of aqueous toxicity in water quality assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 342:140159. [PMID: 37716564 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/18/2023]
Abstract
Conventional chemical techniques have inherent limitations in detecting unknown chemical substances in water. As a result, effect-based methods have emerged as a viable alternative to overcome these limitations. These methods provide more accurate and intuitive evaluations of the toxic effects of water. While numerous studies have been conducted, only a few have been applied to national water quality monitoring. Therefore, it is crucial to develop toxicity evaluation methods and establish thresholds based on quantifying toxicity. This article provides an overview of the development and application of bioanalytical tools, including in vitro and in vivo bioassays. The available methods for quantifying toxicity are then summarized. These methods include aquatic life criteria for assessing the toxicity of a single compound, comprehensive wastewater toxicity testing for all contaminants in a water sample (toxicity units, whole effluent toxicity, the potential ecotoxic effects probe, the potential toxicology method, and the lowest ineffective dilution), methods based on mechanisms and relative toxicity ratios for substances with the same mode of action (the toxicity equivalency factors, toxic equivalents, bioanalytical equivalents), and effect-based trigger values for micropollutants. The article also highlights the advantages and disadvantages of each method. Finally, it proposes potential areas for applying toxicity quantification methods and offers insights into future research directions. This review emphasizes the significance of enhancing the evaluation methods for assessing aqueous toxicity in water quality assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Mengyuan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Ling Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.
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Rodrigues ET, Pereira E, Oliveira PJ, Pardal MA. The H9c2(2-1) cell-based sulforhodamine B assay is a non-animal alternative to evaluate municipal wastewater quality over time. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1395. [PMID: 37906309 PMCID: PMC10618365 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-12017-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
The present study validates the potential of the in vitro H9c2(2-1) cell-based sulforhodamine B (SRB) assay to evaluate the temporal variability of wastewater quality. The impact of effluent disposal on water quality and the efficiency of the wastewater treatment process were also assessed. To correlate standard analytical method results with in vitro results, a total of 16 physicochemical parameters, such as nutrients, pH, chemical oxygen demand, total suspended solids and metals, were determined in both raw and treated wastewater samples. Results revealed that the H9c2(2-1) cell-based SRB assay has an enormous potential to evaluate municipal wastewater quality over time and to discriminate influent and effluent toxic characteristics, as well as for water quality monitoring and surveillance of the efficacy of treatment processes. Finally, the gathered results alerted to the impact of phosphates in a biological system, leading us to recommend the selection of this parameter as a potential environmental health indicator.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa T Rodrigues
- Centre for Functional Ecology, Associate Laboratory TERRA, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Eduarda Pereira
- Department of Chemistry and CESAM/REQUIMTE, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Paulo J Oliveira
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UC Biotech, University of Coimbra, Biocant Park, 3060-197, Cantanhede, Portugal
| | - Miguel A Pardal
- Centre for Functional Ecology, Associate Laboratory TERRA, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal
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3
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He R, Wu X, Mu H, Chen L, Hu H, Wang J, Ren H, Wu B. Priority control sequence of 34 typical pollutants in effluents of Chinese wastewater treatment plants. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 243:120338. [PMID: 37473511 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
The identification of the priority control sequence of pollutants in effluents of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) has important implications for the management of water quality. This study chose 34 typical pollutants based on their representativeness and detection rates in municipal wastewater. The occurrence frequency and concentration of these pollutants in 168 Chinese WWTP effluents were measured at the national level. The data on in vitro toxicity (67 assays) and in vivo toxicity (216 species) for target pollutants were obtained from the public toxicity database and our experimental data. An environmental health prioritization index (EHPi) method was proposed to integrate the occurrence frequency, concentration, removal rate, and in vitro and in vivo toxicity to determine the priority control sequence of target pollutants. Ethynyl estradiol, 17β-estradiol, estrone, diclofenac, and atrazine were the top 5 pollutants identified by the EHPi score. Several pollutants with high EHPi scores showed spatial differences. Besides the EHPi method which was from the single pollutant perspective, the combined toxicity of pollutants (300 pairs of binary combinations) was also measured based on in vitro toxicity assays to evaluate the key pollutants from the pollutant-pollutant interacting perspective. The pollutants (such as ofloxacin and acetaminophen) that could have significant synergetic effects with many other pollutants are worthy of prior attention. This study shed new light on the identification of the priority control sequence of pollutants in WWTP effluents. The results provide meaningful data for the effective management and control of wastewater water quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruonan He
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Xingyue Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hongxin Mu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Ling Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Haidong Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Jinfeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hongqiang Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Bing Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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Gollong G, Neuwald IJ, Kuckelkorn J, Junek R, Zahn D. Assessing the protection gap for mobile and persistent chemicals during advanced water treatment - A study in a drinking water production and wastewater treatment plant. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 221:118847. [PMID: 35841789 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Persistent and mobile (PM) chemicals spread quickly in the water cycle and can reach drinking water. If these chemicals are also toxic (PMT) they may pose a threat to the aquatic environment and drinking water alike, and thus measures to prevent their spread are necessary. In this study, nontarget screening and cell-based toxicity tests after a polarity-based fractionation into polar and non-polar chemicals are utilized to assess and compare the effectiveness of ozonation and filtration through activated carbon in a wastewater treatment and drinking water production plant. Especially during wastewater treatment, differences in removal efficiency were evident. While median areas of non-polar features were reduced by a factor of 270, median areas for polar chemicals were only reduced by a factor of 4. Polar features showed significantly higher areas than their non-polar counterparts in wastewater treatment plant effluent and finished drinking water, implying a protection gap for these chemicals. Toxicity tests revealed higher initial toxicities (especially oxidative stress and estrogenic activity) for the non-polar fraction, but also showed a more pronounced decrease during treatment. Generally, the toxicity of the effluent was low for both fractions. Combined, these results imply a less effective removal but also a lower toxicity of polar chemicals. The behaviour of features during advanced waste and drinking water treatment was used to classify them as either PM chemicals or mobile transformation products (M-TPs). A suspect screening of the 476 highest intensity PM chemicals and M-TPs in 57 environmental and tap water samples showed high frequencies of detection (median >80%), which indicates the wide distribution of these chemicals in the aquatic environment and thus supports the chosen classification approach and the more generally applicability of obtained insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grete Gollong
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Limburger Str. 2, Idstein, 65510, Germany
| | - Isabelle J Neuwald
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Limburger Str. 2, Idstein, 65510, Germany
| | - Jochen Kuckelkorn
- Umweltbundesamt, Section Toxicology of Drinking Water and Swimming Pool Water, Heinrich-Heine-Strasse 12, Bad Elster, 08645, Germany
| | - Ralf Junek
- Umweltbundesamt, Section Toxicology of Drinking Water and Swimming Pool Water, Heinrich-Heine-Strasse 12, Bad Elster, 08645, Germany
| | - Daniel Zahn
- Hochschule Fresenius gem. GmbH, Limburger Str. 2, Idstein, 65510, Germany.
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Mao G, Wang Y, Hammes F. Automated flow cytometry as a flexible tool for comparing disinfection characteristics of indigenous bacterial communities and pure cultures. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 225:112799. [PMID: 34555718 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial inactivation efficiency of chlorine varies with organisms and environmental conditions. The comparability of different samples/studies, especially comparing indigenous bacterial communities with pure cultures, is impeded by inconsistent experimental conditions and analytical methods used in various studies. We tested a novel 96-well plate FCM experimental and automated analytical approach, where bacterial communities and pure cultures were suspended in the same natural water matrix prior to chlorination directly in the plate. We demonstrated the ability to rapidly monitor the efficiency of 32 different combinations of chlorine concentration and time (i.e. chlorine exposure) on bacterial pure cultures and indigenous aquatic communities, which enabled correct comparison of the data from different samples under the exact same experimental conditions. In this study, the 96-well plate automated FCM approach enabled large sets (896) of independent chlorination experiments to be carried out in a short time period. To our knowledge, this is the largest dataset of chlorination experiments which consumed least time (within 18 h after sampling) until now. Staining with SYBR Green I (SG) and SG combined with propidium iodide (SGPI) was used to assess cellular damage during chlorination. The results showed that with the same chlorine exposure, a higher chlorine concentration with a shorter contact time is favorable for inactivation of bacteria. Our research provides a promising framework to compare disinfection characteristics of various microorganism and can be further developed to diagnose effect of antimicrobial products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guannan Mao
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education), Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; Department of Environmental Microbiology, Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland; State Key Laboratory of Tibetan Plateau Earth System, Resources and Environment (TPESRE), Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education), Tianjin Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China.
| | - Frederik Hammes
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland.
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Electro-Persulfate Processes for the Treatment of Complex Wastewater Matrices: Present and Future. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26164821. [PMID: 34443408 PMCID: PMC8401330 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26164821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Complex wastewater matrices present a major environmental concern. Besides the biodegradable organics, they may contain a great variety of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and other xenobiotics. The electrochemically activated persulfate process, an efficient way to generate sulfate radicals, has been widely applied to the degradation of such complex effluents with very good results. This review presents the fundamentals of the electro-persulfate processes, highlighting the advantages and limitations, followed by an exhaustive evaluation on the application of this process for the treatment of complex industrial effluents. An overview of the main relevant experimental parameters/details and their influence on the organic load removal is presented and discussed, having in mind the application of these technologies at an industrial scale. Finally, the future perspectives for the application of the electro-persulfate processes in the treatment of complex wastewater matrices is outlined.
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Rodrigues ET, Pardal MA, Pereira E, Monteiro JF, Certal AC, Oliveira PJ. H9c2(2-1)-based sulforhodamine B assay as a possible alternative in vitro platform to investigate effluent and metals toxicity on fish. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 275:130009. [PMID: 33652281 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
To overcome restrictions on the use of fish in toxicity testing, the present study proposes to compare the 50% growth inhibition potential (EC50) of four types of effluents on the rat cardiomyoblast H9c2(2-1) cell line by using the sulforhodamine B (SRB) cell mass colorimetric assay, with the corresponding fish lethal test results. Our objective was to evaluate if H9c2(2-1) cells shows comparable sensitivities, in both relative and absolute terms, to those provided by fish. In parallel, this study also compared the results of the chemical characterization with the legislation in force for environmental protection against effluent release into the receiving environment. Moreover, we tested the H9c2(2-1)-based SRB assays with the metals of concern found in the effluent samples. Both fish and cell assays showed the same toxicity rank for effluents: Metal > Oil > Municipal > Paper, and it should be stressed that the complementarity of using chemical and biological data represents a step forward to guarantee both environmental and human safety, since the chemical characterization showed a different toxicity rank: Metal > Municipal > Oil > Paper. Regarding metal elements, the short-term fish results showed a toxicity rank non-comparable with the rank obtained for cells. Nevertheless, the gathered results reveal the potentiality of the in vitro H9c2(2-1) platform as an alternative for fish lethal testing to assess, in absolute terms, the toxicity of effluents, particularly municipal effluents, and metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elsa T Rodrigues
- University of Coimbra, Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Miguel A Pardal
- University of Coimbra, Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456, Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Eduarda Pereira
- Department of Chemistry and CESAM/REQUIMTE, University of Aveiro, Campus de Santiago, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
| | - Joana F Monteiro
- Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Ana C Certal
- Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Paulo J Oliveira
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UC Biotech, University of Coimbra, Biocant Park, 3060-197, Cantanhede, Portugal.
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Pochiraju SS, Linden K, Gu AZ, Rosenblum J. Development of a separation framework for effects-based targeted and non-targeted toxicological screening of water and wastewater. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 170:115289. [PMID: 31785562 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
An environmental water sample fractionation framework was developed based on effects-directed analysis (EDA) to detect known and unknown compounds of concern in different waters. Secondary effluent from a wastewater treatment plant was used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the developed framework for characterizing estrogenic compounds in the effluent. The effluent was spiked with known estrogenic compounds to validate the framework in a targeted approach and an unspiked sample was also investigated in a non-targeted approach. The framework separated compounds based on polarity and adsorption using liquid-liquid extraction followed by solid phase extraction. The targeted and non-targeted effluents generated six fractions each, which were assessed for estrogenic activity using an in vitro bioassay (yeast estrogen screen - YES). Three out of the six fractions in each case, along with the raw effluent, showed estrogen equivalent concentrations (EEQs) ranging between 1.0 and 3.0 μg/L. Directed by the assay results, these estrogenic fractions were further analyzed using liquid- and gas-chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry for compound identification. The developed separation framework coupled with a bioassay aided in identification of both known and unknown compounds producing estrogenic effects in the water sample. The approach of fractionation followed by concentration helped isolate and elevate contaminant levels without necessarily concentrating potential matrix effects that could cause interfering cytotoxicity and inhibition in the bioassay. The targeted analysis showed consistency between predicted and observed results, while the non-targeted analysis revealed the presence of three estrogenic compounds in the unspiked effluent: di-isobutyl phthalate, diethyl phthalate and benzophenone, that were confirmed with standards. The study mainly aimed at development and validation of a simple yet effective EDA framework with low cost techniques for water and wastewater toxicity screening and evaluation, and the results suggested that the developed framework could be used as a screening tool for isolating and identifying unknown compounds in a complex water sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susheera S Pochiraju
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Karl Linden
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - April Z Gu
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - James Rosenblum
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, 80401, USA.
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Safford HR, Bischel HN. Flow cytometry applications in water treatment, distribution, and reuse: A review. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 151:110-133. [PMID: 30594081 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ensuring safe and effective water treatment, distribution, and reuse requires robust methods for characterizing and monitoring waterborne microbes. Methods widely used today can be limited by low sensitivity, high labor and time requirements, susceptibility to interference from inhibitory compounds, and difficulties in distinguishing between viable and non-viable cells. Flow cytometry (FCM) has recently gained attention as an alternative approach that can overcome many of these challenges. This article critically and systematically reviews for the first time recent literature on applications of FCM in water treatment, distribution, and reuse. In the review, we identify and examine nearly 300 studies published from 2000 to 2018 that illustrate the benefits and challenges of using FCM for assessing source-water quality and impacts of treatment-plant discharge on receiving waters, wastewater treatment, drinking water treatment, and drinking water distribution. We then discuss options for combining FCM with other indicators of water quality and address several topics that cut across nearly all applications reviewed. Finally, we identify priority areas in which more work is needed to realize the full potential of this approach. These include optimizing protocols for FCM-based analysis of waterborne viruses, optimizing protocols for specifically detecting target pathogens, automating sample handling and preparation to enable real-time FCM, developing computational tools to assist data analysis, and improving standards for instrumentation, methods, and reporting requirements. We conclude that while more work is needed to realize the full potential of FCM in water treatment, distribution, and reuse, substantial progress has been made over the past two decades. There is now a sufficiently large body of research documenting successful applications of FCM that the approach could reasonably and realistically see widespread adoption as a routine method for water quality assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah R Safford
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, 480 Bainer Hall Drive, 95616, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Heather N Bischel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, 480 Bainer Hall Drive, 95616, Davis, CA, United States.
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Rosenmai AK, Lundqvist J, le Godec T, Ohlsson Å, Tröger R, Hellman B, Oskarsson A. In vitro bioanalysis of drinking water from source to tap. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 139:272-280. [PMID: 29656192 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The presence of chemical pollutants in sources of drinking water is a key environmental problem threatening public health. Efficient removal of pollutants in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) is needed as well as methods for assessment of the total impact of all present chemicals on water quality. In the present study we have analyzed the bioactivity of water samples from source to tap, including effects of various water treatments in a DWTP, using a battery of cell-based bioassays, covering health-relevant endpoints. Reporter gene assays were used to analyze receptor activity of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), estrogen receptor (ER), androgen receptor (AR), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARα) and induction of oxidative stress by the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). DNA damage was determined by Comet assay. Grab water samples were concentrated by HLB or ENV solid phase extraction and the water samples assayed at a relative enrichment factor of 50. The enrichment procedure did not induce any bioactivity. No bioactivity was detected in Milli-Q water or drinking water control samples. Induction of AhR, ER and Nrf2 activities was revealed in source to tap water samples. No cytotoxicity, PPARα or AR antagonist activity, or DNA damage were observed in any of the water samples. A low AR agonist activity was detected in a few samples of surface water, but not in the samples from the DWTP. The treatment steps at the DWTP, coagulation, granulated activated carbon filtration, UV disinfection and NH2Cl dosing had little or no effect on the AhR, Nrf2 and ER bioactivity. However, nanofiltration and passage through the distribution network drastically decreased AhR activity, while the effect on Nrf2 activity was more modest and no apparent effect was observed on ER activity. The present results suggest that bioassays are useful tools for evaluation of the efficiency of different treatment steps in DWTPs in reducing toxic activities. Bioassays of AhR and Nrf2 are useful for screening of effects of a broad range of chemicals in drinking water and ER activity can be monitored with a high sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Kjerstine Rosenmai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan Lundqvist
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Théo le Godec
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åsa Ohlsson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rikard Tröger
- Department of Aquatic Sciences and Assessment, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7050, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Björn Hellman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Division of Drug Safety and Toxicology, Uppsala University, Box 591, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Agneta Oskarsson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7028, SE-750 07, Uppsala, Sweden.
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