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Denéchère R, Delpierre N, Apostol EN, Berveiller D, Bonne F, Cole E, Delzon S, Dufrêne E, Gressler E, Jean F, Lebourgeois F, Liu G, Louvet JM, Parmentier J, Soudani K, Vincent G. The within-population variability of leaf spring and autumn phenology is influenced by temperature in temperate deciduous trees. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY 2021; 65:369-379. [PMID: 31352524 DOI: 10.1007/s00484-019-01762-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Leaf phenology is a major driver of ecosystem functioning in temperate forests and a robust indicator of climate change. Both the inter-annual and inter-population variability of leaf phenology have received much attention in the literature; in contrast, the within-population variability of leaf phenology has been far less studied. Beyond its impact on individual tree physiological processes, the within-population variability of leaf phenology can affect the estimation of the average budburst or leaf senescence dates at the population scale. Here, we monitored the progress of spring and autumn leaf phenology over 14 tree populations (9 tree species) in six European forests over the period of 2011 to 2018 (yielding 16 site-years of data for spring, 14 for autumn). We monitored 27 to 512 (with a median of 62) individuals per population. We quantified the within-population variability of leaf phenology as the standard deviation of the distribution of individual dates of budburst or leaf senescence (SDBBi and SDLSi, respectively). Given the natural variability of phenological dates occurring in our tree populations, we estimated from the data that a minimum sample size of 28 (resp. 23) individuals, are required to estimate SDBBi (resp. SDLSi) with a precision of 3 (resp. 7) days. The within-population of leaf senescence (average SDLSi = 8.5 days) was on average two times larger than for budburst (average SDBBi = 4.0 days). We evidenced that warmer temperature during the budburst period and a late average budburst date were associated with a lower SDBBi, as a result of a quicker spread of budburst in tree populations, with a strong species effect. Regarding autumn phenology, we observed that later senescence and warm temperatures during the senescence period were linked with a high SDLSi, with a strong species effect. The shares of variance explained by our models were modest suggesting that other factors likely influence the within-population variation in leaf phenology. For instance, a detailed analysis revealed that summer temperatures were negatively correlated with a lower SDLSi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémy Denéchère
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | - Nicolas Delpierre
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France.
| | - Ecaterina Nicoleta Apostol
- Department of Genetics, National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry "Marin Dracea", 128 Eroilor Blvd., 077190, Voluntari, Ilfov, Romania
| | - Daniel Berveiller
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | - Fabrice Bonne
- AgroParisTech, INRA, UMR Silva, Université de Lorraine, 14 rue Girardet, F-54000, Nancy, France
| | - Ella Cole
- Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Eric Dufrêne
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | - Eliana Gressler
- Instituto de Biociências, Departamento de Botânica, Laboratório de Fenologia, UNESP - Universidade Estadual Paulista, Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Frédéric Jean
- INRA, UR629, Ecologie des Forêts Méditerranéennes (URFM), Domaine Saint Paul Site Agroparc, F-84194, Avignon Cedex 9, France
| | - François Lebourgeois
- AgroParisTech, INRA, UMR Silva, Université de Lorraine, 14 rue Girardet, F-54000, Nancy, France
| | - Guohua Liu
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
- College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Julien Parmentier
- INRA, UE 0393, Unité Expérimentale Arboricole, Centre de Recherche Bordeaux, Toulenne, Aquitaine, France
| | - Kamel Soudani
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
| | - Gaëlle Vincent
- Ecologie Systématique Evolution, Univ. Paris-Sud, CNRS, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 91400, Orsay, France
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23
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Kremer A, Ronce O, Robledo-Arnuncio JJ, Guillaume F, Bohrer G, Nathan R, Bridle JR, Gomulkiewicz R, Klein EK, Ritland K, Kuparinen A, Gerber S, Schueler S. Long-distance gene flow and adaptation of forest trees to rapid climate change. Ecol Lett 2012; 15:378-92. [PMID: 22372546 PMCID: PMC3490371 DOI: 10.1111/j.1461-0248.2012.01746.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 273] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Forest trees are the dominant species in many parts of the world and predicting how they might respond to climate change is a vital global concern. Trees are capable of long-distance gene flow, which can promote adaptive evolution in novel environments by increasing genetic variation for fitness. It is unclear, however, if this can compensate for maladaptive effects of gene flow and for the long-generation times of trees. We critically review data on the extent of long-distance gene flow and summarise theory that allows us to predict evolutionary responses of trees to climate change. Estimates of long-distance gene flow based both on direct observations and on genetic methods provide evidence that genes can move over spatial scales larger than habitat shifts predicted under climate change within one generation. Both theoretical and empirical data suggest that the positive effects of gene flow on adaptation may dominate in many instances. The balance of positive to negative consequences of gene flow may, however, differ for leading edge, core and rear sections of forest distributions. We propose future experimental and theoretical research that would better integrate dispersal biology with evolutionary quantitative genetics and improve predictions of tree responses to climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Kremer
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, France
| | - Ophélie Ronce
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Juan J Robledo-Arnuncio
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Frédéric Guillaume
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Gil Bohrer
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Ran Nathan
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Jon R Bridle
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Richard Gomulkiewicz
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Etienne K Klein
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Kermit Ritland
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Anna Kuparinen
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Sophie Gerber
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
| | - Silvio Schueler
- INRA, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Cestas, F-33610, FranceUniversité de Bordeaux, UMR1202 Biodiversité Gènes et Communautés, Talence, F-33410, FranceUniversité Montpellier 2 CNRS, UMR5554, Institut des Sciences de l'Evolution, F-34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, FranceDepartment of Forest Ecology and Genetics, Forest Research Centre (CIFOR), INIA, 28040 Madrid, Spain ETH, Department of Environmental Sciences, Universitätstrasse 16 8092 Zürich, SwitzerlandDepartment of Civil, Environmental & Geodetic Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USAMovement Ecology Laboratory, Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, The Alexander Silberman Institute of Life Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, IsraelSchool of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 IUG, UKSchool of Biological Sciences and Department of Mathematics, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USAINRA, UR Biostatistiques & Processus Spatiaux 546, F-84914 Avignon, FranceDepartment of Forest Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, CanadaEcological Genetics Research Unit, Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki FI-00014, FinlandFederal Research and Training Centre for Forests, Natural Hazards and Landscape, Seckendorf-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 Wien, Austria
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