First evaluation of DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) residues and other Persistence Organic Pollutants in soils of Rwanda: Nyabarongo urban versus rural wetlands

Exploring seasonal variability in water quality of Nyabarongo River in Rwanda via water quality indices and DPSIR modelling

Understanding seasonal variations in water quality is crucial for effective management of freshwater rivers amidst changing environmental conditions. This study employed water quality index (WQI), metal index (MI), and pollution indices (PI) to comprehensively assess water quality and pollution levels in Nyabarongo River of Rwanda. A dynamic driver-pressure-state-impact-response model was used to identify factors influencing quality management. Over 4 years (2018-2021), 69 samples were collected on a monthly basis from each of the six monitoring stations across the Nyabarongo River throughout the four different seasons. Maximum WQI values were observed during dry long (52.90), dry short (21.478), long rain (93.66), and short rain (37.4) seasons, classified according to CCME 2001 guidelines. Ion concentrations exceeded WHO standards, with dominant ions being HCO 3 - andMg 2 + . Variations in water quality were influenced by factors such as calcium bicarbonate dominance in dry seasons and sodium sulfate dominance in rainy seasons. Evaporation and precipitation processes primarily influenced ionic composition. Metal indices (MI) exhibited wide ranges: long dry (0.2-433.0), short dry (0.1-174.3), long rain (0.1-223.7), and short rain (0.3-252.5). The hazard index values for Cu2+, Mn4+, Zn2+, and Cr3+ were below 1, ranging from 8.89E - 08 to 7.68E - 07 for adults and 2.30E - 07 to 5.02E - 06 for children through oral ingestion, and from 6.68E - 10 to 5.07E - 07 for adults and 6.61E - 09 to 2.54E - 06 for children through dermal contact. With a total carcinogenic risk of less than 1 for both ingestion and dermal contact, indicating no significant health risks yet send strong signals to Governmental management of the Nyabarongo River. Overall water quality was classified as marginal in long dry, poor in short dry, good in long rain, and poor again in short rain seasons.

Research on the volatility, phase transitions and thermodynamic stability of five organochlorine compounds

The present investigation describes the experimental evaluation of relevant physicochemical properties of five organochlorine compounds (OCs), including some that are related to their environmental mobility. The vapor pressures of (2,4'-Dichlorodiphenyl)dichloroethane (2,4'-DDD, CASN:53-19-0), 1,1-Dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethane (4,4'-DDD, CASN:72-54-8) and 2,2-Bis(4-chlorophenyl)acetic acid (4,4'-DDA, CASN:83-05-6), as well as of the bactericide Nitrapyrin (CASN:1929-82-4) and of the rodenticide Crimidine (CASN:535-89-7) were determined at different temperatures. The Knudsen mass-loss effusion technique was employed to determine the sublimation vapor pressures of the referred compounds, apart from Crimidine. For the latter compound, a static method using a capacitance diaphragm manometer enabled the measurement of vapor pressures of both condensed (crystalline and liquid) phases. This technique was also used to measure the vapor pressures of the crystalline phase of Nitrapyrin over a larger temperature range, as well as its vaporization vapor pressures. The results of the standard molar enthalpies, entropies, and Gibbs energies of sublimation for all five compounds and of vaporization for Crimidine and Nitrapyrin, at reference temperatures, were derived. For these two compounds the phase diagram representations of the (p,T) results, in the vicinity of the triple point, were obtained. DSC analysis enabled the determination of the crystalline heat capacities of the five OCs studied and also of their temperatures and enthalpies of fusion. Gas-phase thermodynamic properties were estimated using quantum chemical calculations. The thermodynamic stability of the compounds studied was evaluated and compared in the crystalline and gaseous phases, at 298.15 K, in consideration with estimated results of the standard Gibbs energies of formation. Combined with other physical and chemical properties, the results derived from this study can be used to predict the mobility, and environmental fate of these pollutants.

Selected pesticidal POPs and metabolites in the soil of five Vietnamese cities: Sources, fate, and health risk implications

Large quantities of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) have been used in tropical regions. The fate processes and risks of these legacy contaminants in the tropics are poorly understood. Herein, we investigated the occurrence of three classes of widely used OCPs and their metabolites in surface and core soil from five cities across Vietnam with a prevalent tropical monsoon climate and a long history of OCP application. We aimed to elucidate migration potentials, degradation conditions, and transformation pathways and assess current health risks of these contaminants. Generally, the concentrations of OCPs and metabolites in the soil core were slightly lower than those in surface soil except for hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) isomers. 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloroethane (p,p'-DDT), 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), the sum of dicofol and 4,4'-dichlorobenzophenone (p,p'-DBP), and 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethane (p,p'-DDD) were the most abundant compounds in both surface and core soils. A uniform distribution of HCHs (the sum of α-, β-, γ-, and δ-HCH) at trace levels was found in almost all soils, serving as evidence of the lack of recent use of HCH pesticides. Higher concentrations of DDTs (the sum of DDT, DDD, and DDE) were observed in north-central Vietnamese soil, whereas appreciable concentrations of ENDs (the sum of α- and β-endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate) were only found in southern Vietnamese soils. Empirical diagnostic ratios indicated residuals of DDTs were mainly from technical DDT rather than dicofol, whereas aged HCHs could be explained by the mixture of lindane and technical HCH. Both historical applications and recent input explain DDTs and ENDs in Vietnamese soil. Total organic carbon performs well in preventing vertical migration of more hydrophobic DDTs and ENDs. The dominant transformation pathway of DDT in surface soil followed p,p'-DDE→2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1-chloroethylene or p,p'-DDMU→1,1-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene or p,p'-DDNU→p,p'-DBP, whereas the amount of p,p'-DDMU converted from p,p'-DDD and p,p'-DDE is similar in soil core. Non-cancer risks of OCPs and metabolites in all soils and cancer risks of those chemicals in core soils were below the safety threshold, whereas a small proportion of surface soil exhibited potential cancer risk after considering the exposure pathway of vegetable intake. This study implied that organic matter in non-rainforest tropical deep soils still could hinder the leaching of hydrophobic organic contaminants as in subtropical and temperate soils. When lands with a history of OCP application are used for agricultural purposes, dietary-related risks need to be carefully assessed.

Degradation behaviors and accumulative effects of coexisting chlorobenzene congeners on the dechlorination of hexachlorobenzene in soil by nanoscale zero-valent iron

It is well known that many chlorinated organic pollutants can be dechlorinated by nanoscale zero-valent iron. However, in the real chlorinated organic compounds contaminated soil, the congeners of high- and low-chlorinated isomer often coexist and their dechlorination behaviors are poorly known, such as hexachlorobenzene (HCB). In this work, the degradation behaviors of three coexisting chlorobenzene congeners pentachlorobenzene (PeCB), 1,2,4,5-tetrachlorobenzene (1,2,4,5-TeCB) and 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (1,2,4-TCB) and the influence of initial pH and reaction temperature on the dechlorination of HCB in HCB-contaminated soil by nanoscale zero-valent iron were studied. The amount and extent of accumulated coexisting chlorobenzenes was analyzed under different environmental conditions. The results indicate that nanoscale zero-valent iron can improve the degradation efficiency of highly toxic chlorinated benzenes and reduce the accumulative effects of highly toxic chlorinated benzenes on dechlorination of HCB. The accumulative effects of three coexisting chlorobenzene congeners on the dechlorination of HCB were ranked as follows: 1,2,4-TCB > 1,2,4,5-TeCB > PeCB.

An enlarging ecological risk: Review on co-occurrence and migration of microplastics and microplastic-carrying organic pollutants in natural and constructed wetlands

Wetlands are a key hub for the accumulation of microplastics (MPs) and have great load capacity to organic pollutants (OPs), thus, have been a hot research topic. It has shown that OPs adsorbed on MPs could be transported to anywhere and MP-associated biofilms also affects the co-occurrence of MPs and OPs. This would induce the desorption of MP-carrying OPs into environment again, increasing latent migration and convergence of MPs and OPs in wetlands. Considering MPs vector effect and MP-associated biofilms, it is necessary to integrate MPs information on its occurrence characteristics and migration behavior for an improved assessment of ecological risk brought by MPs and MP-carrying OPs to whole wetland ecosystems. In this review, we studied papers published from 2010 to 2020, focused on the interaction of MPs with OPs and the role of their co-occurrence and migration on ecological risk to wetlands. Results suggested the interaction between MPs and OPs dominated by adsorption altered their toxicity and environmental behavior, and the corresponding ecological risk induced by their co-occurrence to wetlands is various and complicated. Especially, constructed wetlands as the special hub for the migration of MPs and MP-carrying OPs might facilitate their convergence between natural and constructed wetlands, posing a potential enlarging ecological risk to whole wetlands. Since the study of MPs in wetlands has still been in a primary stage, we hope to provide a new sight to set forth the potential harm of MPs and MP-carrying OPs to wetlands and useful information for follow-up study.

Persistent organic pollutants in water resources: Fate, occurrence, characterization and risk analysis

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic chemicals that can persist in the environment for a longer period due to their non-biodegradability. The pervasive and bio-accumulative behavior of POPs makes them highly toxic to the environmental species including plants, animals, and humans. The present review specifies the POP along with their fate, persistence, occurrence, and risk analysis towards humans. The different biological POPs degradation methods, especially the microbial degradation using bacteria, fungi, algae, and actinomycetes, and their mechanisms were described. Moreover, the source, transport of POPs to the environmental sources, and the toxic nature of POPs were discussed in detail. Agricultural and industrial activities are distinguished as the primary source of these toxic compounds, which are delivered to air, soil, and water, affecting on the social and economic advancement of society at a worldwide scale. This review also demonstrated the microbial degradation of POPs and outlines the potential for an eco-accommodating and cost-effective approach for the biological remediation of POPs using microbes. The direction for future research in eliminating POPs from the environmental sources through various microbial processes was emphasized.

Microbial Degradation of Aldrin and Dieldrin: Mechanisms and Biochemical Pathways

As members of the organochlorine group of insecticides, aldrin and dieldrin are effective at protecting agriculture from insect pests. However, because of excessive use and a long half-life, they have contributed to the major pollution of the water/soil environments. Aldrin and dieldrin have been reported to be highly toxic to humans and other non-target organisms, and so their use has gradually been banned worldwide. Various methods have been tried to remove them from the environment, including xenon lamps, combustion, ion conversion, and microbial degradation. Microbial degradation is considered the most promising treatment method because of its advantages of economy, environmental protection, and convenience. To date, a few aldrin/dieldrin-degrading microorganisms have been isolated and identified, including Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trichoderma viride, Pleurotus ostreatus, Mucor racemosus, Burkholderia sp., Cupriavidus sp., Pseudonocardia sp., and a community of anaerobic microorganisms. Many aldrin/dieldrin resistance genes have been identified from insects and microorganisms, such as Rdl, bph, HCo-LGC-38, S2-RDL^A302S, CSRDL1A, CSRDL2S, HaRdl-1, and HaRdl-2. Aldrin degradation includes three pathways: the oxidation pathway, the reduction pathway, and the hydroxylation pathway, with dieldrin as a major metabolite. Degradation of dieldrin includes four pathways: oxidation, reduction, hydroxylation, and hydrolysis, with 9-hydroxydieldrin and dihydroxydieldrin as major products. Many studies have investigated the toxicity and degradation of aldrin/dieldrin. However, few reviews have focused on the microbial degradation and biochemical mechanisms of aldrin/dieldrin. In this review paper, the microbial degradation and degradation mechanisms of aldrin/dieldrin are summarized in order to provide a theoretical and practical basis for the bioremediation of aldrin/dieldrin-polluted environment.

Wetland Resource Use and Conservation Attitudes of Rural vs. Urban Dwellers: A Comparative Analysis in Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Although wetlands provide a variety of goods and services to people and ecosystems, they are the most threatened ecosystem in the world because they are easily degraded. Thus, efforts to protect the remaining wetlands are critical if this resource is to continue providing environmental, cultural, and economic goods and services. Central to the conservation and management of wetlands is understanding the attitudes of the people bordering wetlands. This study aimed to analyse wetland resource use and conservation attitudes of urban vs. rural dwellers of Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Interview-administered questionnaires and observation were the methods used for data collection. Systematic random sampling was used to obtain a sample of 282 in urban and 312 households in rural areas. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages) were used to summarize the data. Chi-square (χ2) tests were applied using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Washington, WA, USA) in order to determine whether responses occurred with equal probability. Differences were considered to be significant at p ≤ 0.05. The study found that wetlands are more important in the lives and livelihoods of people in rural areas (92.9%) compared with urban areas (26.6%) of Thohoyandou. Human land use activities in wetlands (especially cultivation and infrastructural development) have degraded and destroyed wetlands—particularly those located in urban areas. The attitudes of respondents were generally positive both in urban and rural areas regarding the need for conservation and rehabilitation/restoration of wetlands. The study concluded that positive attitudes alone are insufficient to save and protect the wetlands. The responsible authorities should implement existing legislation to complement the positive attitudes of people and, importantly, they should work with communities towards the conservation of wetlands.

Effect of In Situ Bioremediation of Soil Contaminated with DDT and DDE by Stenotrophomonas sp. Strain DXZ9 and Ryegrass on Soil Microorganism

In the present study, the changes in the microbial populations, enzyme activity and bacterial community structure in contaminated soils were investigated during the bioremediation of using Stenotrophomonas sp. strain DXZ9 and ryegrass. The results showed that the removal rates were 81% for DDT and 55% for DDE (69% for DDTs) with ryegrass-microbe. Microbial activity was remarkably improved, and the number of bacteria increased sharply from 7.32 × 106 to 2.56 × 108 cells/g in the 10 days due to successful colonization of the strains and effects of the ryegrass rhizosphere. There was significant difference in fungi number with ryegrass when comparing the 30th and 90th days with the 210th day: The actinomycete number in the soil with ryegrass was higher than without ryegrass, and it indicated that the number of microorganisms significantly increased under the action of ryegrass. The activities of polyphenol oxidase, dehydrogenase and catalase were significantly activated by the combination of ryegrass and microbe, and urease activity was less affected: It has influence on the diversity of bacterial community structure in the soil, but its influence gradually decreased by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis with an extension in time. The activities represented promising tools for decontaminating and restoring the ecosystem in sustainable ways, and proposing new approaches and technological bottlenecks to promote DDT biodegradation is very significant.

The rapid survey method of chemical contamination in floods caused by Typhoon Hagibis by combining in vitro bioassay and comprehensive analysis

A novel comprehensive assessment system, consisting of a bioassay and chemical analysis, was developed to quickly evaluate the human health risk posed by toxic chemicals discharged due to natural disasters. To analyze samples quickly, a yeast-two-hybrid assay (Y2H) and GC-MS equipped with an automated identification and quantification system (AIQS-GC) were employed for the bioassay and chemical analysis, respectively. Since the analysis of 1000 substances by AIQS could be finished within two days following the Y2H assay for screening, this method would complete the risk assessment within three days. To confirm the applicability of this method in real environmental samples, we examined it using sediments circulated by Typhoon Hagibis. In one sediment sample, a distinctive response was indicated by the Y2H assay, and relatively high DDT concentration was identified by AIQS-GC in the same sediment. Therefore, using the results obtained from this method, a human health risk assessment of DDT was conducted, which indicated that the risk could be ignored. Additionally, the contamination of PAHs and alkanes was suggested as well. In this study, the pollution risk assessment could be completed within three days. Therefore, to our knowledge, this is the first study to demonstrate an assessment system with a rapid combination method for emergencies. Consequently, it is believed that this type of novel system would be needed in the future due to the increasing number of natural disasters predicted worldwide.

Continuing Persistence and Biomagnification of DDT and Metabolites in Northern Temperate Fruit Orchard Avian Food Chains

Dichlorodiphenyldichlorethane (1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane) (DDT) is an organochlorine insecticide that was widely used from the late 1940s to the 1970s in fruit orchards in the Okanagan valley, British Columbia, Canada, and in the process, contaminated American robin (Turdus migratorius) food chains with the parent compound and metabolite dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)ethylene) (p,p'-DDE). In the present study, we examined the biological fate of these DDT-related (DDT-r) compounds at the same sites/region 26 years after a previous study by: (1) collecting soil, earthworms, and American robin eggs from apple, cherry, and pear orchards; (2) characterizing the diet and trophic positions of our biota using stable isotope analyses of δ¹³ C and δ¹⁵ N; and (3) estimating fugacity, biota-soil-accumulation factors (BSAFs), and biomagnification factors (BMFs). Mean p,p'-DDE concentrations (soil: 16.1 µg/g organic carbon-lipid equivalent; earthworms: 96.5 µg/g lipid equivalent; eggs: 568 µg/g lipid equivalent) revealed that contamination is present at elevated levels similar to the 1990s and our average soil DDE:DDT ratio of 1.42 confirmed that DDT is slowly degrading. American robins appeared to feed at similar trophic levels, but on different earthworms as indicated by egg stable isotope values (mean δ¹⁵ N = 8.51‰ ± 0.25; δ¹³ C = -26.32‰ ± 0.12). Lumbricidae and Aporrectodea worms shared a roughly similar δ¹⁵ N value; however, Lumbricus terrestris showed a markedly enriched δ¹³ C isotope, suggesting differences in organic matter consumption and physiological bioavailability. Biota-soil-accumulation factors and BMFs ranged over several orders of magnitude and were generally >1 and our fugacity analyses suggested that p,p'-DDE is still thermodynamically biomagnifying in American robin food chains. Our results demonstrate that DDT-r in fruit orchards remains bioavailable to free-living terrestrial passerines and may pose a potential toxicological risk. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:3379-3391. © 2021 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC. Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of Environment and Climate Change Canada.

Pesticide residues in drinking water, their potential risk to human health and removal options

The application of pesticides in agricultural and public health sectors has resulted in substantially contaminated water resources with residues in many countries. Almost no reviews have addressed pesticide residues in drinking water globally; calculated hazard indices for adults, children, and infants; or discussed the potential health risk of pesticides to the human population. The objectives of this article were to summarize advances in research related to pesticide residues in drinking water; conduct health risk assessments by estimating the daily intake of pesticide residues consumed only from drinking water by adults, children, and infants; and summarize options for pesticide removal from water systems. Approximately 113 pesticide residues were found in drinking water samples from 31 countries worldwide. There were 61, 31, and 21 insecticide, herbicide, and fungicide residues, respectively. Four residues were in toxicity class IA, 14 residues were in toxicity class IB, 55 residues were in toxicity class II, 17 residues were in toxicity class III, and 23 residues were in toxicity class IV. The calculated hazard indices (HIs) exceeded the value of one in many cases. The lowest HI value (0.0001) for children was found in Canada, and the highest HI value (30.97) was found in Egypt, suggesting a high potential health risk to adults, children, and infants. The application of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) showed efficient removal of many pesticide classes. The combination of adsorption followed by biodegradation was shown to be an effective and efficient purification option. In conclusion, the consumption of water contaminated with pesticide residues may pose risks to human health in exposed populations.

The endocrine disruptor hexachlorobenzene can cause oxidative damage in the testis of mice

Hexachlorobenzene is a widespread endocrine disruptor. However, the effect of hexachlorobenzene on the reproductive toxicity of male animals is not described in detail. To investigate the toxic effects of hexachlorobenzene in mouse testes, hexachlorobenzene (100, 400 and 1,600 mg/kg) is fed to mice. The morphology of the testes was analysed by haematoxylin and eosin staining. We also investigated the expression of biomarkers for oxidative stress. Database screening identified proteins that interact with hexachlorobenzene and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor, a weak ligand of hexachlorobenzene. Gene enrichment analysis and protein-protein interaction analyses were also performed. Real-time PCR detected the expression levels of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in four different stages of testicular cells. We identified significantly increased activity levels of superoxide dismutase (p < 0.05) and catalase (p < 0.05) in mouse testes that had been subjected to oxidative damage. The cell thickness and the number of cell layers in the seminiferous tubules had decreased by varying degrees after the hexachlorobenzene treatment. Particularly, cytokines and proteins involved in transcriptional regulation showed enrichment. The highest levels of aryl hydrocarbon receptor expression were detected in the spermatocytic cell line. Hexachlorobenzene exposure caused testicular damage in mice. The toxicity characteristics of hexachlorobenzene were not dose-dependent.

The endangered African Great Ape: Pesticide residues in soil and plants consumed by Mountain Gorillas (Gorilla beringei) in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, East Africa

Bwindi Impenetrable National Park situated southwest of Uganda is a biodiversity hotspot that is home to about half of the world's endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei). Given its ecological significance and mounting pressures from agricultural activities such as tea growing, continuous monitoring of the levels of chemical toxins like pesticides in the park and surrounding areas is needed for effective conservation strategies. Furthermore, persistent organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) like DDT were used in agricultural gardens and indoor spraying in Kanungu district between the 1950s and 80s. The focus of this study was to explore the possible exposure of mountain gorillas to OCPs and cypermethrin used by the farmers in the areas near the park. Data from our interviews revealed that glyphosate is the most widely used pesticide by the farmers in areas surrounding the park, followed by cypermethrin, and mancozeb. Samples of leaves from plants consumed by mountain gorillas along the forest edges of the park and surficial soils (15-20 cm depths) were collected from three sites (Ruhija, Nkuringo and Buhoma) and analysed for the presence of cypermethrin and OCPs residues. Concentrations of total (∑) DDTs and ∑endosulfans were up to 0.34 and 9.89 mg/kg dry weight (d.w), respectively in soil samples. Concentrations of ∑DDTs and ∑endosulfans in samples of leaves ranged from 0.67 to 1.38 mg/kg d.w (mean = 1.07 mg/kg d.w) and 0.9 to 2.71 mg/kg d.w (mean = 1.68 mg/kg d.w), respectively. Mean concentration of ∑DDTs in leaves exceeded the European pharmacopeia and United States pharmacopeia recommended maximum residue limit values for DDTs in medicinal plants (1.0 mg/kg). In addition, calculated hazard indices for silverbacks (36.35), females (57.54) and juveniles (77.04) suggested potential health risks to the mountain gorillas. o,p'-DDT/p,p'-DDT ratios (0.5-0.63) in samples of leaves confirmed recent input of dicofol-DDT type in Bwindi rainforest.

Toxicological risk factors in the burden of malnutrition: The case of nutrition (and risk) transition in sub-Saharan Africa

Toxicant exposures may worsen the micronutrient status, especially during the womb-to-childhood development, impairing organism programming and increasing the risk for health disorders in adulthood. Growing evidence calls for an integrated risk analysis of the interplay of environment, behavior and lifestyle, where a) imbalanced diet and micronutrient deficiencies may increase the vulnerability to toxicants and alter body defence systems and b) intake of antinutrients and contaminants may increase nutritional requirements. Such scenarios are especially evident in communities undergoing a fast nutrition transition, such as in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Specific challenges of toxicological risk analysis in sub-Saharan Africa still need a thorough assessment, including: rapid changes of lifestyle and consumers' preferences; dumping of foods and consumer' products; risk management under weak or non-existent awareness, legislation enforcement and infrastructures. The significant and growing literature from Africa-led scientific research should be used to build quality-controlled data repositories supporting regulatory top-down actions. Meanwhile, bottom-up actions (eg consumer's empowerment) could exploit social and economic drivers toward a qualified African presence in the global and local markets. A science-based combination of top-down and bottom-up actions on preventable toxicological risk factors will contribute fighting the new forms of malnutrition and prevent multi-factorial diseases. Exposures to toxicants should be included in the integrated approach proposed by WHO to address the urgent health challenge of simultaneously reduce the risk or burden of both malnutrition (ie deficiency of one or more essential nutrients) and overweight, obesity, and diet-related NCDs.