Commercial personal care product mixtures exhibit hormetic concentration-responses to Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67

Time-dependent hormesis transfer from five high-frequency personal care product components to mixtures

There is potential for personal care products (PCPs) components and mixtures to induce hormesis. How hormesis is related to time and transmitted from components to mixtures are not clear. In this paper, we conducted determination of components in 16 PCP products and then ran frequent itemset mining on the component data. Five high-frequency components (HFCs), betaine (BET), 1,3-butanediol (BUT), ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid disodium salt (EDTA), glycerol (GLO), and phenoxyethanol (POE), and 14 mixtures were identified. For each mixture system, one mixture ray with the actual mixture ratios in the products was selected. Time-dependent microplate toxicity analysis was used to test the luminescence inhibition toxicity of five HFCs and 14 mixture rays to Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 at 12 concentration gradients and eight exposure times. It is showed that BET, EDTA, POE, and 13 mixture rays containing at least one J-type component showed time-dependent hormesis. Characteristic parameters used to describe hormesis revealed that the absolute value of the maximum stimulatory effect (|Emin|) generally increased with time. Notably, mixtures composed of POE and S-type components showed greater |Emin| than POE alone at the same time. Importantly, the maximum stimulatory effective concentration, NOEC/the zero effective concentration point, and EC50 remained relatively stable. Nine hormesis transmission phenomena were observed in different mixture rays. While all mixtures primarily exhibited additive action, varying degrees of synergism and antagonism were noted in binary mixtures, with no strong synergism or antagonism observed in ternary and quaternary mixtures. These findings offer valuable insights for the screening of HFCs and their mixtures, as well as the study of hormesis transmission in personal care products.

Time-dependent hormetic dose responses of skin care product mixtures to Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67: Appearance and quantification

Hormesis is a widely recognized and extensively studied phenomenon. However, few studies have described the quantitative characteristics of hormesis required for appropriate risk assessment. Although skin care product (SCP) mixtures and their active ingredients can induce the hormesis of Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 (Q67), the quantitative characteristics of time-dependent hormetic dose responses in SCPs have not yet been investigated. In this study, 28 SCP mixtures were tested for luminescence toxicity against Q67 after five exposure durations (0.25, 3, 6, 9, and 12 h). With increasing exposure duration, the concentration response curves (CRCs) were classified as constant monotonic nonlinear (S-shaped) for four SCPs, S- to hormetic (J-shaped) for 13 SCPs, and constant J-shaped for 11 SCPs. Of 140 CRCs, 98 were J-shaped. An increased frequency of SCPs inducing hormesis was observed. The toxicity (pEC50) of the SCPs was independent of the exposure duration and product type. The maximum stimulatory effect (Emin) of the 12 SCPs increased with exposure duration. We proposed a modified parameter, the width of inhibition dose zone (WIDZ; EC50/EC10), to depict the width of inhibition dose zone. The WIDZ of S-shaped CRCs were significantly larger than that of J-shaped CRCs. In addition, the characteristic parameters reported in the general literature were analyzed. The good linear relationship between EC50 and the maximum stimulatory effective concentration (ECmin) indicated that toxicity may be transformed into stimulatory effects over exposure durations. The width of stimulation dose zone (WSDZ) and Emin of the seven SCPs had the same increasing trends with increasing exposure duration. The combination of WIDZ with other characteristic parameters (e.g., zero effective concentration point, ECmin, etc.) could better depict hormesis with low-dose stimulation and high-dose inhibition. The quantitative characteristics of the dose-responses of hormesis-inducing SCPs could provide reference basis for the risk assessment of SCP mixtures.

Low-dose chemical stimulation and pest resistance threaten global crop production

Pesticide resistance increases and threatens crop production sustainability. Chemical contamination contributes to the development of pest resistance to pesticides, in part by causing stimulatory effects on pests at low sub-toxic doses and facilitating the spread of resistance genes. This article discusses hormesis and low-dose biological stimulation and their relevance to crop pest resistance. It highlights that a holistic approach is needed to tackle pest resistance to pesticides and reduce imbalance in accessing food and improving food security in accordance with the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Among others, the effects of sub-toxic doses of pesticides should be considered when assessing the impact of synthetic and natural pesticides, while the promotion of alternative agronomical practices is needed to decrease the use of agrochemicals. Potential alternative solutions include camo-cropping, exogenous application of phytochemicals that are pest-suppressing or -repelling and/or attractive to carnivorous arthropods and other pest natural enemies, and nano-technological innovations. Moreover, to facilitate tackling of pesticide resistance in poorer countries, less technology-demanding and low-cost practices are needed. These include mixed cropping systems, diversification of cultures, use of 'push-pull cropping', incorporation of flower strips into cultivations, modification of microenvironment, and application of beneficial microorganisms and insects. However, there are still numerous open questions, and more research is needed to address the ecological and environmental effects of many of these potential solutions, with special reference to trophic webs.

A study of long-term toxicity of multiple mixtures with hormetic effects by the characteristic parameter σ2(k∙ECx) and stepwise method

A previous study found that the characteristic parameter σ2(k∙ECx) (the concentration ECx and slope k of the concentrationresponse curve (CRC) at the effect x %) can predict the acute combined toxicity of multiple mixtures with S-shaped CRCs. In this paper, the competence of σ2(k∙ECx) to predict the long-term toxicity of multiple mixtures with J-shaped CRCs was explored using the Aliivibrio fischeri as the test organism. The combined toxicity was evaluated by the independent action (IA) model and the effect ratio (ERx) model. The stepwise method was used to divide J-shaped CRC into ML and MR (SL and SR). The results showed that the σ2(k∙ECx) and ERx of each segment was in good agreement with the exponential function. A new type of mixture was added to the original type A and type B, whose rules of interaction were opposite to those of type B (named opposite B, OB). This paper improves the understanding and analysis of the J-shaped CRCs in environmental risk assessment.

Transfer pattern of hormesis into personal care product mixtures from typical hormesis-inducing compounds

Some personal care products (PCPs) and their chemical components showed a hormetic effect in the freshwater photobacterium Vibrio qinghaiensis sp. -Q67 (Q67) after long-term exposure. However, how hormesis transfers between chemical components and PCP mixture, and which chemical component plays a major role remain unknown. To this end, according to the seven compounds detected in one skin lotion (SK5) and their concentration ratios, many mixture rays were constructed to simulate the SK5. Of these seven compounds, three presented monotonic concentration-response curves (CRC) to Q67 at 0.25 and 12 h (called a S-shaped compound). The other four compounds showed hormetic CRCs after 12 h and monotonic CRCs at 0.25 h (called a J-shaped compound). Based on their mixture ratios, we designed one ternary mixture ray of all S-shaped compounds, one quaternary mixture ray of all J-shaped compounds, and four quaternary mixture rays of one J-shaped and three S-shaped compounds. It was shown that SK5 could be approximately simulated by the mixture ray of the seven compounds detected in SK5 and only the mixture rays containing at least one hormesis-inducing compound produced hormesis to Q67 at 12 h. Based on the concentration ratios of various compounds and comparison of four hormetic characteristic parameters to those of various mixture rays, it was found that the compound betaine (BET) is a key compound affecting the hormesis of mixtures. Additionally, we studied the hormesis mechanism of BET on Q67 via quorum sensing (QS). This preliminarily indicated that the autoinducer-2 triggered the QS pathway. This study elucidated the transfer pattern of hormesis into mixtures, which would be an efficient method to identifying the potential components that affect hormesis transfer in mixtures. We expect that this study will provide new insights into hormesis and its mixtures.

Hormesis induced by silver iodide, hydrocarbons, microplastics, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals: Implications for agroforestry ecosystems health

Increasing amounts of silver iodide (AgI) in the environment are expected because of the recent massive expansion of weather modification programs. Concurrently, pharmaceuticals, microplastics, hydrocarbons, and pesticides in terrestrial ecosystems continue contaminating forests and agroforests. Our review supports that AgI induces hormesis, a biphasic dose response characterized by often beneficial low-dose responses and toxic high-dose effects, which adds to the evidence for pharmaceuticals, microplastics, hydrocarbons, and pesticides induced hormesis in numerous species. Doses smaller than the no-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) positively affect defense physiology, growth, biomass, yields, survival, lifespan, and reproduction. They also lead to negative or undesirable outcomes, including stimulation of pathogenic microbes, pest insects, and weeds with enhanced resistance to drugs and potential negative multi- or trans-generational effects. Such sub-NOAEL effects perplex terrestrial ecosystems managements and may compromise combating outbreaks of disease vectors that can threaten not only forest and agroforestry health but also sensitive human subpopulations living in remote forested areas.

New methods of top-to-down mixture toxicity prediction: A case study of eliminating of the effects of cosolvent from binary mixtures

At present, the toxicity prediction of mixtures mainly focuses on the concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA) based on individual toxicants to predict the toxicity of multicomponent mixtures. This process of predicting the toxicity of multicomponent mixtures based on single substances or low component mixtures is called down-to-top method in this study. However, due to the particularity of some toxicants, we have to use the top-to-down idea to obtain or eliminate the toxicity of some components from mixtures. For example, the toxicity of toxicants is obtained from the toxicity of a mixture with, especially toxic, cosolvent added. In the study, two top-to-down methods, the inverse CA (ICA) and inverse IA (IIA) models, were proposed to eliminate the effects of a certain component from multicomponent mixtures. Furthermore, taking the eight binary mixtures consisting of different shapes of cosolvents (isopropyl alcohol (IPA) having hormesis and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)) and toxicants (two ionic liquids and two pesticides) as an example, combined with the interaction evaluated by CA and IA model, the influence of different shapes of components on top-to-down toxicity prediction was explored. The results showed that cosolvent IPA having hormesis may cause unpredictable effects, even at low concentrations, and should be used with caution. For DMSO, most of the toxicant's toxicity obtained by ICA and IIA models were almost in accordance with those observed experimentally, which showed that ICA and IIA could effectively eliminate the effects of cosolvent, even if toxic cosolvent, from the mixture. Ultimately, a frame of cosolvent use and toxicity correction for the hydrophobic toxicant were suggested based on the top-to-down toxicity prediction method. The proposed methods improve the existing framework of mixture toxicity prediction and provide a new idea for mixture toxicity evaluation and risk assessment.

Study on the Combined Toxicities and Quantitative Characterization of Toxicity Sensitivities of Three Flavor Chemicals and Their Mixtures to Caenorhabditis elegans

It was shown that flavor chemicals with high toxicity sensitivities mean that small changes in their effective concentrations can lead to significant changes in toxicity. Flavors are widely used in personal care products. However, our study demonstrated that some flavor chemicals and their mixture rays have high toxicity sensitivities to Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), which may have an impact on human health. In this paper, three flavor chemicals (benzyl alcohol, phenethyl alcohol, and cinnamaldehyde) were used as components of the mixture, and three binary mixture systems were constructed, respectively. Five mixture rays were designed for each mixture system by a direct equipartition ray design method. The lethal toxicities of the three flavor chemicals and mixture rays to C. elegans at three exposure volumes were determined. A new concept (inverse of the negative logarithmic concentration span (iSPAN)) was introduced to quantitatively evaluate the toxicity sensitivity of chemicals or mixture rays, and the combination index (CI) was employed to identify the toxicological interactions in the mixtures. It was shown that the three flavor chemicals as well as the binary mixture rays have a significant concentration-response relationship on the lethality of C. elegans. The iSPAN values of the three flavor chemicals and their mixture rays were larger than 3.000, showing very strong toxicity sensitivity to C. elegans. In mixture systems, the toxicity sensitivities of mixture rays with different mixture ratios were also different at different exposure volumes. In addition, it can be seen from the CI heat map that the toxicological interaction not only shows the mixture ratio dependence but also changes with the different exposure volumes, which implies that the mixtures consisting of flavor chemicals with high toxicity sensitivity have complex toxicological interactions. Therefore, in environmental risk assessment, special attention should be paid to chemicals with high toxicity sensitivities.

BNNmix: A new approach for predicting the mixture toxicity of multiple components based on the back-propagation neural network

The chemical mixtures in various environmental media not only have concentration diversity but also mixture-ratio diversity. It is impossible to experimentally determine the toxicities of all mixtures; therefore, it is necessary to develop effective methods based on models to predict mixture toxicity. In this study, a new approach (BNNmix) based on the back-propagation neural network (BPNN) was developed and used to predict the toxicities of seven-component mixtures (consisting of two substituted phenols, two pesticides, two ionic liquids, and one heavy metal) on Caenorhabditis elegans. We found that the combined toxicities of various mixtures used in the experiments were neither global concentration-additive nor global response-additive, which implied that it was impossible to accurately predict the toxicities of such mixtures by using common models such as concentration addition (CA) and response addition (independent action, IA). Using the BNNmix approach to estimate or predict the toxicities of the mixtures under test, it was found that the predictive toxicities of various mixtures with different mixture ratios and concentrations were almost in accordance with those observed experimentally. Unlike the CA and IA models, the BNNmix approach can predict not only the toxicities of mixtures having toxicological interactions but also those with global concentration or response additivities.

pH affects the hormesis profiles of personal care product components on luminescence of the bacteria Vibrio qinghaiensis sp. -Q67

Hormesis describes a specific phenomenon in a biphasic concentration-response curve: low concentrations stimulate a response, while high concentrations suppress it. Hormesis could be influenced by several environmental factors, e.g. pH. In this study, the concentration-response/bioluminescence inhibition profiles (CRPs) of six components in personal care products to Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 were measured at five different pH levels. When the exposure lasted for 0.25 h, CRPs of the six components at various pH levels were S-shaped, except ascorbic acid 2-glucoside (AA2G) at pH 10.5. When it lasted for 12 h, the CRPs were J-shaped, except AA2G at pH 6.5, 7.5, and 9.5. To rationally explain these changes in hormesis expressed by J-shaped CRP, four characteristic parameters, the minimum effect (E_min) and its corresponding concentration (EC_min), the median effective concentration (EC₅₀), and the zero effect concentration point (ZEP, where the effect is 0 and the concentration is ZEP), were used to quantify the J-shaped CRP. The results indicated that these parameters vary with pH. Additionally, ZEP showed an excellent linear relationship with EC₁₀ (R² = 0.9994) at all pH levels, indicating that EC₁₀ could replace the no-observed effective concentration (NOEC) in ecological risk assessment. Furthermore, to elucidate the possible mechanism of hormesis, the binding of the components to the luciferase receptors was analyzed using molecular docking technology. The results showed that the components displaying hormesis bind more easily to the α subunit of luciferase than to the β subunit.

Alteration in concentration-response curves of four N-alkylpyridinium chloride by exposure concentration, time and in their mixtures by uniform design

The concentration-response curves (CRCs) of chemicals are important in extrapolating their effects from laboratory studies to their risk assessment in the field. Yet, the CRCs can be altered by exposure concentration and mixture conditions, and also by exposure time in recent reports. Presently, ionic liquids (N-alkylpyridinium chloride, [apyr]Cl) were used for CRC-alteration studies. In individual effects on Vibrio qinghaiensis sp. Q67 (Q67) from 0.25 to 24 h, the CRCs of [epyr]Cl and [bpyr]Cl changed from S- to J-shaped with decreases in inhibition and increases in stimulation, while the CRCs of [hpyr]Cl changed from S- to flat-shape with decreases in inhibition but without stimulation. In mixture effects on Q67, the CRCs all changed from S- to J-shaped from 0.25 to 24 h. By means of the variable selection and modeling method based on the prediction (VSMP), the CRC-alterations of mixtures were positively contributed by [epyr]Cl but negatively contributed by [bpyr]Cl. Furthermore, a parameter was developed by the area of a triangular that combined acute inhibition (EC_50,0.25h) and chronic stimulation (Zero-effect Point, i.e., ZEP_24h and the minimum inhibition effect, i.e., E_min,24h). This parameter successfully evaluated the CRC-alterations in both individual and mixture effects over time, and indicated potential interactions in CRC-alteration in mixtures.

Novel Segmented Concentration Addition Method to Predict Mixture Hormesis of Chlortetracycline Hydrochloride and Oxytetracycline Hydrochloride to Aliivibrio fischeri

Hormesis is a concentration-response phenomenon characterized by low-concentration stimulation and high-concentration inhibition, which typically has a nonmonotonic J-shaped concentration-response curve (J-CRC). The concentration addition (CA) model is the gold standard for studying mixture toxicity. However, the CA model had the predictive blind zone (PBZ) for mixture J-CRC. To solve the PBZ problem, we proposed a segmented concentration addition (SCA) method to predict mixture J-CRC, which was achieved through fitting the left and right segments of component J-CRC and performing CA prediction subsequently. We selected two model compounds including chlortetracycline hydrochloride (CTCC) and oxytetracycline hydrochloride (OTCC), both of which presented J-CRC to Aliivibrio fischeri (AVF). The seven binary mixtures (M1-M7) of CTCC and OTCC were designed according to their molar ratios of 12:1, 10:3, 8:5, 1:1, 5:8, 3:10, and 1:12 referring to the direct equipartition ray design. These seven mixtures all presented J-CRC to AVF. Based on the SCA method, we obtained mixture maximum stimulatory effect concentration (ECm) and maximum stimulatory effect (Em) predicted by SCA, both of which were not available for the CA model. The toxicity interactions of these mixtures were systematically evaluated by using a comprehensive approach, including the co-toxicity coefficient integrated with confidence interval method (CTCICI), CRC, and isobole analysis. The results showed that the interaction types were additive and antagonistic action, without synergistic action. In addition, we proposed the cross point (CP) hypothesis for toxic interactive mixtures presenting J-CRC, that there was generally a CP between mixture observed J-CRC and CA predicted J-CRC; the relative positions of observed and predicted CRCs on either side of the CP would exchange, but the toxic interaction type of mixtures remained unchanged. The CP hypothesis needs to be verified by more mixtures, especially those with synergism. In conclusion, the SCA method is expected to have important theoretical and practical significance for mixture hormesis.

Alteration between inhibition and stimulation in individual and mixture effects of [amim]Br and [apyr]Br on Aliivibrio fischeri: Time and side-chain dependence

The exposure reality of chemicals is usually in mixtures, the effects of which are usually extrapolated from individual results. Yet, such extrapolation is challenged by the alteration between monotonic concentration-response curves (CRCs) and non-monotonic hormetic CRCs in individual and mixture effects. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the occurrence of such alterations using 1-alkylimidazolium bromide ([amim]Br) and 1-alkylpyridinium bromide ([apyr]Br) ionic liquids (ILs) as model chemicals. Effects of four [amim]Br, four [apyr]Br, and their quaternary mixtures designed by uniform design were measured on Aliivibrio fischeri in a time-dependent fashion. Results showed that the individual [amim]Br showed monotonic CRCs. Their inhibition increased over the length of the side-chain and decreased over the exposure time. The [amim]Br mixtures showed non-monotonic hormetic CRCs, where the stimulations increased over exposure time. The individual [apyr]Br had non-monotonic hormetic CRCs, and their stimulation increased over the length of the side-chain. Meanwhile, the [apyr]Br mixtures had monotonic CRCs without any stimulation. Notably, the positive contributors to the mixture effects were [emim]Br or [epyr]Br which had the shortest side-chain among the components. The findings can facilitate accurate prediction on the environmental effects of ILs with specific considerations on hormetic and mixture effects.

Antioxidant defence system is responsible for the toxicological interactions of mixtures: A case study on PFOS and PFOA in Daphnia magna

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are two types of perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) frequently studied in recent years due to their potential for bioaccumulation and toxicity to humans. Usually, PFCs can co-exist in various environment. Therefore, over- or under-estimated risk assessments would result if antagonism or synergism occurred in mixture toxicity. In the present study, the acute and chronic toxicities of single and mixtures of PFOA and PFOS to Daphnia magna were investigated. PFOS was more toxic than PFOA, both in 48-h acute toxicity and 21-d chronic toxicity. In acute toxicity tests, mixture toxicities showed strong synergistic effects on mortality. The experimental EC₅₀ of the mixture is 4.44 × 10^-5 mol/L, whereas the predicted EC₅₀ is 8.19 × 10^-5 mol/L by Concentration Addition Model and 9.73 × 10^-5 mol/L by Independent Action Model. In chronic toxicity tests, synergistic effects were also found in the aspects of offspring. The offspring rate is reduced significantly to 39.8% at the 9.61 × 10^-7 mol/L of mixture, while, PFOS and PFOA do not have effects when they are tested individually at corresponding concentrations. To explore the potential mechanism of the synergistic effect, the interactions between PFCs and proteins, including acetylcholinesterase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, ecdysone receptor and glutathione-S-transferase, were investigated by the Molecular Docking. The docking results revealed that the driving forces for the binding of PFCs with proteins were predominantly hydrophobic and hydrogen-bonding interactions. Based on the binding models, we deduced that the potential mechanism of synergism is that PFOS and PFOA have similar binding modes with catalase and have different binding modes with superoxide dismutase. Overall, these data provide experimental evidence that there is strong synergism in acute and chronic toxicity of mixtures to D. magna and demonstrate that molecular structure of some components of the antioxidant defence system contributes to the synergistic interaction.

Polyethylene glycol 400 significantly enhances the stimulation of 2-phenoxyethanol on Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 bioluminescence

Previous studies demonstrated long-term stimulation of some commercial personal care products (PCPs) on freshwater luminescent bacteria Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 (Q67). However, whether a certain component can affect mixture's hormetic effect is still unknown. In this paper, two of ingredients in PCPs, 2-phenoxyethanol (PhE) and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG400), were selected as object compounds to explore the relationship between concentration-response (CR) of mixtures and that of a single component. It was found that PEG400 has monotonic CR (MCR) on Q67 both at the short-term (0.25 h) and long-term (12 h) exposures while PhE has MCR at 0.25 h and hormetic CR (HCR) at 12 h. Here, the concentration-response curves (CRCs) of PEG400 at 0.25 and 12 h are overlapped each other and the CRCs of PEG400 are on the right of PhE. If the pEC₅₀ is taken as a toxic index, the toxicities of PEG400 at two times are basically the same, and those of PhE are the same, too, but PhE is twice as toxic as PEG400. For the mixtures of PEG400 and PhE, all rays except R1 have MCRs at 0.25 h while all rays have HCRs at 12 h where the higher the mixture ratio of PhE is, the more negative the maximum stimulation effect is. More importantly, the E_min values of all rays are more negative (1.79-3.17-fold) than that of PhE worked alone, which implies that the introduction of PEG400 significantly enhances stimulative effect of PhE. At 0.25 h, all binary mixture rays but R1 produce a low-concentration additive action and high-concentration synergism. At 12 h, all rays display additive action, antagonism, additive action, and synergism in turn when the concentration changes from low to high. The overall findings suggested toxicological interactions should be considered in the risk assessment of PCPs and their potential impacts on ecological balances.

Combined Toxicity of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid and Its Metabolites 2,4-Dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP) on Two Nontarget Organisms

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), a phenoxyalkanoic acid herbicide, is among the most widely distributed pollutants in the environment. 2,4-Dichlorophenol (2,4-DCP), as the main metabolite of 2,4-D, always accompanies 2,4-D. In this paper, we did research on the combined toxicities of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP to Vibrio qinghaiensis sp.-Q67 (Q67) and Caenorhabditis elegans. It was found that the toxicity of 2,4-DCP is more severe than that of its parent 2,4-D at any concentration levels whether to Q67 or to C. elegans. Furthermore, 2,4-DCP to Q67 has the time-dependent toxicity. The toxicity of the mixture of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP to Q67 is increasing with the exposure time, but that to C. elegans does not change over time. There is a good linear relationship between the pEC₅₀/pLC₅₀ value of binary mixture ray of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP and the mixture ratio of 2,4-DCP, which implies the predictability of mixture toxicity of 2,4-D and 2,4-DCP. The toxicological interactions of the binary mixtures to Q67 are basically additive actions whether at 0.25 or at 12 h. However, most mixtures have antagonistic interactions against C. elegans.